ΠΑΝΑΓΙΩΤΗΣ ΛΙΑΠΗΣ

Viosyntonismos - Biofeedback

Η1Ν1 ΑΝΤΙΜΕΤΕRS
Novel of NON DEEP REALITY – FANTASY PRODUCT

With lots of love dedicated, to my parents, to EL_lines in Natalia, Olga,

Onder, and of course to my colleagues
By Price
LIAPIS Panagiotis

With lots of love dedicated, to my parents, to EL_lines in Natalia, Olga,

Onder, and of course to my partners
By Price
LIAPIS Panagiotis

При большом количестве посвященный, любви мои родители

Греки, В Наталья, Οльга, и Ондер, к моим коллегам

По цене
LIAPIS Panagiotis

Συγγραφέας ΛΙΑΠΗΣ ΠΑΝΑΓΙΩΤΗΣ

Τίτλος
Δ/νση Κ.Βάρναλη 12, 15121 Πεύκη, Αθήνα
Τηλ. 210-6149149
Κιν. 6937097443
Ε-mail real_estate_liapis@yahoo.gr
ΔΙΑΘΕΣΗ 210.8065618 6937097443
Author LIAPIS Panagiotis
Title
Addr K. Varnali 12 15121 Pine Athens
Tel 210-6149149
Mob. 6937097443
 E-mail real_estate_liapis@yahoo.gr
SUPPLY 210.8065618 6937097443

A few words from the author

My Friends in this textbook, take the
knowledge that until now store it in
dusty Greek manuscripts of Plato,
Aristotle and other ancient fotodoton
in damp basements monasteries and
private libraries disekatomyriouchon. We revealed through
masterfully blended events of economy, religion, Greek history
and mythology, the confirmations of Medicine and the
multidimensional social structures, the Greek discovery of
ether for which spoke Platonas and Aristotle, the mineral
krystalyka and electrical properties, their initiatory secret
caves, history, radiation and their effects on human health,
MIND CONTROL is the technical control of the mind legends
and myths, travel guides, the history of Russia and Mongolia,
Dynasty RURIC, the Greek supremacy, The Secret of the
Living Water, forecasts in recent days, the establishment of the
4th Reich, well read, and its organization, methods of
prevalence of the 4th Reich, Geostrategic, The Secrets of the
Parthenon, The stolen works of art, naturally leads business
survival in difficult times. There are missing from my literary
work of literature, prayer and research on photovoltaic
technology in whose threshold of energy is free. Also
presented a series of investigations on a series of error events
for the signs, and possible manipulation of cosmogony,
incidents involving the Nazis and the possible bases in space,
President Obama, and the new doctrine Panthriskeias
launched in conjunction with the Worship infernal beings are a
new mirror through which can be seen the current scene of the
enormous progress in the areas of MIND CONTROL, the chip
EMV of Bill Gates on bank credit cards, the emerging banking
system in relation to economic crashes of America The
SIONISMOS and the New World Order of the 4th Reich, and
PEOPLE CLONES - Men in Black, and the CIA in connection
with the anti-government slogans and reactive walls define a new reality, which
leads to control police forces in Use of Sound for centuries hidden weapons
ancient Greeks developed from the Greek National Nuclear epistimoina C. Gkiolva.
The creations of the Plan "Arrow" (sound rule) and the sound "Artemis", as are
sources on the web are presented in detail below in relation to biological warfare
aircraft from the US-spray from chemical and microbial air over cities. Trying to
minimize the harmful effects that using genetics Industry, extensive fires, building
new towns in the concentration camps of D Reich, apply geostrategic
implementation plan new war in the Balkans because of Kosovo, where the project
"Blue Ray" at the upcoming mayhem by the end of 01/2010 will chrisimopoiithoun
new weapons bass Police with physical effects of radiation on the human organism
KARKINOUS
By Price
LIAPIS Panagiotis
CAUTION - SIGNIFICANT MARKINGS TO READER

1. This project is a bottomless MYTHISTORIMA Reality

2. Clarifies Developed Fiction
3. Any resemblance to actual persons, locations and events are imaginary,
purely accidental, not existing in the present reality and past it.
4. Copyrights on works protected by the current constitution, laws and
jurisprudence
5. Prohibited the reproduction and distribution of all or part of the
document without the prior written permission of the author and an award
identifying figures and in words of the author's remuneration, rights and
remuneration of the Greek state, the duration of the contract and the
parties.
6. The document bears a registered trademark
7. The project is only available for private use, prohibited the reading
public all or part of it.
8. The work donate to the library of the Greek state request and complied
with the legislation providing for the process.
9. For Greek citizens: To book not sold through bookstores and other retail
outlets. KNOWLEDGE donors.
10. The book takes seeker typing costs and expenses of this mission.
11. The Writer LIAPIS Panagiotis receive no remuneration (money)
making a work available
12. The book has no subversive of the system concept, but instead Net
conglomerate of all the Greeks of Planet Earth, 120,000,000 Greeks to
create well-governed society as defined by the democratic, elected
Parliamentary Antiptosopous People (primary form of power)
13. The GREECE Fri all the problems exist because of the scandalous
EVNNOIA OF MARY. The Greeks GYIOS DEFKALIONOS OF, THE
LIGHT, AS NO ONE GREEK even no hope, no justice. Amen.

Copyright by Panagioti Liapi

THE BOOK IS NOT FOR SALE

I GIVE THE KNOWLEDGE FREE – NO COST

AT THE BEGINNING ON EARTH FROM TITHIS WAS ONLY TWO

AUTHENTIC RACES, GREEKS and DRACONIANS.
GREEKS HAVE THE MARK OF SUNNY SOUL IN THE EYES
DRACONIANS HAVE THE MARK OF KNIFE IN THE BACK BUT
ONLY THE MEMBERS OF THE CIRCLE KNOWS THAT.

(From Dialogues of Diomidis with Alexander the Great )

 PARADOCHES

1. Pharmaceutical products containing mercury, lead, uranium,

plutonium, etc. is ANOUMINIO oxymoron and walks contrary.
2. PRESERVATIVES - amplifiers which are carcinogens and help the
brain is deadly
3. PARASKEFASMATAIOURGOUN Instability in the immune system
are weapons of biological warfare

EVEN IF THE WORLD Galactic H GROUP SAYS HEALTH AND

ENDORSES the opposite!

http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/20 /
01/03/07/vaccine-ingredients.aspx
1. In the influenza vaccine contains formaldehyde. Read on syneseia
fatal symptoms
Formaldehyde - "disinfectant and preservative, is known to cause
cancer, chronic bronchitis, eye irritation when exposed to the
immune system Autism now occurs at a frequency of 1 in 67. While
the period before the vaccine was 1 in 20,000.
2. ALUMINIUM (two versions) - are directly mein nosoAltschaimer 2)
Divine ammonia-mineral fertilizer. Known to cause kidney damage
and liver, and gastrointestinal disorders
3. AMFOTERINI B - antifungal disinfectant, causing damage to the
urinary tract, intestines and heart functions
4) ANAKYKLOMENOS ZOIKOS WEB (multiple) - a component of mad
cow disease
4. MSG - known to cause cancer in humans
5. FAINOLES - highly toxic disinfectant dye, causing damage to the
liver, kidney, heart and respiratory
FAINOAINOXYAITHANOLI 'antifreeze' - proven neurotoxic effects
echounakraies
6. THYMEROSAL (Mercury) - Toxikotato, on reasonable grounds that
it causes autism in children and many related behavioral
disturbances associated with it.

They also include the following animal tissues:

pig blood, horse blood, rabbit brain, kidney dog, monkey kidneys, chicken
embryos, calf serum, fetal calf serum, etc.
Malista gentlemen, I see something crazy chickens and cows, sheep,
goats, and be crazy pig and rabbit, many animals that we eat. There and
crazy centipede or logikeftikane all;;; My friend Father seen here crazy
horses and centaurs, crazy chickens and flying vampires, only nefelim
mermaid sees, but let them do the mermaids we its cool as always ... the
issue was again one that we are coming from the next book .... . To 2001,
o Jock Doubleday, director of three nonprofit corporation Natural Health
California offers financial reward to anyone who is a doctor or
pharmaceutical company executive publicly drink a mixture containing the
above carriers (not included the main ingredients, dead or alive, or viruses
bacteria) in the same proportions in children's vaccines maftes converted
to body weight. The mixture prepared by Doubleday, featured three
pharmacists and three pharmacists who will propose the ypopsifios.I offer
was launched in January 2001 to 20,000 dollars, gradually increasing each
year and today einai200.000 dollaria.Mechri has not been offered one.
Why; http://www.Spontaneous Creation.org
Protests for Canadian pandemic vaccines to Afghan detainees
11/11/2009 Protests have revolutionized military decision, under which
Afghans detained by Canadian forces in a military base in Afghanistan will
receive pandemic vaccine before the general public in Canada. As the
Canadian Press, Afghan detainees will be vaccinated with the same
priority level as for the Canadians soldiers, beginning on Wednesday,
which the Health Minister of Canada called "outrageous." Canadian
soldiers said they simply observe the Geneva Convention, under which
prisoners are required to receive the same treatment given to soldiers.
Military officials said the vaccination of prisoners would help reduce the
spread of the pandemic .. Source: Reuters
Withdrawn lot pandemic vaccine in Canada
24/11/2009 Withdrawn in Canada a lot of pandemic H1N1 vaccine, and six
people had serious allergic reactions, said Department of Public Health
(RIA) in the country. The RIA and GlaxosmithKline, the company that
manufactures the vaccine Arepanrix, formed in six regions of the country
(out of 13) who have received this batch of 172,000 doses to stop using
them. As a spokesperson for the RIA, six severe allergic reaction from a lot
higher rate than normal. OI FONIADES Hides GENOCIDE THAT THE
VACCINE IS "Amplifiers« THYMEROSAL say Mercury - Toxikotato, on
reasonable grounds that it causes autism in children and many related
behavioral disturbances associated with it. Autism now occurs at a
frequency of 1 in 67. While the period before the vaccine was 1 in 20,000
false statement READ AND DECIDE "All six subjects who experienced the
reactions have recovered, also said the spokeswoman. He added that
those who were vaccinated from this batch of Arepanrix not have to worry
about, if not directly experienced an allergic reaction. "
Ust ALITES
In Hollywood movies of the 70s - 80s, remembers Anna Dollars in 'News'
favorite topic was the spread of a deadly virus. scenario like a guinea pig
to escape from the laboratory where they were testing a new virus, thus
spreading the epidemic in all (American) states and then throughout the
world. A fit and conscientious scientist served time in a race to learn the
truth, but then face the wall and economic interests of rulers who did not
want the disclosures and investigations. In the end, he was coping, he
found the antidote, the population is vaccinated and humanity survived.
Scenarios are fiction or reality bottomless as it sounds for a new flu virus,
vaccine, and deal with?
1. Actually built on to reduce unemployment;
2. To kill 2.5 dissekatomyria people in the world; When the initiator and
Kisigkr ypoloiitis Bush;
3. Bush lost the bousola;
4. Govern us crazy;

Answer YOURSELF ... ..

