Sandstone

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Composition
Typically quartz and/or feldspar; lithic fragments are also common. Other minerals
may be found in particularly mature sandstone.
Sandstone (sometimes known as arenite) is a clastic sedimentary rock composed
mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains.
Most sandstone is composed of quartz and/or feldspar because these are the most
common minerals in the Earth's crust. Like sand, sandstone may be any color, but
the most common colors are: tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black.
Since sandstone beds often form highly visible cliffs and other topographic
features, certain colors of sandstone have been strongly identified with certain
regions.
Rock formations that are primarily composed of sandstone usually allow
percolation of water and other fluids and are porous enough to store large
quantities, making them valuable aquifers and petroleum reservoirs. Fine-grained
aquifers, such as sandstones, are better able to filter out pollutants from the surface
than are rocks with cracks and crevices, such as limestone or other rocks fractured
by seismic activity.

Quartz-bearing sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure

usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts.

Contents:
1

Origins

Components

2.1

Framework grains

2.2

Matrix

2.3

Cement

2.4

Pore space

Types of sandstone

3.1

Dott classification scheme

Uses

See also

Notes

Bibliography

External links

Origins:
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Sand from Coral Pink Sand Dunes State Park, Utah. These are grains of quartz
with a hematite coating providing the orange colour. Scale bar is 1.0 mm.
Sandstones are clastic in origin (as opposed to either organic, like chalk and coal,
or chemical, like gypsum and jasper).[1] They are formed from cemented grains
that may either be fragments of a pre-existing rock or be mono-minerallic crystals.
The cements binding these grains together are typically calcite, clays, and silica.
Grain sizes in sands are defined (in geology) within the range of 0.0625 mm to 2
mm (0.0020.079 inches). Clays and sediments with smaller grain sizes not visible
with the naked eye, including siltstones and shales, are typically called argillaceous
sediments; rocks with greater grain sizes, including breccias and conglomerates are
termed rudaceous sediments.

Red sandstone interior of Lower Antelope Canyon, Arizona, worn smooth by

erosion from flash flooding over thousands of years.
The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages. First, a layer or layers of
sand accumulates as the result of sedimentation, either from water (as in a stream,
lake, or sea) or from air (as in a desert). Typically, sedimentation occurs by the
sand settling out from suspension; i.e., ceasing to be rolled or bounced along the
bottom of a body of water or ground surface (e.g., in a desert or erg). Finally, once
it has accumulated, the sand becomes sandstone when it is compacted by pressure
of overlying deposits and cemented by the precipitation of minerals within the pore
spaces between sand grains.

The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium carbonate, which are
often derived either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand after it was
buried. Colours will usually be tan or yellow (from a blend of the clear quartz with
the dark amber feldspar content of the sand). A predominant additional colourant in
the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging
from pink to dark red (terracotta), with additional manganese imparting a purplish
hue. Red sandstones are also seen in the Southwest and West of Britain, as well as
central Europe and Mongolia. The regularity of the latter favours use as a source
for masonry, either as a primary building material or as a facing stone, over other
construction.

The environment where it is deposited is crucial in determining the characteristics

of the resulting sandstone, which, in finer detail, include its grain size, sorting, and
composition and, in more general detail, include the rock geometry and
sedimentary structures. Principal environments of deposition may be split between
terrestrial and marine, as illustrated by the following broad groupings:

Terrestrial environments

Rivers (levees, point bars, channel sands)

Alluvial fans
Glacial outwash
Lakes
Deserts (sand dunes and ergs)
Marine environments
Deltas
Beach and shoreface sands
Tidal flats
Offshore bars and sand waves
Storm deposits (tempestites)
Turbidites (submarine channels and fans)

Components:
Framework grains:

Grus sand and granitoid it derived from

Framework grains are sand-sized (1/16 to 2 mm diameter) detrital fragments that
make up the bulk of a sandstone.[2][3] These grains can be classified into several
different categories based on their mineral composition:

Quartz framework grains are the dominate minerals in most clastic sedimentary
rocks; this is because they have exceptional physical properties, such as hardness
and chemical stability.[4] These physical properties allow the quartz grains to
survive multiple recycling events, while also allowing the grains to display some

degree of rounding.[4] Quartz grains evolve from plutonic rock, which are felsic in
origin and also from older sandstones that have been recycled.
Feldspathic framework grains are commonly the second most abundant mineral in
sandstones.[4] Feldspar can be divided into two smaller subdivisions: alkali
feldspars and plagioclase feldspars. The different types of feldspar can be
distinguished under a petrographic microscope.[4] Below is a description of the
different types of feldspar.
Alkali feldspar is a group of minerals in which the chemical composition of the
mineral can range from KAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8, this represents a complete solid
solution.
Plagioclase feldspar is a complex group of solid solution minerals that range in
composition from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8.

