Pulverized fuel ash is a residue resulting from the combustion of ground or powdered or

crushed bituminous coal or sub-bituminous coal (lignite). About 80 percent of the total ash is
finely divided and get out of boiler along with flue gases and is collected by suitable
technologies. This ash generally and in this standard is termed as fly ash. It is sometimes referred
as chimney ash and hopper ash. The balance about 20 percent of ash gets collected at the
bottom of the boiler and is taken out by suitable technologies and is referred as bottom ash. Fly
ash is collected and stored in dry condition. When fly ash alone or along with bottom ash is
carried to storage or deposition lagoon or pond in the form of water slurry and deposited, it is
termed as pond ash. Whereas if fly ash, alone or along with bottom ash is carried to a storage or
deposition site in dry form and deposited, it is termed as mound ash.
Pulverized fuel ash is available in large quantities in the country as a waste product
from a number of thermal power stations and industrial plants using pulverized or
crushed or ground coal or lignite as fuel for boilers. The effective use of pulverized
fuel ash as a pozzolana in the manufacture of and for part replacement of cement,
as an admixture in cement, cement mortar and concrete, lime pozzolana mixture
and products such as fly ash lime bricks, autoclave aerated concrete blocks, etc,
have been further established in the country in recent years. Recent investigations
of Indian pulverized fuel ashes have indicated greater scope for their utilization as a
construction material.
IS 3812 (Part 1):2003 Indian Standard PULVERIZED FUEL ASH
Specification, Part 1 for Use as Pozzolana in Cement, Cement Mortar and
Concrete
This standard was first published in 1966 in three parts to cater to the requirements
of fly ash for three specific uses: Part 1 covering use of fly ash as a pozzolana, Part 2
covering use of fly ash as an admixture for concrete, and Part 3 covering use of fly
ash as fine aggregate for mortar and concrete. Later revised ti classify fly ash into
two grade, Grade 1 for incorporation in cement, mortar and concrete and in lime
pozzolana mixture, and for manufacture of Portland pozzolana cement, and Grade 2
for incorporation in cement, mortar and concrete and in lime pozzolana mixture.
Application of technologies in the collection, transportation and deposition of ash
have also resulted in availability of pulverized fuel ash in four forms, namely, fly
ash, bottom ash, pond ash and mound ash.
The ash produced at thermal power stations by burning of coal and lignite is known as fly ash.
Fly ash and pulverized coal ash are the two names of the same thing. It is also known as pulverized
fuel ash.
When pulverized coal (bituminous/lignite is burnt in the boiler of a thermal power station, a part of
ash falls down at the bottom of the boiler and is known as bottom ash. Whereas, the major portion of
the ash comes out alongwith the flue gases and is collected through electro static precipitator or filter
bags or other means before allowing the exhaust gases through escape the chimney, this part of ash
is generally known as ESP ash. The un-utilised ESP ash and bottom ash are taken to lagoons known
as ash ponds for deposition. The ash deposited in the ash pond is known as pond ash. In some cases
this ash is deposited in the form of a mount or hillock and is known mound ash.

Fly ash or pulverised coal ash or pulverised fuel ash in general term represents all types of ashes
produced in the thermal power station unless otherwise specifically referred to as ESP ash(chimney
ash, dry fly ash), bottom ash, pond ash and mound ash.
Small part of ash is also collected in the economizer & pre-heater. This ash should generally be
discharged alongwith bottom ash, being a coarse ash. However, at number of power stations it is
discharged with ESP ash.
Each Part of fly ash is best suited for specific applications, as detailed below:
1. ESP ash/Chimney ash/dry fly ash:
It is best suited for manufacture/ part-substitution of cement and the applications, wherein fly ash is
used as cementatious/pozzolonic applications. Such as manufacture of fly ash bricks (without clay),
blocks, pavers, pre-fabricated items, roofing sheets, tiles, tree guards etc.
2. Bottom ash:
Being a coarse ash, it is an excellent substitute of soil for geotechnical applications such as
filling/reclamation of low lying areas, construction of dykes, road and fly over embankments etc.
After processing for removal of carbon and grinding to sand size, it is a good part-substitute of sand in
mortar and concrete.
Its a medium grain size ash, mixture of ESP ash and bottom ash. It is best suited for use in
agriculture, waste land development and forestry applications. Its also a good material for
geotechnical applications as a substitute of soil.
Other important utilisation of pond ash is in manufacture of clay bricks. When pond ash is mixed with
good clay to the extent of 30-80% depending on the clayness of clay, it improves the quality of clay
brick (now clay fly ash brick), reduces breakage at the kiln as well as during transit/use and also
reduces fuel consumption in the kiln.