"War doctors and billions more from a vaccine '
"The company at the giant pharmaceutical Baxter, Illinois U.S., a patent of
the vaccine against new flu virus on August 28, 2008, about a year before
the first case! The application, under number 12/199 997, answered by the
decision-US number 20090060950A1, which secured the Baxter
International patented manufacturing influenza vaccine.
Note that in 2001 the same company was accused by an administrative
error of strain, which has been publicly recognized, I511 transferred the
virus of avian influenza in laboratory units in Europe. Besides the
companies manufacturing the vaccine, the dance of billions have come
and pharmaceutical companies that support the treatment against the virus
and, of course, fiercely attacked by the vaccine. The Roche, the traditional
Tamiflu, and GlaxoSmithKline-manufacturing and-vaccine, with Relenza,
owned by Novartis IG FARBEN ROCHILDS is located in the top two
positions worldwide in the movement of anti-viral drugs. Here's Sanovi-
Pasteur in the role of distributor aide Already, however, have released
surveys, most recently the British health authorities, who want both drugs
powerless in front of new virus. Greek civil war more than a vaccine
Five multinational pharmaceutical companies, the Vaxter the Novartis, the
GlaxoSmithKline, the Sanovi-Pasteur and Solvay «slaughtered 'in ... apron
of the Greek Ministry of Health for a piece of the pie 8 million vaccines
ordered, worth 64 million euros! Perhaps the ministers are illiterate and do
not are likely to read to PATENT that the vaccine contains
1. 50% Fatal MERCURY
2. CARCINOGENS formaldehyde Life 3 MONTHS
3. ASO3-destroying SKOUALENOIO The immune
NSIs TERRITORIAL OF MUNICIPAL 1st KATALAVAINEIS THAT ALL
THESE KANOYN ENA H1N1
ASFALESTATO VACCINE FOR HEALTH!
Yet, these vaccines are likely to run out to wholesalers, as the Greeks
seem particularly reluctant to consider vaccinated. First of all doctors and
nurses in NHS hospitals, and pharmacists. According to figures from the
ministry, only 10% of medical staff were vaccinated in the first week of
vaccination. The reason? "This vaccine is manufactured until mid-May,
following two incidents in Florida, so they do not check either the security
or effectiveness, and possible unknown side effects in the system of
human body, which is currently can not be controlled, "answered the
Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, University of Athens Panagiotis Spyridis.
According to the professor, is the first time in the history of medicine "in a
vaccine will be produced and the composition contains pieces of the virus,
ie the genetic abortion to follow from the compound 3 different materials
from animals, birds and pigs and human material . The direct effects from
the administration is muscle pain, fever and allergic reaction. "But do not
fear them," continues Mr. Spyridon. "Possible damage to the liver, kidneys,
heart and general nervous system disease such as Buzz, causing
complete paralysis of the nervous system is what we feared." In regard to
pregnant women, Professor of Pediatrics is firmly against the vaccination,
as no scientist can not rule out a teratogenic, a miscarriage or other
serious damage to both the fetus and the mother, such as kidney failure,
heart disease and lesions the nervous system and smooth development of
the child. METALAXIS DNA pesto purely vre bro!
The vaccine ordered by the health authorities of each country and the
population is vaccinated at public hospitals and vaccination centers. It
traded in the market through pharmacies or private clinics and doctors'
surgeries, on the grounds that only on the ten-dose vials, causing new
questions. "There will be vaccinated as soon as I do not know what
substances enter the body and what I will have implications for the future.
There is prescribing the vaccine, or distribution in pharmacies to know
what it is, "says the pharmacist about Mrs Helen Kazakos, reflecting the
views of the vast majority of colleagues.
Mrs. Helen Maltese, the Infectious KEELPNO says in "News" that she was
vaccinated, since according to the WHO, the vaccine is 100% secure.
"Produced by the same procedure and under the same safety rules that
made the vaccine against seasonal flu, and has already given millions of
people." LIES LIES LIES A geneticist Mr. Nick Kambouris reveals that
especially in the case of laboratory error, preying the "recombination", ie
the appearance of a poisonous and more! dangerous virus, and when they
somehow infect the existing viruses, which make up the H1N1 virus.
According to Mr. Kambouri "addressing the mutant virus will not be easy
for the international scientific community, since this phenomenon means
that does the change in the inherited genetic material of the virus, the
effects are not always controlled or predicted . On the other hand, sounded
the alarm on the safe use of vaccines and the general method of
preparation, "because these formulations undermine the human gene
system, with unknown consequences for the future especially when no one
knows exactly substances for their production, as in the case of a vaccine
against H1N1 virus, which sounds a lot but nothing has been confirmed to
the hazard or safety. "Christos George (Professor of Biochemistry,
Department of Biology, University of Patras) Journal Times "The recent
news in Canada for the withdrawal of a batch of vaccine as highly
dangerous (1) confirms our fears. Furthermore, justice and those scientists
and doctors have expressed their opposition, not influenced by the huge
economic interests and political bodies like the World Health Organization
(WHO) and health committees of the EU Specifically, the maker Glaxo
asked the doctors of Canada to stop the use of a very recent batch of
vaccine (October), 170,000 doses, it caused dangerous side effects
(respiratory problems, palpitations, skin rashes, etc.) at 500% more than
expected. Certainly, evil had been done, because only 900 doses were
withdrawn because the others had already been used. Indeed, urban
Manitoba and Quebec in Canada investigated three deaths occurred within
one week of receiving the vaccine, without the victims belong to any high-
risk groups (2, 3). For obvious reasons, the Greek government together
with the media (especially television) are hidden from the public that the
controversial Canadian vaccine company Glaxo, the Arepanrix H1N1, is
totally the same as to the contents of the Pandemrix we sold . This follows
the instructions written by the company for both vaccines [4, 5]. Another
important issue raised is whether Glaxo and Baxter (which makes the
American Celvapan vaccine for the H1N1 virus) was prepared years ago
for a pandemic of swine flu, with everything that entails. This is supported
by the fact that both companies had submitted patents for such vaccines
long before he found the virus in humans for the first time in March-April
2009 in Mexico. In fact, on March 21, 2006 by Glaxo filed patent (number
WO2006100109A1), to which the H1N1 virus (page 23) and hazardous
components of the vaccine (the Pandemrix), such as squalene adjuvant
(page 44) and the toxic mercuric thiomersal (page 12) [6]. Indeed, on
February 2, 2007 by Glaxo filed an application to the European Medicines
Agency (EMEA) for approval to market the vaccine Pandemrix, which was
adopted on May 20, 2008 [7, 8].
The request was for vaccine-matrix («mock-up») with the same
composition but with another virus, namely the human H5N1 strain. The
same was done by the U.S. company Baxter (a large proportion of shares
owned by the notorious former Defense Secretary Bush, Donald
Rumsfeld). Specifically, on August 28, 2008 filed for a patent (number
2009/0060950A1 US) for a vaccine that also concerned the H1N1 virus
(application page 4) [9]. So when the flu outbreak of fever in 2009, both
companies were ready in 2006. Just changed the vaccine-mold with the
H1N1 virus and the vaccine produced by WHO-approved in record time! It
is indeed strange how the timing of these companies with the advent of
swine flu was so ... Perfect! The companies Glaxo and Baxter could be
argued that the patents for the manufacture of vaccines only for pigs. But
in patents, both companies make a clear reference to use of the vaccine in
humans (page 1 of the patent). Another memorable event resulting from
the patented Baxter says that as co-inventor of a vaccine scientist named
Dr. Kistner Otfried, which ... happens to be used by the WHO as an expert
advisor, along with other representatives of pharmaceutical companies,
including Dr Norbet Hehme of Glaxo. Specifically, attended a meeting of
the WHO in Geneva (on 2-3 November 2005) to "evaluate and develop
pandemic influenza vaccines [10] and in Stockholm (August 2007) for
preparing a technical report on" public health "regarding influenza vaccines
[11]. This fact is indicative of how the WHO and the pharmaceutical
companies act as communicating vessels. "AWAY
The DEAD FLESH OF CAPE African Apes 'key component' of the
vaccine anything will help ...
You think they are exposed PITHIKOUS .... The .... Want to U.S. Mutations
in PITHIKOUS;; ;;