Photomicrograph of a volcanic sand grain; upper picture is plane-polarised light,

bottom picture is cross-polarised light, scale box at left-centre is 0.25 millimetre.
This type of grain would be a main component of a lithic sandstone.
Lithic framework grains are pieces of ancient source rock that have yet to weather
away to individual mineral grains, called lithic fragments or clasts. Lithic
fragments can be any fine-grained or coarse-grained igneous, metamorphic, or
sedimentary rock.[4] Although, the most common lithic fragment found in
sedimentary rocks are clasts of volcanic rocks.
Accessory minerals are all other mineral grains in a sandstone; commonly these
minerals make up just a small percentage of the grains in a sandstone. Common
accessory minerals include micas (muscovite and biotite), olivine, pyroxene, and
corundum.[4][5] Many of these accessory grains are more dense than the silicates
that make up the bulk of the rock. These heavy minerals are commonly resistant to
weathering and can be used as an indicator of sandstone maturity through the ZTR
index.[6] Common heavy minerals include zircon, tourmaline, rutile (hence ZTR),
garnet, magnetite, or other dense, resistant minerals derived from the source rock.

Matrix:
Matrix is very fine material, which is present within interstitial pore space between
the framework grains.[4] The interstitial pore space can be classified into two
different varieties. One is to call the sandstone an arenite, and the other is to call it
a wacke. Below is a definition of the differences between the two matrices.

Arenites are texturally clean sandstones that are free of or have very little matrix.
Wackes are texturally dirty sandstones that have a significant amount of matrix.[3]

Cement:
Cement is what binds the siliclastic framework grains together. Cement is a
secondary mineral that forms after deposition and during burial of the sandstone.
These cementing materials may be either silicate minerals or non-silicate minerals,
such as calcite.

Silica cement can consist of either quartz or opal minerals. Quartz is the most
common silicate mineral that acts as cement. In sandstone where there is silica
cement present the quartz grains are attached to cement, this creates a rim around
the quartz grain called overgrowth. The overgrowth retains the same
crystallographic continuity of quartz framework grain that is being cemented. Opal
cement is found in sandstones that are rich in volcanogenic materials, and very
rarely is in other sandstones.
Calcite cement is the most common carbonate cement. Calcite cement is an
assortment of smaller calcite crystals. The cement adheres itself to the framework
grains, this adhesion is what causes the framework grains to be adhered together
Other minerals that act as cements include: hematite, limonite, feldspars, anhydrite,
gypsum, barite, clay minerals, and zeolite minerals.[4]

Pore space:
Pore space includes the open spaces within a rock or a soil. The pore space in a
rock has a direct relationship to the porosity and permeability of the rock. The
porosity and permeability are directly influenced by the way the sand grains are
packed together.

Porosity is the percentage of bulk volume that is inhabited by interstices within a

given rock. Porosity is directly influenced by the packing of even-sized spherical
grains, rearranged from loosely packed to tightest packed in sandstones.
Permeability is the rate in which water or other fluids flow through the rock. For
groundwater work permeability may be measured in gallons per day through a one
square foot cross section under a unit hydraulic gradient.

Types of sandstone:
Schematic QFL diagram showing tectonic provinces

Cross-bedding and scour in sandstone of the Logan Formation (Lower

Carboniferous) of Jackson County, Ohio.
All sandstones are composed of the same general minerals. These minerals make
up the framework components of the sandstones. Such components are quartz,
feldspars, and lithic fragments. Matrix may also be present in the interstitial spaces
between the framework grains. Below is a list of several major groups of
sandstones. These groups are divided based on mineralogy and texture. Even
though sandstones have very simple compositions which are based on framework
grains, geologists have not been able to agree on a specific, right way, to classify
sandstones. Sandstone classifications are typically done by point-counting a thin
section using a method like the Gazzi-Dickinson Method. The composition of a
sandstone can have important information regarding the genesis of the sediment
when used with a triangular Quartz, Feldspar, Lithic fragment (QFL diagrams).
Many geologist, however do not agree on how to separate the triangle parts into the
single components so that the framework grains can be plotted. Therefore, there

have been many published ways to classify sandstones, all of which are similar in
their general format.
Visual aids are diagrams that allow geologists to interpret different characteristics
about a sandstone. The following QFL chart and the sandstone provenance model
correspond with each other therefore, when the QFL chart is plotted those points
can then be plotted on the sandstone provenance model. The stage of textural
maturity chart illustrates the different stages that a sandstone goes through.