Can bottom ash and pond ash be used for fly ash lime gypsum bricks or fly ash
sand cement bricks?
Ans.
ESP ash/chimney ash/dry fly ash is recommended for this use. However, pond ash or bottom
ash can also be used but the results (strength of the bricks) would not be as good as in case of ESP
ash.

Can ESP ash/chimney ash/dry fly ash be used for agricultural application?
Ans.
Such a fine ash in dry condition is not advisable to be used in agriculture application as its
transportation, application (spreading and ploughing) would be costlier, difficult and may cause air
pollution.
Pond ash is best suited for this application as it contains some moisture and does not become air
borne easily.

Is the quality of pond ash same at all locations in the ash pond?

Ans.

No. The quality of ash in different zones of pond ash is different.

The ash deposited within about 100 meters of ash slurry discharge point in the pond is coarser ash as
compared to the ash deposited within about 100 mtrs. of water overflow discharge point in the ash
pond. The ash deposited in between these two areas is of medium particle size.
Further, during the process of settling of ash in the pond, natural segregation process takes places.
Coarser ash settles down first and the final particle in the top layer. With the general practice
intermittent filling of ash ponds, repetitive layers of about 1 meter thickness get developed with
segregated particles.

Will cementatious property of fly ash will create hard lumps of soil when used for
agriculture applications?
Ans.

No it will not.

Fly ash is a pozzolonic material which behaves like a cement in presence of lime/cement and water. In
common soils fly ash will not behave like cementatious material. It should not be used in the soils
where lime treatment is being given.

Is fly ash radio active? Is it harmful ?

Ans.
Each material, including fly ash is radio active. It is the degree of radio activity that
determines its impact. The radio activity level of fly ash is 1/10th to 1/20th that of the level that
cause any harm. This has been tested and certified by Department of Atomic Energy, Government of
India.
Radio activity levels of fly ash bricks, agriculture soils treated with fly ash as well as the agriculture
produce grown on fly ash treated soils have been tested for radio activity and are certified as very
safe.

Does fly ash contain heavy and toxic metals? What is the impact of these elements
on the environment or to the public.?
Ans. Fly ash contains traces of heavy and toxic metals which are generally far below the level that
can cause any impact on the environment or public during its normal use.
Fly ashes having high contents of toxic/heavy metals (such fly ashes have yet not been found in
India ) may be used/deposited under expert advice.

Is mixing of fly ash in cement or concrete harmful?

Ans.
Mixing of fly ash of recommended quality and quantity in cement or concrete improves the
quality of cement as well concrete. The well laid structures with fly ash concrete/cement are stronger
and durable. Such structures are also less prone to damage by coastal and chemical environments.

Can bottom ash be used as a part substitution of sand?

Ans.
Yes, pond ash after removal of un-burnt carbon and grinding to sand size can be used as
part substitution of sand.

Can fly ash be ground to improve its fineness?

Ans.

Yes, the fineness of the fly ash can be improved by grinding.

Does grinding of coarse fly ash improve its reactivity?

Ans.
Yes, the grinding of fly ash increases its surface area and thus generally improves its
reactivity. However, reactivity of fly ash is a function of many parameters and not only that of surface
area. The cumulative effect of reactivity is a detailed subject. Application of appropriate technology for
fly ash beneficiation would give best results in terms of reactivity enhancement.

Siliceous Pulverized Fuel Ash Pulverized fuel ash with reactive calcium oxide less
than 10 percent, by mass. Such fly ash are normally produced from burning
anthracite or bituminous coal and has pozzolanic properties.
Calcareous Pulverized Fuel Ash Pulverized fuel ash with reactive calcium oxide
not less than 10 per~ent by mass. Such fly ash are normally produced from lignite
or sub-bituminous coal and have both pozzolanic and hydraulic properties

Fineness of cement has a great effect on the rate of hydration and hence the rate of gain of
strength.

Fineness of cement increases the rate of evolution of heat.

Finer cement offers a great surface area for hydration and hence faster the development of
strength.

Increase in fineness of cement also increases the drying shrinkage of concrete and hence
creates cracks in structures.

Excessive fineness requirement increases cost of grinding.

Excessive fine cement requires more water for hydration, resulting reduced strength and
durability.

Fineness of cement affects properties like gypsum requirement, workability of fresh concrete
& long term behavior of structure.

Coarse cement particles settle down in concrete which causes bleeding.

Approximately 95% of cement particles are smaller than 45 micrometers, with the average
particle around 15 micrometers.

In the early 1900s, cement fineness was expressed as the mass of cement per fractional
size (percent weight retained on specific sieve sizes). Now a days fineness is usually
measured by the Blaine air-permeability test that indirectly measures the surface area of the
cement particles per unit mass.