On the occasion of the upcoming vaccination of most of the world's

population, reference should be made to individual components based on
which the creation of a vaccine against Influenza A. A petition entechnos
mostly concealed by the Greek media, not to become an obstacle to
economic plans of ... multinational pharmaceutical companies and causes
a natural aversion and mistrust of people, both in the processes of an
influenza vaccine, as well as to the actual healing effects that could result
in such a vaccination. The new flu vaccine, created under unclear
circumstances, since even today the special scientific staffs of the World
Health Organization's totally unaware of the biological composition of the
virus, the properties of those strains cause the mutation and the reasons
that contributed to appearance. Amalgamated 4 different DNA and that
means building the vaccine in WEAPON MILITARY LAB SAN
BIOLOGICAL WAR AS A HORSE mad IOS VEE, lost by LAB and become
the next pandemic. The vaccine consists of a component, which is
characterized as a "key component. The creepy this ingredient is dead
flesh of African green monkey. Windsurf and Beach Volley METALASEI
DNA IN THE DNA of African green monkey !!!!!!!!!!
This method and the U.S. patent numbers 5911998: Method for producing
influenza vaccine from cell membrane an African green monkey. The
whole process of production of the vaccine based on cell membrane of the
African monkey kidney, is summarized as follows: "Following the isolation
of influenza A virus with special scientific methodology, followed by
infection with the monkey virus, which, having originally presenting
symptoms of the flu, then develops antibodies to fight it. At the final stage
brought by the death in monkeys, that the diseased organs be removed
and apodomithoun potent antibodies, in order to start the creation of
influenza vaccine. Moreover, it is not random and that people be
vaccinated to complement required an affirmation, accepting virtually the
same responsibilities of vaccination, and any side effects that may result in
the human body, ridding the reality of each responsibility and obligation of
the pharmaceutical industry.
Another element that creates even highly questionable, and bring a host of
reactions in America - the country's creation of the influenza vaccine - from
various organizations accuse the pharmaceutical industry to establish
atmosphere of terror and manipulation of public opinion around the
economic earnings of multinationals, is that the entire process of
production of influenza vaccine is not only headed the World Health
Organization, but a company of American interests, famous for the
suspicious activity? activists in circles in America, DynCorp. For many in
Greece, the company is completely unknown. And this of course is
because has achieved everything possible to move underground and their
actions are the scenes DynCorp is one of the leading suppliers of private
military of the U.S. Government. Among the claims of some of the activities
of this company - and what we say, because when involving such interests
are withdrawn as insufficient evidence - is the movement of children in
child pedophilia ring in Bosnia and the contamination of agricultural crops
in Ecuador aerial sprays. Addition, DynCorp allegedly received huge sums
from the U.S. Government to guard the borders of America - Mexico, near
the area, namely, that appeared in the first case of influenza virus A. The
same company is always a record number of patented methods on farming
viruses and create vaccines. One of the principal investigators of these
methods is Dr Robert H. Purcell, who is also one of the heads of the
epidemiological Disease Laboratory, National Institute of Allergy and
epidemiological diseases, which, quite accidental, operates under the
auspices of the World Health Organization (WHO) or the American
government. And the oxymoron is that the company was originally founded
as Aeronautics, but over the years expanded into various fields have
nothing to do with the original reasons for setting up, acquiring
relationships with senior U.S. government and developing strong business
ties with them is alleged to have encouraged in recent years particularly
from the recent wars? superpower, and the various outbreaks of epidemics
in recent years around the globe. Conclusions yours the truth again well
below the misinformation and terror.
The swine flu, the worst political and corrupt society. All die in a
pandemic?
What better could happen to really Karamanlis government, and
governments of other countries (eg USA) from a pandemic? However,
appetite for pumpkin pie, because if this is avian flu, you probably used by
scientists to persuade the crowds on huge risk and the threat to mankind
from the flu is not the pigs (not to hit the relevant industry), but it is not
made by man (regardless of whether a scientist from Australia said ...
deliberately? that particular virus was constructed in laboratories in
Australia). This flu, then, is more like flu in order, if you think the
announcement of the World Health Organization, who assures us that by
2011 the flu will spread to all parts of the world! Such confidence can only
have one who sends mail to courier!!! The fact of the spread of influenza,
due to its initial complacency (after Mexico), allowing the free movement of
American tourists and professionals from the USA to Europe and the
world. Great Britain accepted that the degree of penetration of influenza
due predominantly to the free entry of American tourists in the country!
That is, everyone who came from the U.S. had the flu? Neither goods for
export have been! Although the substance goods are moved very easily,
very fast and very convenient for those pharmaceutical companies that
manufacture the vaccine against the deadly virus, and of course have
already begun to see a crazy influx of money to fund their vaccine orders!
Now, why change U.S. law and requires that those who get the vaccine
relative to sign and that the pharmaceutical company is not responsible for
the preparation, it is indeed strange! Let us, however, in Greece, where the
virus has begun to spread at a furious pace and shown entering the
country by tourists and Greeks from abroad, while the media across the
country dedicated to this subject, which proved poses no risk to anyone.
Why the Greek media and burn both do extensive reports while in the U.S.
is still considered a disease annually in Europe is treated rather coolly Why
try to convince us of the danger inside our home for so strong Why try to
tell us something which has already begun to doubt very seriously in many
countries around the world and from many major groups of scientists? The
answer probably lies in the government to deal settles all Greek citizens to
the global pandemic than to Greek tragedy in the economy and (mostly)
national issues. It is very good distraction if indeed reached a point where
carrying and panic among Greek citizens (by changing the mass), then the
government can go in many miserable anti-civil liberties and a host of
miserable decline in the national interest. The swine flu has reached first in
the brains of politicians, who want very much to turn it into a weapon of
propaganda to manipulate agents provocateurs in order to hide their
references (lubrication, etc.) to complete the repayment of debts (the
sponsors) and offer new guarantees to the Big Brother Black on White
House to renew the term of office! Moreover, if the virus manages to
mutate and even if done killing, then a new vaccine will be necessary and
duly filled the pockets of some specific (eg, former U.S. Defence Secretary
Mr Rumsfeld, who is a proven major shareholders of pharmaceutical
manufacturing company AntiVirus vaccine)! The work is good! Very good
offer and dragon! It's just like reading! And the dragon is the fear of
wanting to instil in people, the isolation and delivery of all personal
freedom in the hands of people who do not know and certainly not want
nor will ever seek to know them. Because the virus is creating problems in
the health sector by transferring other pertinent facts health treatment in
second gear, maybe the government should live up to its responsibilities
and stop the outrages which is unfolding in front of us all by the media,
scenarios of horror and terror of chance escapes from ministerial offices
(eg Mr Avramopoulos) with emergency plans. But they are all about money
or something else? Control the masses, who want to get the current
leaders of our country (and the entire planet), as alleged international
conspiracy theorists, it might be one which we live and the tragic results of
the taste of a few years. Asked to biologist-geneticist if possible to produce
virus which is programmed to activate after a certain time, the answer I got
was positive! When we asked if it is possible to activate a virus through a
catalyst that can be imported by air or the food chain, the answer was also
good! This is not only frightened, but panicked because people want to
vaccinate us with an unknown substance (which the U.S. government puts
its citizens to sign you will not have financial claims on the manufacturer if
any side effects or complications) , which can contain anything not
conspiracies, but I think what we all happy to make do, if people become
highly controlled and highly controlled one is threatened by a great danger
that can not cope alone and leaves the care and responsibility to address
the risk to government if the dare to summarize the history of viral fever,
which was eagerly waiting to mutate to become the deadliest, we see that
knew him, and wanted to come almost as an order. At the World Economic
Conference in 2008 in Switzerland, said (and while matters were under
discussion was purely financial content) features that: it is surprising that
for decades there has been a pandemic hit the world and how perfectly
normal it would be right now (ie once was the World Economic
Conference)! Besides the danger of vaccinations in general, is a key issue
of security of the preparations to be granted in this case in October in
schools, as stated by the Greek Government, and the consequences on
the health of millions of people both in Greece and in abroad. Already the
Austrian journalist Jane Burgermeister in collaboration with experts has
gone to lawsuits and claims against those involved (Baxter, World Health
Organization, pharmaceutical and other sponsors of the preparations),
followed the example of other citizens in France, New Zealand and the
U.S. - so far, and started a global movement against forced vaccinations.
Private U.S. citizens, in? First-
• where they have made changes to legislation so that citizens can refuse
the vaccination,
• but can not exercise its right to damages against company and
• threat of forced internment in concentration camps ...?
first face the risk of actual pandemic threat of constitutional freedoms and
the others follow. Sure I can in a few lines to explain the whole picture, but
I give you some basic information to learn and explore themselves, to then
see how we can avoid the danger that threatens all of us in the form of
vaccines.
Bilderberg, vaccines and flu fever
According to Bloomberg, Greece has ordered:
• 2.000.000 vaccines by the company Glaxo. The reception will begin by
mid-September and be completed by December.