A QFL chart is a representation of the framework grains and matrix that is present
in a sandstone. This chart is similar to those used in igneous petrology. When
plotted correctly, this model of analysis creates for a meaningful quantitative
classification of sandstones.
A sandstone provenance chart allows geologists to visually interpret the different
types of places sandstones can originate from.
A stage of textural maturity is a chart that shows the different stages of sandstones.
This chart shows the difference between immature, submature, mature, and
supermature sandstones. As the sandstone becomes more mature grains become
more rounded, and there is less clay that makes up the matrix of the rock.[4]
Dott classification scheme[edit]
Dott's (1964) sandstone classification scheme is one of many classification scheme
used by geologists for classifying sandstones. Dott's scheme is a modification of
Gilbert's classification of silicate sandstones, and it incorporates R.L. Folk's dual
textural and compositional maturity concepts into one classification system.[9] The
philosophy behind combining Gilbert's classification scheme and R. L. Folk's
classification scheme is that it is better able to "portray the continuous nature of
textural variation from mudstone to arenite and from stable to unstable grain
composition".[9] Dott's classification scheme is based on the mineralogy of
framework grains, and on the type of matrix present in between the framework
grains.

In this specific classification scheme, Dott has set the boundary between arenite
and wackes at 15% matrix. In addition to setting a boundary for what the matrix is,
Dott also breaks up the different types framework grains that can be present in a
sandstone into three major categories: quartz, feldspar, and lithic grains.

Arenites are types of sandstone that have less than 15% clay matrix in between the
framework grains.
Quartz arenites are sandstones that contain more than 90% of siliceous grains.
Grains can include quartz or chert rock fragments. Quartz arenites are texturally
mature to supermature sandstones. These pure quartz sands result from extensive
weathering that occurred before and during transport. This weathering removed
everything but quartz grains, the most stable mineral. They are commonly
affiliated with rocks that are deposited in a stable cratonic environment, such as
aeolian beaches or shelf environments.Quartz arenites emanate from multiple
recycling of quarts grains, generally as sedimentary source rocks and less regularly
as first-cycle deposits derived from primary igneous or metamorphic rocks.
Feldspathic arenites are sandstones that contain less than 90% quartz, and more
feldspar than unstable lithic fragments, and minor accessory minerals. Feldspathic
sandstones are commonly immature or sub-mature. These sandstones occur in
association with cratonic or stable shelf settings. Feldspathic sandstones are
derived from granitic-type, primary crystalline, rocks.If the sandstone is
dominantly plagioclase, then it is igneous in origin.
Lithic arenites are characterised by generally high content of unstable lithic
fragments. Examples include volcanic and metamorphic clasts, though stable clasts
such as chert are common in lithic arenites. This type of rock contains less than
90% quartz grains and more unstable rock fragments than feldspars.They are
commonly immature to submature texturally. They are associated with fluvial
conglomerates and other fluvial deposits, or in deeper water marine
conglomerates.They are formed under conditions that produce large volumes of
unstable material, derived from fine-grained rocks, mostly shales, volcanic rocks,
and metamorphic rock.

Wackes are sandstones that contain more than 15% clay matrix in between
framework grains. Quartz wackes are uncommon because quartz arenites are
texturally mature to supermature. Felspathic wackes are feldspathic sandstone that
contain a matrix that is greater than 15%. Lithic wacke is a sandstone in which the
matrix greater than 15%. Arkose sandstones are more than 25 percent feldspar. The
grains tend to be poorly rounded and less well sorted than those of pure quartz
sandstones. These feldspar-rich sandstones come from rapidly eroding granitic and
metamorphic terrains where chemical weathering is subordinate to physical
weathering.
Greywacke sandstones are a heterogeneous mixture of lithic fragments and angular
grains of quartz and feldspar, and/or grains surrounded by a fine-grained clay
matrix. Much of this matrix is formed by relatively soft fragments, such as shale
and some volcanic rocks, that are chemically altered and physically compacted
after deep burial of the sandstone formation.
17,000 yr old sandstone oil lamp discovered at the caves of Lascaux, France.
Sandstone statue Maria Immaculata by Fidelis Sporer, around 1770, in Freiburg,
Germany.
Sandstone is highly absorbent. These are sandstone beverage coasters. Sandstone
has been used for domestic construction and housewares since prehistoric times,
and continues to be used.
Sandstone was a popular building material from ancient times. It is relatively soft,
making it easy to carve. It has been widely used around the world in constructing
temples, homes, and other buildings. It has also been used for artistic purposes to
create ornamental fountains and statues.
Some sandstones are resistant to weathering, yet are easy to work. This makes
sandstone a common building and paving material including in asphalt concrete.
However, some that have been used in the past, such as the Collyhurst sandstone
used in North West England, have been found less resistant, necessitating repair
and replacement in older buildings.Because of the hardness of individual grains,
uniformity of grain size and friability of their structure, some types of sandstone
are excellent materials from which to make grindstones, for sharpening blades and

other implements. Non-friable sandstone can be used to make grindstones for

grinding grain, e.g., gritstone.
A type of pure quartz sandstone, the orthoquartzite, with more of 90-95 percent of
quartz,has been proposed for nomination to the Global Heritage Stone Resource.In
some regions of Argentina, the orthoquartzite-stoned facade is one of the main
features of the Mar del Plata style bungalows.