Cements with finer particles have more surface area in m2 per kg of cement.

Type of cement

Indian Standard Reference

Finenees Value (m2/kg)

60000 m2/kg

RHA

OPC (43)

8112-1989

225

OPC (53)

12269-1987

225

should be more than

FA

Fly ash fineness

320 m2 /kg, which

Comparing residue on

corresponds to a

45 micron sieve with

maximum of 34%

Blaine's surface area

residue on 45 micron
sieve

20,000 m2/kg (nitrogen

SF

adsorption method)

Portland slag cement

455-1989

225

PPC

1489-1991 (Part 1)

300

The nominal maximum coarse aggregate size is limited by the lowest of the
following quantities. 1) 1/4 times the minimum thickness of the member 2) Spacing
between the tendons/strands minus 5 mm 3) 40 mm.
Fly ash is used in about 50% of ready mixed concrete . Class F fly ash is often used
at dosages of 15% to 25% by mass of Cementitious material and Class C fly ash is
used at dosages of 15% to 40% by mass of Cementitious material. Dosage varies
with the reactivity of the ash and the desired effects on the concrete
The rough and angular-shaped ground slag (Fig. 3-6) in the presence of water and
an activator, NaOH or CaOH, both supplied by portland cement, hydrates and sets
in a manner similar to portland cement. However, air-cooled slag does not have the
hydraulic properties of watercooled slag.
Ground granulated blast furnace slag, when used in general purpose concrete ,
commonly constitutes between 30% and 45% of the cementing material in the mix.
Some slag concretes have a slag component of 70% or more of the cementitious
material. ASTM C 989 (AASHTO M 302) classifies slag by its increasing level of
reactivity.
Condensed silica fume is essentially silicon dioxide (usually more than 85%) in
noncrystallinCondensed silica fume has a surface area of about 20,000 m2/kg
(nitrogen adsorption method)e (amorphorous) form. Since it is an airborne material
like fly ash, it has a spherical shape
Silica fume is used in amounts between 5% and 10% by mass of the total
cementitious material. It is used in applications where a high degree of
impermeability is needed (Fig. 3-9) and in highstrength concrete.

% by mass

PC

GGBFS

F-FA

C-FA

SF

SiO2

21

35

50

35

90

Al2O3

25

20

Fe2O3

10

CaO

65

40

20

Highly pozzolanic: Silica fume, Rice husk ash (controlled burning)

Normally pozzolanic: Class F fly ash
Cementitious and pozzolanic: GGBFS, Class C fly ash

Pozzolans are siliceous or aluminous materials, which

possess by themselves little or no cementitious properties,
but in finely divided form react with calcium hydroxide in the
presence of moisture at ordinary temperatures to form
compounds possessing cementitious properties
Portland-pozzolan cement reaction:
C3S/C2S + H2O C-S-H + CH
CH + Reactive SiO2 Pozzolanic C-S-H
The pozzolanic C-S-H is generally more porous than the normal C-S-H, and also
has a lower C/S ratio. A pozzolan may also have reactive Al2O3, in which case the
reaction with CH leads to the formation of C-A-H, which can give rise to
problems in sulphate attack.
Pozzolanic activity is evaluated using the Pozzolanic Activity Index test, which
defines the index as:
PAI (%) = Strength (PC/pozzolan mixture)*100 / Strength (PC mixture)
The quality and composition of fly ash depends on the type of coal being burnt.
The rank (or purity) of coal increases in this order:
5. Lignite (brown coal)
4. Sub-bituminous coal (70 80% C)
3. Bituminous coal (80 90% C) Soft coal, used for ordinary purposes
2. Semi-bituminous coal Good heating value, has a smokeless flame
1. Anthracite (90 95% C) hard coal; high temperature needed to burn it
Low rank coals contain impurities such as clay, shale, quartz, carbonates, and
sulfides. It is these impurities which give fly ash its composition.
As a synthetic aggregate: Fly ash aggregate can be
produced by sintering. The resultant aggregate can be used
for lightweight concrete. However, it is very expensive.
Aggregate can also be synthesized by agglomeration using
lime or cement as binder, as in cold bonding.
Pozzolanic activity is proportional to the amount of particles under 10 m
in diameter.