3.000.000 vaccines from the company Novartis. The receipt of the

2,000,000 doses will be made until November 15 and will follow in early
January even 1,000,000 doses.
• 3.000.000 vaccines by the company Sanofi Pasteur. The reception will
begin December 15 and will be completed in early January.
The point is that these companies are corespondent in lawsuits and
lawsuits that are running against them and the World Health Organization
(World Movement against the mandatory vaccination!) In various countries
on charges of plotting genocide (International gang plans a massive
genocide) The issue is that both we and our children run the same risk in
the event of mass vaccination program in October in schools, as
announced by the government! The world must refuse to vaccinate at all
costs! -Because they will be vaccinated in fact spread the artificial virus
stia their communities! In 1918 Greece had survived the black death
because residents had not been vaccinated, if an example to many
countries abroad this year! But now the danger of vaccines! In New
Zealand, are already doing research on the companies manufacturing the
vaccine and will not deliver the inhabitants of their country in the clutches
of the WHO! they say people there fighting for the global movement
against forced vaccinations! In the hope of measuring FIRST TRUTH and
substantial concern for the man and Greek citizen's intention to stop the
vaccinations! To this end, canceling the licenses of these companies in the
country and to begin legal proceedings and investigations by police and in
GREECE. After all that, personally, I've decided not to put my blood, which
can deliver my brain and my life in the hands of mentally ill people. If my
decision is correct and will appear in the future Source:
http://www.neagenia.com/gr/?p=1585
European Medicines Agency 7 Westferry Circus, Canary Wharf, London
E14 4HB, UK Tel. (44-20) 74 18 84 00 Fax (44-20) 74 18 84 16 E-mail:
mail@emea.europa.eu http://www.emea.europa.eu © European Medicines
Agency, 2009. Reproduction is authorised provided the source is
acknowledged. Reference: EMEA/350155/2009
EMEA/H/C/1015
Propandimiko vaccine Influenza (H5N1) (part of the virus, inactivated,
anosoenischymeno) GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals propandimiko influenza
vaccine (H5N1) (part of the virus, inactivated, anosoenischymeno)
A/VietNam/1194/2004 (NIBRG - 14)
EPAR summary for the public
This document is a summary of the European Public Assessment Report
(EPAR). It explains how the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human
Use (CHMP) assessed the studies performed, recommendations on how
to use the drug.
For more information about your medical condition or your treatment, read
the leaflet (included in the EPAR) or contact your doctor or pharmacist. For
more information about the committee's recommendations, the Scientific
Discussion (also part of the EPAR).
What is the flu vaccine propandimiko (H5N1) (part of the virus, inactivated,
anosoenischymeno) GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals;
The propandimiko influenza vaccine (H5N1) (part of the virus, inactivated,
anosoenischymeno) of GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals vaccine is
administered by injection. It contains inactivated influenza virus segments
which are offset (ie it is dead). The vaccine contains a strain of influenza
virus called A/VietNam/1194/2004 NIBRG-14 (H5N1).
Cases in which the vaccine is used?
The propandimiko influenza vaccine (H5N1) (part of the virus, inactivated,
anosoenischymeno) of GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals vaccine is intended for
use in adults to protect against flu caused by H5N1 strain of influenza virus
type A. The vaccine is based official recommendations only with a
prescription.
But with that formaldehyde inactivated vaccine has a shelf life the organist
three months. Dissolve and absorbs. What happens then;
The SON vaccine triggered mob enter freely mutation of human DNA in
Two-Ply saurian DNA, beef, chicken or African green monkey. Picked;
How to use the vaccine?
The vaccine is given as an injection into the muscle of the shoulder in two
single doses of which involved at least three weeks. In adults over 80 may
need to issue a double dose of vaccine (one injection in each shoulder)
followed by a second double dose three weeks later.
How does the vaccine?
The flu vaccine propandimiko (H5N1) (Section virus, inactivated, but only
for three months anosoenischymeno) of GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals is
"propandimiko 'vaccine. This is a special type versus strain of influenza
that might cause a future pandemic. Pandemic flu occurs when a new
strain of flu virus that can spread easily among humans lack immunity
(protection) of the population against him. A pandemic could affect many
countries and regions in the world. Experts in the health fears that a future
influenza pandemic may be caused by the H5N1 strain. The vaccine was
developed to provide protection against this type of flu, but the tale is doing
just the reverse, metalasei human DNA Vaccines work by 'teaching' the
immune system (the body's natural defense) how to defend itself against a
disease. This vaccine contains small amounts of HA (proteins from the
surface) of the virus H5N1. First, the inactivated virus that will not cause
illness. When the vaccine is administered to a person's immune system
recognizes the virus as "foreign body" and produces antibodies against it.
In this way, when the person is again exposed to the virus, the immune
system is able to produce antibodies more quickly. This can help protect
against disease caused by a virus.
Before use, the vaccine is manufactured by mixing with a suspension
containing particles of the virus and an emulsion. The resulting emulsion is
then administered by injection. The emulsion also contains a "supporting
actor" The formaldehyde eoinai carcinogen, for better response. Windsurf
and Beach Volley EXONTOSIS population af
Which studied the vaccine?
In the main study of the vaccine involving 400 healthy adults aged
between 18 and 60 years and compared the ability of different doses of the
vaccine, with or without adjuvant agent to cause the production of
antibodies (immunogenicity). Participants were two injections of vaccine
containing one of four different doses of HA. Injections given with 21 days
difference between them. The main measure of effectiveness were the
levels of antibodies against influenza virus in the blood of patients at three
different times: before vaccination, the day on which the second injection
(day 21) and 21 days later (42nd day). YOU ALL THESE FOR ONLY
TAKEN ONE MONTH AND THERE IS NOT SUFFICIENT EXPERIENCE
What is the benefit of the vaccine in the studies?
According to the criteria formulated by the Committee for Medicinal
Products for Human Use (CHMP), to determine an appropriate vaccine
should propandimiko cause protective antibody levels at least 70% of
persons chorigeitai.APLA AND THE NET WILL Extermination
ANYNAMOUS BODIES EPITYGCHANONTAS A REDUCTION population
af 2.5 DISSEKATOMYRIA So I phased PEOPLE TO 15% OF
UNEMPLOYMENT CF there will be a margin of 10% even
WORLD IS GENOCIDE!
.. Risks associated with the vaccine?
The most common side effects of propandimikou influenza vaccine (H5N1)
(part of the virus, inactivated, anosoenischymeno) of GlaxoSmithKline
Biologicals (shown in more than 1 in 10 doses of vaccine) are headache,
arthralgia (joint pain), myalgia (muscle pain) , egkefalitides epilepsy
aftismos, killing embryos reactions at the injection site (hardening,
swelling, pain and redness), fever and fatigue (tiredness) ..
The vaccine should not be used in people who have experienced
anaphylactic shock (severe allergic reaction) to any component of the
vaccine or any of the substances may be present in the vaccine in very
small quantities, such as eggs, poultry protein, oolefkomatini ( protein
found in egg whites), formaldehyde, gentamicin sulfate (antibiotic) and
desoxycholiko natrio. Vaccination should be deferred for persons with
sudden fever.
Why was the vaccine?
The Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) concluded
that the benefits of propandimikou influenza vaccine (H5N1) (part of the
virus, inactivated, anosoenischymeno) of GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
outweigh the risks associated with it for active immunization against H5N1
subtype of influenza virus A. The committee recommended authorization
for the vaccine.
Freemasonry IS THE MONEY raised OVER PUBLIC HEALTH
Apokodikopoiithike the HIV
The genetic code of HIV / AIDS decoded American scientists. They hope
that new information will help experts better understand how the virus will
eventually lead to the development of more effective therapies. The
genetic structure of HIV is complicated enough. Like viruses that cause
influenza, hepatitis C and polio, has genetic information in a single chain of
RNA rather than double chain DNA. While the information is encoded in
DNA is a rather simple way, the RNA is more complicated because the
RNA has the ability to collapses into intricate structures. The U.S. research
published in Nature, «unlock" data that may be hidden answers on how the
virus. The team from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, said it
plans to make small interventions in the genome of the virus.
To create our new AIDS? EYCHARISTOUME we will not take
The swine flu and the worst
Frenetic news from journalists savvy virus spreading panic through our
receivers and that leaves a huge gap between the information true and
good. There's just hidden a bundle of money from big pharmaceutical
industries giants that will serve us as modern Gollum coveted the vaccine.
Desperate mothers, teens soft touch, anxious middle-aged and elderly
arrostiarides tremble all this invisible danger that threatens to change our
lives. And the channels of teachers tromolagneias outweigh the lowly
academic physicians and epidemiologists trying unsuccessfully not to
dampen the panic settled deeper questions of each presenter
Kapsikefalou: How many hours after the fever should go to the emergency
room? Take communion Sunday or not? Above : When will we have the
first death in the country? Without death there is nothing to sell. What will
happen because many of this flu, the issue will play in the channels with
the same intensity and the same distortion for a long time. In Mexico, the
mask became fashionable, and perhaps even here at noon to see
tilekafenedakia valid and Greek efforts, eg pig mask, Tsolias, veligkekas,
Karamanlis and Papandreou, a terrorist mask (see first and defending
against influenza to be arrested under the new law Mr Dendias) and
everything else imaginable that resembles the spirit of our times. Look for
coordinated action against the new virus. Private Health Minister following
the logic in favor and measures to reduce smoking: a lot of talk and see.
How to avoid pesticides in vegetables and fruits
O Kostas Akoumianakis, assistant professor of the Department of
Horticultural Science, Division of Plant Protection Agricultural University,
and Professor of Environmental Chemistry at the Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki, Mr. Fitianos give us tips on how to avoid the consumption of
fruit and vegetables after .. . pesticides.
Eat fruits and vegetables, organic farming or if too expensive, integrated
management. The latter are more checks and their production is controlled
and monitored frequently for pesticide residues as they are mainly
exported products.
Wash thoroughly with water, soap and not as many habit-and peel all
fruits. In fact, the wash is not only avoid contact pesticide residues and
other diseases, such as Toxoplasma, which can be transferred from fruits
and vegetables.
Wash well as leafy vegetables (lettuce, spinach, etc.) and remove the
outer leaves which deposited any deleterious substance.
From the garden, the most dangerous-and are more susceptible to pests
and diseases and thus receive more pesticides, are: cucumber, melon,
watermelon, the pumpkin. As they mature quickly, the time from spraying
until it reaches the plate is often very small and the pesticide can not keep
apodomithei.
Buy fruit-season vegetables. We are less likely to have pesticide residues,
and in the greenhouse growing more diseases and are therefore likely to
use more pesticides. This summer they are in season, have better
resistance mechanisms.
Shop immature fruit and vegetables and leave it outside the refrigerator at
a point of light for 3-4 days. That's because most "modern" pesticides have
time persistence 7 days. Assuming that it takes about 3 days less to reach
a fruit or vegetable from field to home, this is a good solution.
Avoid fruits and vegetables from third countries such as Turkey, are likely
to have residues of pesticides banned in the EU and thus in Greece. The
controls for this possibility is random, while a study by University of
Thessaloniki, and found many examples of substances which are legally
no longer used in Greece, such as malathion

Genetically modified foods reduce fertility (Elias Kadare)

A diet based on genetically modified organisms may pose a threat to our
reproductive capacity. At least, this research supports the Austrian
government, one of the few ever undertaken on this issue. According to
the findings of the survey, the fertility of mice whose diet was based on
genetically modified corn has decreased significantly compared with mice
that ate natural foods. Also, according to the findings of the investigation,
mice whose diet was based on genetically modified corn have babies in
the third and fourth generation reduced in both number and weight, while
mice in the diet were not genetically modified organisms reproduced
naturally. "GM foods seem to act as agent of birth control, leading to
potential and sterilization. If this reason is not sufficient to close once and
the GM industry, then what are waiting for another disaster? "The playing
genetic roulette with our food is like playing Russian roulette with
consumers and public health." These and many other representatives of
Greenpeace said the European Union. The genetically modified hybrid
corn (NK 603 x MON 810), examined in this research, which is tolerant to
a herbicide and resistant to some insects (moths) are the property of
Monsanto. The cultivation and use of food as approved in several
countries including USA, Argentina, Japan, the Philippines and South
Africa. In Europe and Mexico approved its use in food and feed. The Food
Safety Authority (EFSA) of the European Union has given the green light
to a genetically modified food as evidenced by research that can be a
serious threat to public health. According to statements of the Greek office
of the environmental organization Greenpeace «This study proves once
again that the mutants are grown and consumed without knowing almost
nothing about the long-term effectsAfter finding the excellent complexing
ability of EDTA was sought and other synthetic routes of manufacture in
large quantities and at low cost. Today EDTA produced industrially using
the following reaction of diamine with formaldehyde and sodium cyanide:

The produced ammonia is removed to reduce the formation of a by-

product of another polyaminokarvoxylikou acid, nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA)
with the formula N (CH2COOH) 3, which is the main impurity of EDTA. By
acidification of the mixture that EDTA is precipitated as relatively insoluble
free acid, while the more soluble NTA remains in solution.
The ethylenediamine is an industrial raw material for the manufacture of
numerous chemicals. The annual output reaches 500,000 metric tons
(1998 data). Produced industrially by the reaction of 1,2-dichloroethane
with ammonia, or ethylene oxide by catalytic ammoniosi based on the
following reactions [Ref 3]

Chemical properties of EDTA

The EDTA in acid: The EDTA behaves as tetraprotiko acid. It is a
moderately strong acid (at least the first two phases dimension) and
usually represented as I4EDTA and various salts such as Na2H2EDTA,
Na4EDTA, Na2CaEDTA. Also, the usual simple notation as I4Y. The
equilibrium separation of EDTA and the corresponding dissociation
constants are presented next.
It should be noted that EDTA is often referred to as acid exaprotiko
considering the protonated forms (with protonation of aminoomadon) as
initial forms. Thus, the fully protonated form, I6Y2 + dissociated with I5Y +,
so that in I4Y The protonated forms exist only in strongly acidic solutions
(pH <1), where EDTA has no complexing ability [Ref 4a].
The first two dissociation constants are approximately the same
magnitude. This suggests that the two ydrogonokationta extracted from
both ends of the molecule and not from the same end. Given the relatively
large distance between two carboxyl groups, the negative charge
generated at one end in the first dimension is not particularly difficult
because the second dimension coulomb tow. This is not the same for the
third and fourth dimension already made much more difficult [Ref 4b].
Diionta EDTA: 'When the EDTA dissolve in water behaves as amino acids
forming diionta (zwitterions), ie particles with neutral positions opposite
electrical charge. Protons extracted from the carboxyl groups and bound
by aminoomades. The first charged negatively and the second positive.
This happens at both ends of the molecule is thus a "double diion. Thus,
the molecule of EDTA (H4Y) are charged four positions, two positive and
two negative charge and therefore the total load remains zero.
During the first two stages in turn dimension ydrogonokationta EDTA
extracted from the full carboxyl groups and the last two stages of the
detachment of the protonated ydrogonokationta aminoomades. Obviously,
the particle composition of an aqueous solution of EDTA depends on the
pH. As long alkalikotero is the solution (eg by adding strong base), the
easier aspect of acid and ionic forms prevail. Below shows the actual
forms of EDTA and ionic particles, and the distribution of individual
particulate forms of EDTA on the pH of the aqueous solution.
Particulate forms of EDTA.

Distribution of particles of EDTA on the pH of the aqueous solution from

the diagram of distribution appears only in strongly acidic (pH <0) or
alkaline (pH> 12) environment is essentially a single form of EDTA (I4Y
and Y4, respectively ). At intermediate pH values prevailing 2 or 3 types of
ionic balance. Under pH 3 έως 6 prevails I2Y2-form and in the region from
7 to 10 prevalent form HY3-. More charts allocation polyprotikon acids and
in how the charts are like a simple applet (applet) that facilitates the
design, can be found in [Ref 5].
Formation of metal ion complexes with EDTA: The EDTA forms stable
complexes with almost all the metal cations. The stability of these
complexes due to the multiple binding sites of the molecule of EDTA
(solitary pairs of electrons and oxygen to nitrogen atoms), which is a
typical multiplex (or polydontikos) ligand (multidentate ligand). The EDTA
molecule surrounds as 'cage' the metal ion. The complexes of metals with
a multiple ligands, typically called chelates (chelates) from the Greek word
chela (claw). The EDTA is a chelating ligand exaschidis (hexadental
chelant or chelator)
allocating 2 binding sites by aminoomades and 4 binding sites of the
carboxyl.

Moreover M with EDTA. Left: binding sites. The complexes are "chiral"
and some have split the enantiomer forms. Middle: Typical molecular
model chelation (chelate), metal chelate complex metaTA-ED. Right: The
name derives from the Greek word chela (claw, such as a lobster).
In complexes, the molar ratio EDTA: metal ion is always 1:1 regardless of
the load of the metal ion and the active form of EDTA is tetrafortismeno
ion-Y4. The electric charge of the resulting complex ion depends MY load
metal cation, eg
Ag + + Y4-AgY3-Ca2 + + Y4-CaY2-Al3 + + Y4-AlY-Th4 + + Y4-ThY0
A formation constant (formation constant) complexes (KMY) defines the
equilibrium constant of the overall complexation reaction:

Are less stable complexes with EDTA monofortismena cations (eg Ag +, Tl

+), while virtually no EDTA complexes with ions of alkali.
Restoring balance clutch can be regarded as instantaneous, but there are
some notable exceptions. Thus, the formation of EDTA complexes of
some trifortismena cations (Al3 +, Cr3 +), is slow and may require a few
minutes or hours at normal temperatures for the balance. This is because
a neutral to slightly acidic solutions of the cations are located in the form of
highly hydrated polymers ydroxysymplokon.
The next table shows indicative values of the formation of stable
complexes KMY cations with EDTA [REF 4a].
Complexometric determinations metal ions with EDTA. The ability of EDTA
to form stable complexes with cations of metals showed a very valuable
reagent in quantitative analysis and to identify specific metal ion-called
complexometric titrations (complexometric titrations).
Main advantage is the formation of EDTA, as above, clean 1:1 complexes.
Thus the titration curves appear 'sharp' in the equivalence point. Other
sequestering reagents, despite forming stable complexes with metal ions
are unsuitable for the titrations. This is due to sequential formation of
complexes with increasing molar ratio restorer: metal ion. For example, the
titration Cd2 + with CN-, would turn the complexes CdCN +, Cd (CN) 20,
Cd (CN) 3 -, Cd (CN) 42 - resulting in the gradual engagement of ions Cd2
+ and the absence of a clear 'equivalent point "in volume.
Minimum pH titration to achieve satisfactory cations with EDTA.

Effect of pH titration in 50,0 mL solution of Ca2 + 0,0100 M with sodium

EDTA 0,0100 M
A further important advantage of EDTA is the marketing of highly pure salt
Na2H2EDTA • 2H2O (some of the brands of salt analytical quality is
Titriplex III and Complexone III). This "disodium" salt of EDTA can be dried
at 80 º C, so any excess water (moisture) is removed and not removed by
water molecules efydatosis 2. The Na2H2EDTA • 2H2O can be used as a
primary standard (purity 99,8-100,2%) for the direct production of standard
solution.
The possibility of determining a volumetric metal ion with EDTA depends
on the stability of the formed complex. The active form of EDTA, the
tetrafortismeno Y4-ion, the high prices prevailing pH, so the alkalikotero
titratable solution is both "clear" will be the endpoint. However, increasing
the pH of titratable solution may cause precipitation of metal ion such as
poorly soluble hydroxide. For this reason, the titration is performed at a pH
consistent with previous claims.
The pH of solutions adjusted to a titratable regulatory systems interlocked
light metal ions and cause precipitation of insoluble compounds of metals.
Suitable buffer example the system NH3-NH4Cl, but systems of phosphate
or carbonate salts would lead to precipitation of insoluble phosphates and
carbonates of metal ions measured.
In the next graph shows the effect of pH on titration with EDTA. Left shows
the minimum effective pH titration of various metal ions. The pH is low for
metal ions forming stable complexes (eg Fe3 +, Hg2 +, Pb2 +) and high
enough for ions forming less stable complexes (eg Ca2 +, Mg2 +). Right
shows the titration curve of calcium ions at different pH. It is obvious that
pH 6 the endpoint is not clear, and the titration can be run from pH 8 and
above.
EDTA is "general" sequestering reagent, but in many cases can be used
for the volumetric determination of many metal ions in the same solution.
Achieving selectivity based on the influence of the pH in the titration and
also the presence of other competing complexing media. For example,
during the titration mixture of Zn2 + and Mg2 + at pH 7 Titrate only ions
Zn2 +. If the same mixture added to an excess of CN-and pH adjusted in
the range of 12 may only ogkometrithoun ions Mg2 +. This is because
cyanide ions act as covering medium (masking agent) ions Zn2 +, since
only they form stable complexes with cyanide. Similarly, Mg2 + ions can be
selectively ogkometrithoun ions Al3 +, if added to an excess of ions F-,
which bind only ions with Al3 + fthoriosymploka stable.

Chemical 'cover' and 'revelation'

A cover (masking) is defined as a process by which a substance without
physical separation of that product or reaction, is converted to another that
does not address a specific reaction. As a revelation (demasking) is
defined as a process by which a substance has been coverage
epanapokta the opportunity to participate in a given reaction. A typical
example is the use of cyanide as a means of covering (masking agent) of
zinc ions (and many other metals) during the titration with EDTA:
Coverage of zinc ions: Zn2 + + 4 CN-[Zn (CN) 4] 2 -
The zinc ions may be disclosed if subsequently added excess
formaldehyde, which acts as a guide instrument (demasking agent)
according to the reaction:
Disclosure of zinc ions: [Zn (CN) 4] 2 - + 4 HCHO + 4H + Zn2 + + 4
HOCH2CN

Indicators
The metallochromikoi indicators (metallochromic indicators) are organic
dyes which form chelates with metallic ions. With metallochromikous
markers easily detected the equivalent point in complexometric titration
with EDTA. The chelates formed a color different from that of free
indicator. H stable chelates metal ion indicator should be much smaller
than the stability of chelates of metal ions-EDTA, but enough to quantify
the symplechthei titratable metal ions before starting the titration.
A small amount added to the index metallochromikou titration in solution of
metal ion, so the solution becomes the color of the metal ion complexed
marker and then begin adding the standard solution of EDTA. The first
EDTA extract the excess metal ions from the complex with the indicator
solution and acquires the color of free metallochromikou indicator,
signaling the end of the titration.
In complexometric titrations the endpoint is usually detected visually with
the so-called indicator or potentiometrically metallochromikous, indicating
the potential indicative electrode (eg selective electrode or electrode type
1st) In response to the activity of titratable descendant. EDTA standard
solutions should be stored in plastic bottles, glass bottles because in their
title is a slow but continuous reduction for posting ions (mainly) of calcium
from the glass. More on complexometric titration with EDTA can be found
in the literature [Ref 4].
Eriochrome black T (EBT)
Left: color of solution-metal ion complex EBT. Right: color solution free
EBT. The discovery of metallochromikon indicators was the result of
observation of color change of solution EBT, when mixed with tap water to
sink.
Melanie Eriochroma T (Eriochrome Black T, EBT) is a typical example
metallochromikou index. Free EBT solution is blue and its complexes with
metal ions have a oinerythro color. Thus the typical sequence of reactions
in volume metal ions (eg zinc) in the presence of EDTA EBT is as follows
[Ref 6]
Response rate: Zn2 + (colorless) + EBT (blue) [Zn2 + - EBT] (oinerythro)
Main titration: Zn2 + (colorless) + EDTA (colorless) [Zn2 + - EDTA]
(colorless)
Endpoint: [Zn2 + - EBT] (oinerythro) + EDTA (colorless) [Zn2 + - EDTA]
(colorless) + EBT (blue)
They have seen at least 200 different organic compounds as indicators
metallochromikoi titration with EDTA and similar compounds. A pioneer in
research on the analytical applications of EDTA was the Swiss chemist
Gerold Karl Schwarzenbach, Professor of Inorganic and Analytical
Chemistry at the University of Zurich (ETH) [Schwarzenbach G,
Biedermann W, Helv. Chim. Acta, 31:687, 1948].
Other polyaminokarvoxylika acids in chemical analysis. Commercially
available a series polyaminokarvoxylikon acid active groups such as those
of EDTA. Below are the main types polyaminokarvoxylikon acids have
been examined as chelating ligands for various metal ions complexometric
titrations.

The NTA is tetraschidis ligand, the HEDTA is pentaschidis, the EDTA and
DCTA exaschideis the DTPA and EGTA is oktaschideis surrogates (the
etheric oxygen in EGTA can also act as binding sites) and TTIA can act as
a ligand dekaschidis. All the above polyaminokarvoxylika acids form
complexes with molar ratio ligand: metal ion of 1:1, except for the NTA,
which forms complexes with molar ratio ligand: metal ion 2:1.
Each of the above acids polyaminokarvoxylika exhibits particular
characteristics, eg to EGTA, in contrast to EDTA, forming very stable
complexes with calcium (logKCa-EGTA = 11,0) than with magnesium
(logKMg-EGTA = 5,2), when used for selective ion titration of Ca2 + ions
Mg2 + eg blood serum [Ref 4d].
The annual production of EDTA is about 100,000 metric tons, of which
35,000 tons are produced in Europe. Offered to trade with different trade
names (Celon A, Gluma cleanser, Nervanaid B acid, Trilon BS, Versene,
Vinkei 1000, YD-30, Dissolvine Z). In the next chart shows the main uses
of polyaminokarvoxylikon acids [Ref 7]. In almost all cases, the EDTA used
for bonding metal ions in one way or another would create a problem. An
overview of the applications of EDTA given in [Ref 8].
Paper: The largest amounts of EDTA used in the pulp and paper industry.
The EDTA (with the DTPA) bind small amounts of metal ions, which if left
in the pulp bleaching process hamper with H2O2, leading to its catalytic
decomposition. Note that the discoloration of the pulp H2O2 replaces the
older method of discoloration with chlorine, where the metal ions were not
a problem [Ref 9].
Detergents: Large amounts of EDTA used in the manufacture of industrial
detergents, home and hospital use, as in cleaning cars. The role of EDTA
is multiple: bind ions Ca2 + and Mg2 + from 'hard' natural waters, which
are reacting with the anionic detergents will neutralize the cleansing of the
action, further stabilizes the Perborate (bleaching agents) bind metallic
minerals that undoing the cleavage. Also prevents the formation of
calcareous deposits (scales), capable of destroying mechanical devices
(machines) or apefrasan pipes and disable heat in industrial facilities.

EDDS

8. European Commission: “Edetic Acid: Summary Risk Assessment

Report”, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, European
Chemicals Bureau, I-21020 Ispra (VA) Italy (αρχείο PDF, 695 KB).

9. (α) “US Patent 6123809 - Method for bleaching paper pulp”. (β)
PaperOnWeb.com: “Chemicals used in pulp & paper maunfacturing and
coating”. (γ) Audette H: “Chelants help to meet challenges of alkaline
bleaching conversion”, Pulp & Paper, 1994.

10. (α) “Detergent Ingredients Glossary”. (β) Eco-forum: “Complexing

Agents”.