High volume fly ash concrete: Concrete with 50% of the

Portland cement replaced by Class F fly ash. Has a low water
content, generally less than 130 kg/m3. For slumps of 150200 mm, the use of a superplasticizer is mandatory. The
range of characteristic compressive strengths that can be
achieved using HVFA concrete is 20-50 MPa. This concrete
possesses excellent pumpability, and exhibits little bleeding
(therefore, prone to plastic shrinkage cracking) and low
drying shrinkage. It has applications in mass concrete
blocks, building columns and foundations, caissons and
piles, dams, highways, shotcrete and self-compacting
concrete.
Silica fume is a by-product of the ferrosilicon industry. The
purity of silica fume depends on the ferrosilicon alloy from
which Si metal is being extracted
Bleeding is reduced drastically. In fact, most silica fume
mixes do not show any bleeding.
Amongst mineral admixtures, slag possesses the highest
specific gravity (~ 2.8 3.0). Because it is a processed
material, the fineness can be controlled to any desired
degree. However, for most typical applications, slag fineness
is only slightly higher than cement fineness.
Granulated: This is a high reactivity slag, and is usually quenched. The
hardened matter is then ground to a fineness similar to cement. Thus the
name: Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS).
Chemical composition of GGBFS The amount of CaO in slag determines
its cementitious properties. Since slag is almost entirely amorphous, the
reactivity of the CaO will determine the overall slag reaction.
Alkali concentration of reacting system When the alkali content is higher,
the system will be more reactive.
Glass (reactive SiO2) content of GGBFS Glassy SiO2 causes the
pozzolanic reaction to take place with the hydrated lime.
Fineness of GGBFS and PC Higher fineness implies a faster reaction.

Rice husk ash (RHA)

This is a high reactivity pozzolan obtained by controlled calcination of rice husk.
Field-burnt rice husk is almost crystalline in nature, and makes a weak pozzolan.
Thus, to obtain a high degree of pozzolanicity, a good control is needed while
burning. RHA usually contains a large amount of unburnt carbon which might
adversely affect air entrainment.
RHA is a fine material, with particle sizes less than 45 m, and a surface area of
60000 m2/kg. The particles are typically cellular. A high amount of reactive silica
is present in the system (> 90%).

Metakaolin
This is obtained from calcination of kaolinite clay in the range of 740 840 oC.
The crystalline clay loses its structure at this temperature by the loss of bound
water. Burning should strictly be done in this range, since beyond 1000 oC,
recrystallization of the clay occurs.
A general formula of metakaolin can be written as AS2. This aluminosilicate
compound reacts with CH produced during cement hydration in the following
form (suggested by Murat in Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 13, 1983):
AS2 + 6CH + 9H C4AH13 + 2C-S-H
C-S-H formed in this reaction is aluminous, with a C/S ranging from 0.83 (for
crystalline forms of C-S-H) to > 1.5 (for amorphous and semi-crystalline forms of
C-S-H).
The content of C-S-H and its formation rate depends on the mineralogical
characteristics of the kaolin precursor. Metakaolin has a performance
comparable to silica fume as a mineral admixture in concrete. Since MK is not a
by-product, its processing is an expensive affair. Thus the marketability of MK is
not as good as silica fume, which is a proven by-product.
Proportioning methods for mineral admixtures

Simple replacement method: This is the traditional

method of proportioning. Replacement of cement can
be done either on a volume basis or a mass basis.
Volume replacement does not change the overall
volume of the paste. However, when mass replacement

is done, volume of the paste increases, and this

increase is usually compensated by a decrease in the
volume if sand. Mixture characteristics can be adversely
affect by the removal of sand if the volume removed is
substantial (which can happen for large amounts of low
specific gravity admixtures such as silica fume). For
slow reacting pozzolans like Type F fly ash, this method
results in low early age strengths. Another
disadvantage of this method is that it does not account
for the variations in characteristics of the mineral
admixtures. The advantages of this method are its
simplicity and positive effects on workability (when
replacing material is fly ash).
Addition method: This method involves a direct addition
of the mineral admixture to the concrete without
replacing any part of the cement. In high performance
concrete, this is the method of choice, since it increases
the cementitious content. This increase is compensated
by a decrease in the fine aggregate content. Addition
method usually results in higher strengths.when fine
materials such as silica fume are used, this method can
cause a substantial increase in the water demand.
Modified replacement method: In this case, part of the
admixture is added, and part of it is used as a
replacement. The quantity of mineral admixture put
into the mix is greater than the quantity of cement
removed. This method is typically used to obtain
sufficiently high early age strengths with fly ash.
However, workability and water demand can be difficult
to control in this method.
Rational method: This is an efficient method of
proportioning admixtures. It quantifies the influence of
the admixture using a factor K, which is the cementing
efficiency factor. This factor qualifies the mineral
admixture as a lower grade or higher grade cement. In
other words, K represents the amount of the mineral
admixture that can replace 1 unit of Portland cement in
the mixture to achieve similar properties. This method

is able to overcome the slow early age strength

development for fly ash concrete.