11. (α) Gardner LK, Lawrence GD: “Benzene production from

decarboxylation of benzoic acid in the presence of ascorbic acid and a
transition-metal catalyst”, J Agric. Food Chem., 41(5): 693-695, 1993
(Abstract). (β) “Production of benzene from ascorbic acid and sodium
benzoate”, A White Paper Produced by AIB International (αρχείο PDF, 112
KB). (γ) US Food and Drug Administration: “Questions and answers on the
occurrence of benzene in soft drinks and other beverages”.

12. FAO, Fertilizer and Plant Nutrition Bulletin 16: “Plant nutrition for food
security” (αρχείο PDF, 2,73 MB).

13. (α) Martell AE, Motekaitis RJ, Chen D, Hancock RD, Derek McManus
D: “Selection of new Fe(lll)/Fe(ll) chelating agents as catalysts for the
oxidation of hydrogen sulfide to sulfur by air”, Can. J. Chem. 74:1872-1879
1996 (αρχείο PDF, 380 KB).(β) Kumaraswamy R, van Dongen U, Kuenen
JG, Abma W, van Loosdrecht MC, Muyzer G: “Characterization of
microbial communities removing nitrogen oxides from flue gas: the
BioDeNOx process”, Appl Environ Microbiol. 71(10):6345-6352, 2005. (γ)
Cheng F (University of Idaho): “The many wanders of FeEDTA: Room
temperature incineration of pollutants, an a model for biological oxidations”
(παρουσίαση PowerPoint, 5,79 ΜΒ).

14. US Patent 5490865: “Method of treating and dyeing animal fibers”.

15. (α) Wikipedia: “Chelation Therapy”. (β) Blanusa M, Varnai VM, Piasek
M, Kostial K: “Chelators as antidotes of metal toxicity: therapeutic and
experimental aspects”, Curr Med Chem. 12(23):2771-2794, 2005
(Abstract). (γ) Americal Heart Association: “Questions and answers about
chelation therapy”.

16. (α) Hornum M, Christopher BM, Iversen M, Hovind P, Hilsted L, Feldt-

Rasmussen B: “Decline in 51-Cr-labelled EDTA measured glomerular
filtration rate following lung transplantation”, Nephrology Dialysis
Transplantation”, 22(12):3616-3622, 2007. (β) www.nephros.gr: «Βασικές
αρχές της σπειραματικής διήθησης».

17. (α) Wikipedia: «Anticoagulant». (β) Global Oneness: “EDTA - Use as

an anticoagulant”. (γ) Lam NYL, Rainer TH, Chiu RWK, Dennis Lo YM:
“EDTA is a better anticoagulant than heparin or citrate for delayed blood
processing for plasma DNA analysis”, Clinical Chemistry 50:256-257,
2004.

18. (α) Wikipedia: “O. J. Simpson murder case”. (β) CourtTVnews: “O.J.
Simpson: Week-by-week: Week 27, July 24-28, 1995”. (γ) Thompson WC
(Department of Criminology, Law & Society, University of California, Irvine,
California): “Proving the case: DNA evidence in the O.J. Simpson trial”. (δ)
“Determining EDTA in blood” (Referenced from: Sheppard RL, Henion J:
“Determining EDTA in blood”, Analytical Chemistry 69:477A-480A, 1997).

19. (α) FAO Nutrition Meetings: “Toxicological evaluation of some

antimicrobials, antioxidants, emulsifiers, stabilizer, flour-treatment agents,
acids and bases: Calcium disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate” (Report
Series No. 40A,B,C, WHO/Food Add./67.29). (β) FAO Nutrition Meetings:
“Toxicological evaluation of some antimicrobials, antioxidants, emulsifiers,
stabilizer, flour-treatment agents, acids and bases: Disodium
ethylenediaminetetraacetate” (Report Series No. 40A,B,C, WHO/Food
Add./67.29). (γ) Shackleford B (EPA): “Memorandum: Tolerance
reassessment decisions completed by the lower toxicity pesticide chemical
focus group” (Jan. 28, 2004) (αρχείο PDF, 163 KB).

20. (α) Lanigan RS, Yamarik TA: “Final report on the safety assessment of
EDTA, calcium disodium EDTA, diammonium EDTA, dipotassium EDTA,
disodium EDTA, TEA-EDTA, tetrasodium EDTA, tripotassium EDTA,
trisodium EDTA, HEDTA, and trisodium HEDTA”, International J of
Toxicology 21(Suppl. 2):95-142, 2002 (Abstract). (β) Whittaker P,
Vanderveen JE, Dinovi MJ, Kuznesof PM, Dunkel VC: “Toxicological
profile, current use, and regulatory issues on EDTA compounds for
assessing use of sodium iron EDTA for food fortification”, Regul Toxicol.
Pharmacol. 18:419-427, 1993 (MedLine). (γ) Molecular station: «EDTA».

21. (α) Sillanpää M: “Environmental fate of EDTA and DTPA”, Rev.

Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 152:85-111, 1997 (PubMed). (β) Bucheli-
Witschel M, Egli T: “Environmental fate and microbial degradation of
aminopolycarboxylic acids”, FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 25:69-106, 2001
(PubMed). (γ) Schmidt CK, Fleig M, Sacher F, Brauch HJ: “Occurrence of
aminopolycarboxylates in the aquatic environment of Germany”, Environ.
Pollut. 131:107-124, 2004 (PubMed). (δ) Zou Z, Qiu R, Zhang W, Dong H,
Zhao Z, Zhang T, Wei X, Xinde Cai X: “The study of operating variables in
soil washing with EDTA”, Environmental Pollution 157(1):229-236, 2009
(Abstract).

22. (α) Nishikawa Υ, Okumura Τ: “Determination of nitrilotriacetic acid and

ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid in environmental samples as their methyl
ester derivatives by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry”, Journal of
Chromatography A, 690(1):109-118, 1995 (Abstract). (β) Sheppard RL,
Henion J: “Determining EDTA in blood”, Analytical Chemistry 69:477A-
480A, 1997.

23. (α) de Hoffmann E, Stroobant V: “Mass Spectrometry: Principles and

Applications”, Wiley-Interscience, 2007 (GoogleBooks). (β) Θωμαΐδης Ν:
«3ο μάθημα: Φασματομετρία μαζών - Β’ μέρος» (Σημειώσεις Μαθήματος:
«Σύγχρονες Αναλυτικές Τεχνικές») (αρχείο PDF, 761 KB).

Ενδιαφέρουσες ιστοσελίδες για το EDTA στα Ελληνικά

• Αντωνάκου Τ (17ο Λύκειο Θεσ/νίκης): «Η Χημεία στη δαγκάνα ενός
κάβουρα».
• Κλούρας N (Τμ. Χημείας, Πανεπιστήμιο Πατρών): «Σκληρότητα νερού»
(αρχείο PDF, 503 KB).
The compound hexavalent CHROME
Show: The chromates are crystalline solid with yellow (eg K2CrO4) to
deep red color (eg Ag2CrO4). The dichromates salts are typically orange.
Different color can be in color and stripes of colored salt cations.
Solubility: The metal chromates are insoluble in water except for the
chromates of the alkali metals, ammonium, as well as magnesium and
calcium.
Stability: At high temperatures decompose to release oxygen to metal
oxides and Cr2O3.
Risk: The compounds of Cr (VI) defined as: High toxic (Highly toxic),
cancer (Carc. Cat. 1), mutagenicity (Muta. Cat. 2), harmful to reproduction
(Repr. Cat. 2), oxidizing and dangerous for the environment.

Εξασθενές χρώμιο, Cr(VI), (ενώσεις του)

Hexavalent chromium compounds

Γενικά για το εξασθενές χρώμιο και τη χημεία του

‘Ισως δεν υπάρχει χημικό στοιχείο στο οποίο ταιριάζει τόσο επάξια αυτό το
όνομα. Τα χρώματα των ενώσεων του χρωμίου και των διαλυμάτων τους
ουσιαστικά καλύπτουν όλο το ορατό φάσμα: από το ιώδες (άλατα του
Cr(ΙIΙ)) έως το βαθύ κόκκινο (ορισμένες ενώσεις του Cr(VI)). Είναι γνωστές
ενώσεις του χρωμίου με αριθμούς οξείδωσης από -1 έως +6, ωστόσο οι
πιο συνήθεις είναι οι ενώσεις του δισθενούς χρωμίου Cr(II) (ισχυρό
αναγωγικό, ασταθές παρουσία οξυγόνου), του τρισθενούς χρωμίου
Cr(III) (οι πλέον σταθερές ενώσεις του χρωμίου) και του εξασθενούς
χρωμίου Cr(VI) (χρωμικά και διχρωμικά άλατα: σταθερές ενώσεις αλλά
και σχετικώς ισχυρά οξειδωτικά). Το χρώμιο βρίσκεται στη φύση κυρίως
ως τρισθενές, με κυριότερο ορυκτό τον χρωμίτη Fe(Mg)Cr2O4, που
αποτελεί το βασικό μετάλλευμα χρωμίου. Υπάρχουν και ορισμένα σπάνια
ορυκτά όπου το χρώμιο είναι εξασθενές από τα οποία το γνωστότερο είναι
ο κροκοΐτης, με χημικό τύπο PbCrO4 (χρωμικός μόλυβδος). Μεταλλικό
χρώμιο
Sample chromite, Fe (Mg) Cr2O4 (mineral trivalent chromium)

Sample krokoiti, PbCrO4 (hexavalent chromium ore)

The salts of strong chromic acid I2CrO4 (pK1 = 1,0, pK2 = 6,5), produced
easily by oxidation of Cr (III) with mild oxidants in an alkaline environment.
Thus eg in alkaline solutions of the Cr (III) gives a solution
ydroxysymploka, which are then oxidized to chromate salts with hydrogen
peroxide (reactions 1 and 2),. Industrial chromates produced by fusion of
chromite Na2O2 (sodium peroxide).
The yellow chromate ions by acidification reversibly converted to
orange dichromate (reaction 3). The color balance - dichromate is one of
the most typical reactions of Cr (VI).
The Cr (VI), as dichromate ion, are relatively strong oxidizing agent in
acidic solutions and provide redox reactions with inorganic reducing
substances such as Fe (II), SO2, as with organic compounds (eg oxidation
of ethanol to acetaldehyde) in which the Cr (VI) relates to Cr (III).
Impressive is the dismutation reaction of ammonium dichromate (reaction
4), often used in chemical experiments and demonstrations, known as
chemical volcano (chemical volcano) (see video).
Quite typical is the reaction of dichromate with hydrogen peroxide in
acidic solution. In this reaction produced an intense blue superoxide
chromium compounds likely to form CrO (O2) 2 (reaction 5). The CrO (O2)
2 decomposes rapidly in aqueous solutions (reaction 6) but can be
extracted with organic solvents which hydrogen is stable. The reaction
formation of CrO (O2) 2 is used for the qualitative detection of both
dichromate, and hydrogen peroxide at very dilute aqueous solutions.
To another compound of Cr (VI) is chromium trioxide (chromic acid
anhydride, CrO3), which dissolves readily in water giving chromic acid.
The CrO3 is extremely powerful oxidising and require special attention
when using it in contact with organic materials causing ignition.
Interesting compound of Cr (VI) chloride is chromylio (CrO2Cl2) because
of the volatility. It is an intensely red liquid with a boiling point of 117oC,
density 1,91 g / mL and in appearance resembles the liquid bromine. It
reacts violently with water providing chromic acid and gas HCl. Prepare a
direct impact of concentrated sulfuric acid in a solid mixture of NaCl and
K2Cr2O7 (reaction 7). This reaction has been used for the detection of
chlorides in solid state (produced by red fumes), but requires special
attention because of the potential inhalation of vapors chromyliou chloride,
which involves the direct transfer of toxikotatou Cr (VI) lungs, which is the
most dangerous mode of entry to health Cr (VI) in the body.
Typical examples of compounds of hexavalent chromium

Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)

Potassium chromate (K2CrO4) chromium trioxide

chromic anhydride (CrO3)

Chromylio chloride (CrO2Cl2)

Sites with photos and video experiments on the record: (a) MPEG Video
(pretty big file: 8,06 MB) with typical reactions [reaction 1, then the
reactions 2, 3, 5, and then extracting the CrO ( O2) 2 with amyl alcohol
(C5H11OH)-the Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry-]. (B) A nice site with
photos and videos dichromate reactions (formation CrO2Cl2 and an
impressive response by the pressure of the acidic solution of H2O2). (C)
Video with "volcano chemical (thermal decomposition of (NH4) 2Cr2O7,
reaction 4).

Use of metallic chromium

H larger amount of chromium used in stainless steel production. With
added chromium in 13% (minimum), which can be increased to 30%,
chromiochalyves show greater resistance than the common steel corrosion
and oxidation in natural and urban environment. Chromium forms an inert
coating of Cr2O3, impervious to water and air, but also extremely sensitive
to the alloy does not lose its luster [REF 1].

Bath chromium plating (chrome plating bath) [from Ref 18] and a collection
of various mechanical parts with a protective coating of zinc chromate
Industrial uses of hexavalent chromium
The Cr (VI) has many industrial uses [REF 2]. The metal product
manufacturers use many compounds of Cr (VI) in coatings to protect metal
surfaces from corrosion (anti-corrosion and conversion coatings) [REF 3-
5]. In this process, part of the metal surface is converted to chemical or
electrochemical means an inert coating.
Standard is the process for surfaces Cronak zinc or cadmium in which the
object immersed for 5-10 s in a solution of 182 g Na2Cr2O7 2H2O / L and
6 mL of concentrated H2SO4 / L [Ref 3]. Many colors and stripes salts
used as corrosion inhibitors (corrosion inhibitors) [REF 6.7], but their high
toxicity has led the industry in the gradual replacement [Ref 8]. The
process of coating with chromate (chromate conversion coating, CCC)
applied to the passivation (passivation) metal surfaces, aluminum, zinc,
cadmium, copper, silver, magnesium, tin and their alloys. The main
chromates used in this process is the color of calcium, strontium chromate
and zinc chromate. For the same process used and chromium trioxide
[REF 9]. The colors are often used as pigments in the photo. Lead
chromate (PbCrO4), known as chrome yellow (Chrome Yellow) is an
excellent yellow dye used to color vinyl, rubber (rubber) and paper, but
because of high toxicity its use is discouraged now. Also compounds Cr
(VI) used in textile and leather dyes, paints and inks. Extensive use of salts
of Cr (VI) (mainly chromium hydroxide and ammonia) is the leather for the
manufacture of leather (tanning, leather tanning). The tanning with
chromium is faster than tanning with vegetable tannins and skins produced
in this way have greater resistance to the trend and are ideal for leather
bags and clothes. Compounds of Cr (VI) used as wood preservatives. In
1996, 52% of the production of Cr compounds in the U.S. were used in the
manufacture of a wood preservative of copper chrome arsenate
(chromated copper arsenate, CCA). The CCA is a mixture of chromate,
copper oxide and arsenic oxide (As2O5) [REF 9]. The colors essentially
act as chemical fastening means (chemical fixing) of copper and arsenic,
which act as fungicides / bactericides and insecticides, respectively [Ref
10]. All these compounds are hexavalent chromium toxikotates. The
European Union in recognition of the detrimental effect of Cr (VI), adopted
in February 2003 the Directive 2002/95/EC, which sets restrictions on the
industrial use of the following 6 highly hazardous chemicals: Pb, Cd, Hg,
Cr (VI) , polybrominated biphenyls (polybrominated biphenyls, PBBs),
polybrominated diphenyl ethers (polybrominated diphenyl ether, PBDEs).
The directive is referred to as Restriction of Hazardous Substances
Directive (Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive, RoHS). The only
exception in the Annex to the Directive on the use of Cr (VI) as the carbon
steel corrosion in cooling systems that work by absorbing heat (industrial
refrigeration compressors operating with heat and not electricity) [REF 11].
The RoHS directive applies to the Member States by July 2006. Thus the
industry has focused on alternative coatings such as those with Cr (III), Zn,
Ni, etc., which although not as effective, less harmful to the environment.
Hexavalent chromium in the environment
A Levels: Chromium is widely distributed in nature with a natural
abundance in the Earth's crust 100 ppm. The normal level of non-
contaminated surface waters in the region ranging 1 to 10 mg / L, and
drinking water concentrations were found in 0.4 to 8 mg / L. In air at
concentrations <0.1 mg/m3. The content of most minerals chromium
ranging from 5 to 1800 mg / kg. Most soils found in low concentrations (2-
60 mg / kg). Only a very small percentage is available to plants (up to 0,19
mg / kg) and is not sufficiently clear whether the chromium is to them an
essential trace element [Ref 2]. Almost all the chromium found in nature as
trivalent chromium, Cr (III). Hexavalent chromium, Cr (VI), which is found
in the environment are almost exclusively anthropogenic (from human
activities). Various industries emit into the air, water and soil, many
compounds Cr (VI). The Cr (VI) is stable in air and clean water, but quickly
goes back to Cr (III), when they come into contact with organic matter in
water, soil and living organisms [Ref 2, 12]. In the case of disposal of
untreated industrial waste containing Cr (VI) in water bodies, the levels of
the waters of the recipient and groundwater may reach several tens of
mg / L, as recently announced in daily newspapers (Daily 4/9/07 , Reuters
17/9/07) for the waters of the region Asopos. She arrived, however, and
580 mg / L, which were measured in groundwater monitoring point of the
town of Hinkley USA (Case Erin Brockovich, who moved to the cinema in
2000 [Ref 13]).

Case Erin Brockovitch [From REF 19]

In December 1987, the company Pacific Gas Company (PG & E), the
world's largest providers of electricity and natural gas, he informed the
authorities in California that detected hexavalent chromium at levels of 580
mg / L [the maximum permissible limit for total chromium that the state is
50 mg / L] at a checkpoint groundwater. The Cr (VI) was used as a
corrosion in cooling towers of power compression of gas in the desert city
Hinkley Mojave. The residents of Hinkley had a series of health problems:
liver, heart, respiratory, reproductive, gynecological cancers, cancers of
the brain, kidneys, the gastrointestinal system disease Hodgkins,
miscarriages etc. The PG & E argued that these problems were not related
to the water station. However, by 1972, PG & E had knowingly discard 370
million gallons of wastewater containing Cr (VI) in non-sealed containers
so that the toxic Cr (VI) to pollute groundwater in Hinkley. To 1993 the
residents of Hinkley filed a lawsuit against PG & E. The lawsuit was the
result of a massive communication effort Erin Brockovich, an employee of
an area law firm. The Brockovich revealed the illegitimacy of PG & E and
began a personal investigation which resulted in costly legal settlement of
civil case. The PG & E paid the 648 complainants the sum of 333 million
U.S. dollars. Moreover, PG & E agreed to discontinue the use of Cr (VI)
and carry out decontamination work. The case divided the experts on the
toxicity of chromium, mainly because of exposure to Cr (VI) was via
drinking water. Many argued that this method of exposure is less
dangerous than inhaling because the stomach Cr (VI) is reduced to inert
Cr (III). Even claimed that the reports were very small and that the
evidence linking the illnesses of the residents of Hinkley was insufficient.
However, others argued that there are many gaps in the issue of toxicity of
chromium and that the toxic form of chromium can penetrate every cell
type and thus cause damage to many different institutions. "Until know
how different doses and routes of exposure to Cr (VI) influence in different
populations, it is too early to be considered harmless reports via drinking
water
B. statutory limits: The drinking water has been established by Directive
98/83/EC as a maximum permissible limit of total chromium of 50 mg / L
[Ref 14]. However, there is no upper legal limit specifically for hexavalent
chromium. In the U.S., the EPA has set maximum permissible limit of total
chromium in drinking and ground water is 100 mg / L, assuming this level
is safe for human health [REF 15].
In Greece, the Ministerial Decision 4859/726 regulate emissions of total
chromium from industrial waste into water bodies at concentrations
ranging (depending on the recipient) between 0.6 3 mg / L [Ref 16]. The
emissions of the industries in Greece (physical and hexavalent chromium)
can be determined from the Prefectures, where and range for Cr (VI) 0.3 to
1 mg / L to waste. 'Limit the soil has not been established yet.
Exposure to Cr (VI) from the air in the workplace is more important and
dangerous. The OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration)
and NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) in the
U.S. have established permissible exposure limits (Permissible Exposure
Limits, PELs) and recommended exposure limits (Recommended
Exposure Limits, RELs) for the workplace . The new PEL for Cr (VI) in
workplace air performing a welding metal (welding) during the 8-hour (for
weeks 40orou) is 5 mg/m3, while there are dozens of settings where [REF
17]. The PEL for various carcinogenic compounds of Cr (VI) in workplace
air is even lower: only 1 mg/m3 [REF 18, 19
Chromium in soil is a parking lot of an industrial park in New Jersey has
been dissolved in these stagnant waters. Because chromium can dissolve
and diffuse through the soil, increased concentrations (due to evaporation
of water) can occur far from home
. Effects and 'destiny' of Cr (VI) in the environment: The Cr (VI) is mobile
(labile) in the aquatic environment remains soluble phase and is
bioavailable. It is also highly toxic and prices toxicities LC50 (LC50: Lethal
Concentration 50, the concentration that kills 50% of the population of
affected species) of Cr (VI) in various organisms ranging from 0,032 - 6,4
mg / L [Ref 12]. Unlike the Cr (III) is considered "non-agile", and tend to
adsorb to suspended particles and sediment, and therefore considered as
a relatively inert, less bioavailable and low toxicity to aquatic organisms.
It is obvious that the determination of total chromium in environmental
samples is very little information can be given, and must identify the
chemical forms of chromium (speciation analysis) [REF 20]. Of particular
importance is the determination of hexavalent chromium in industrial and
urban waste water, because often detected high concentrations [Ref 20b].
These high concentrations can affect biological treatment (particularly
nitrification), especially today where there is a tendency for urban and
industrial waste in an activated sludge (activated sludge) [REF 21].
However, it proved that the activated sludge method is most suitable for
the treatment of wastewater polluted with Cr (VI), as this relates to Cr (III),
which is almost quantitatively adsorbed on viokrokides and accumulates in
the sludge. Thus the toxic Cr (VI) removed from the dissolved phase and
protect the final receiving water [Ref 21b-c].
Human health
A. Work environment-high-reports lungs, inhalation, ingestion: Chromium
enters the human body through respiration and consumption of food and
beverage containing it. Trivalent chromium, Cr (III), is considered essential
trace element for the organization, as it seems to be involved in glucose
tolerance factor (Glucose Tolerance Factor, GTF). O GTF factor along with
insulin regulate the amount of glucose in the blood. Lack of chromium, as
observed in animal models causes an increase in blood glucose and urine
glucose appearance [REF 2]. Appropriate intake of 30 to 50 g Cr (III) per
day amounts to 200 mg have been reported to cause health problems [Ref
22]. In contrast, hexavalent chromium is classified as a proven carcinogen
[Ref 23].
Epidemiological studies of workers in manufacturing dyes, pigments and
metal coatings Chrome showed that inhalation of dust containing Cr (VI)
causes lung cancer and nasal cavity (sinonasal cavity). The results of
epidemiological studies have confirmed in laboratory experiments
(animals). There is much experimental evidence that compounds Cr (VI)
destroy the DNA and cause mutations.
Also, inhalation of particles containing relatively high concentrations of Cr
(VI) can cause ulcers, bleeding, itching and sneezing. Ingestion of large
amounts of Cr (VI) can cause destruction of the kidneys and liver, stomach
ulcers and gastrointestinal irritation and even death.
Furthermore, dermal exposure to compounds of Cr (VI) causes skin ulcers
and severe allergic reactions, particularly clothing and footwear of leather
has tooler with Cr (VI) [REF 19, 24].
B. Chromium in drinking water: Studies in animals have shown that
drinking water overburdened with Cr (VI) can cause cancer of the
gastrointestinal tract.

The yellow cake is dissolved in nitric acid, so all the U3O8 is converted
into UO2 (NO3) 2 which is then further purified by an extraction with
tributyl phosphate, as described above. In pure solution of UO2 (NO3) 2
added excess ammonia and ammonium salts, so that precipitated
crystalline precipitate diouranikou ammonium (NH4) 2U2O7. The salt is
heated in hydrogen stream so degraded and converted to oxide UO2. The
UO2 with HF is converted to UF4, which eventually produced
electrolytically oxidized to elemental fluorine in UF6. The UF6 enrichment
plant sent in rolls of about 12 tons. There, the drums are placed in an
autoclave which is heated and vaporizes the contents of UF6 injected into
the system and isotope separation. A fuller description of the manufacture,
properties and methods for handling and storage of UF6 with very good
photographs can be found on the websites of Argonne National Laboratory
(Illinois, USA) [Ref 9].
Yellow cake (65-85% U3O8)

Crystals of uranium hexafluoride in a glass ampoule

Schematic UF6 production and nuclear

Nuclear fuels

Typical form of nuclear fuel rods.

The enriched UF6 is a volatile substance and therefore can not be used as
nuclear fuel. For that reason converted into UO2. This brown oxide is an
extremely stable and dystikto (s.t. ~ 2800 º C) ceramic material and is
therefore suitable for making the "heat source" in the nuclear reaction,
without any changes. The conversion of enriched UF6 to UO2 enriched
based on the reaction at high temperature with steam in presence of
hydrogen, according to the sequence of reactions:

The UO2 pressed into kylindriskous (pellets) which epistoivazontai dystikto

tubes from zirconium alloys (Zircaloy, ~ 98% Zr) to form the "fuel rods»
(fuel rods). Zirconium is a metal dystikto (s.t. 1852 º C), highly resistant to
corrosion and also "transparent" to neutrons, all prerequisites for a given
application. Bundles (bundles) of these bars are the final 'commercial'
forms of nuclear fuel uranium. The books were introduced in nuclear
reactors, to accept the flow of neutrons and to follow self-sustaining
nuclear reaction that converts heat sources.
Physical and chemical properties of uranium hexafluoride
For the reasons stated above in the form of UF6 must acquire the natural
uranium to be able to follow the process of enrichment in the isotope U-
235. The diagram phases of UF6 (left) appears at atmospheric pressure
below 57 º C the UF6 is a solid, while at higher temperatures is
evaporation, which is converted to gas without the intervening liquid phase
[Ref 10]. A typical physical properties of UF6 is a great reduction in density
when solid (d = 5,09 g/cm3 at 27 º C) is converted into liquid (d = 3,26
g/cm3 at 120 º C). This implies a large increase (> 50%) of the volume of
UF6 in the melt, which should be taken to avoid rupture of the cylinders
which kept on increasing the temperature of their contents [Ref 11]. The
UF6 is active oxidizing agents and strong acid Lewis. Require special
precautions for use and must avoid all contact with skin, and inhalation of
vapors. The main reason for the hazardous chemical in the toxicity of
uranium and that it reacts with water to form a corrosive and toxic
hydrogen fluoride according to the reaction:

To UF6 dissolved in organic solvents, but it seems that only solutions in

perfluorinated hydrocarbons are stable. It reacts with metals Ni and Al due
to the formation of protective layer of insoluble salts of fluorinated metal
and can be stored for long periods in well-sealed stainless steel cylinder.
Hazards of uranium hexafluoride
Depleted uranium hexafluoride (depleted UF6, DUF6) is the main
byproduct of the production of enriched uranium. To produce 1 kg of
enriched uranium suitable as nuclear fuel (5% U-235) required 11,8 kg of
natural uranium and still 10,8 kg of depleted uranium, about 92% of
"natural» UF6, entering a plant enriched uranium, leaving as a byproduct.
The DUF6 store specially sealed cylinder capacity of 12 tons, which must
be constructed and maintained under the strictest standards (ANSI N14.1-
2001). For example, one of the structural requirements that must be kept
intact when heated to their content at 800 º C for 30 s [REF 12].
The accumulation of thousands of rolls (from the 1940s until today) DUF6
an economic and environmental problems. The cost of care and
maintenance of cylinders is large. In a report by the U.S. Environmental
Agency in 2001 indicated that the factories producing enriched uranium,
the U.S. (cities Portsmouth, Paducah, and Oak Ridge), 700,000 tons were
stored in 57,700 cylinders DUF6 [REF 1 3].

The DUF6. depleted uranium hexafluoride (DUF6) is stored in steel

cylinders with a diameter of 1,2 m and a capacity of about 12 tons (a) A
vehicle transporting cylinders. (B) outdoor area with a surface coated with
cement, which saved thousands of rolls with DUF6. (C) oxidized cylinder
which has been leaking the reaction of UF6 with water makes it extremely
dangerous compounds because of the toxicity of manufactured products
(HF, UO2F2) and modern releases large amounts of heat. The fluoride is
irritating the lungs and can cause pulmonary edema, and compounds of
uranium are nephrotoxic. They have reported several accidents in factories
producing UF6 or uranium enrichment. In 1944, when a heating roller UF6
with steam, broke a roller tubes leading to the release of 200 kg UF6,
which reacted with water vapor, thus producing a large quantity of HF that
killed two people. In 1978, a UF6 cylinder broke into a store nuclear fuel
without victims. In another incident in 1986, a man died from inhaling gas
HF from a cylinder burst, other 31 persons exposed to vapors showed no
lesions over time [Ref 14]. Leakage of UF6 cylinders will pollute the aquifer
and fluorinated compounds are toxic uranium. This requires continuous
monitoring of the status of storage cylinders UF6, which is a dangerous
and costly process [Ref 15]. 'Echoun proposed various forms of chemical
treatment, such as commitment of HF and F as CaF2 and (DU) in the form
of uranium oxide UO2. It should be noted that in addition to chemical
hazards in the storage cylinders DUF6 even outdoors, the rolls and a
radiological hazard as they are sources emitting neutrons and gamma low
level. The neutron emission occurs especially in fluorides of uranium and
is due to the side chain of nuclear reactions involving fluorine nuclei.

Projectile nose 30 mm depleted uranium.

Uses of depleted uranium hexafluoride

Missiles captive head depleted uranium.

The DUF6 an association has no utility, but it is the raw material
production of metallic depleted uranium (depleted uranium, DU) and its
compounds. Given the widespread production of enriched uranium for
nuclear fuel and nuclear weapons, it is estimated that current worldwide
reserves DU exceed the 1.2 million tons. The "political" use of DU is
limited, so for example due to the high specific gravity, as a metal used as
a "ballast" stabilization in aircraft and to cases in which the counter must
occupy a small volume. A Boeing 747 needs ballast 1500 kg DU. The
chemical compounds of uranium sold in their entirety from DU. Oxides of
uranium are used as highly Refractory ceramic materials, and color
glasses and porcelain. Uranyl nitrate UO2 (NO3) 2 was used previously by
the photographic technique and uranyl acetate UO2 (CH3COO) 2 is a
classic reagent for detection of sodium, as forming the mixed insoluble salt
NaZn (UO2) 3 (CH3COO) 9 • xH2O (x = 6-9). Instead, the military
applications of DU metal abound. Used construction Resistance armor
military vehicles, as well as bombs and missiles extremely high captive
capacity, replacing other more expensive metals with similar properties
such as tungsten [REF 16]. The DU combines advantages including: (a) Is
a high density (2.5 times more dense than iron) and hardness. When used
as a muzzle (nose) missiles and bombs greatly increases the captive
capacity, since they can no longer penetrate thick slabs of iron and
cement. (B) "Aftoekrignytai. Even without an explosive charge, the uranium
projectiles detonate on impact and high temperatures due to the milling of
uranium and snap the ignition of dust (oxidation by atmospheric oxygen),
which increases their destructive action. (C) low cost, since it is an
abundant quantity and essentially useless byproduct of producing nuclear
fuel. It appears that the use of DU in the manufacture of conventional
weapons systems with the subsequent dispersal of the battlefield can be
seen as "profitable" and "effective" way of exemption from at least a
portion of the huge and 'unwanted' stock DUF6 [REF 17, 18].
Regarding the use of "depleted uranium"
Form Function uranium U-234 U-235 U-238 Total
Natural uranium content of 0.0053% 0.711 99.275 100
Radioactivity, Bq / g * 12356 568 12356 25280
Enriched uranium
(3.5% U-235)% containing 3.5 0.02884 99.275 100
Radioactivity, Bq / g 66703 2800 12005 81508
Depleted uranium (by-product of the previous production) 0.2% content
0.0008976 99.799 100
Radioactivity, Bq / g 2076 160 12420 14656
* Becquerel (Bq): Unit of radioactivity equal to the number being divided
nuclei of radioactive material in a second
Often references to depleted uranium made by the media to suggest that
this is a very dangerous and toxic form of uranium. This is not the case.
The DU is not substantially different in any physical, chemical or
toxicological property from natural uranium. The DU contains only the
isotope U-235 (and with it the U-234) in a lower proportion than that in
natural uranium and therefore is less radioactive, but that does not mean it
is less dangerous the health of those who come into contact with,
especially those who inhale particles containing oxides or other
compounds. The comparative table shows the typical isotopic composition
and activity of various forms of uranium [REF 19].

The compound Aspirin

Physical, chemical-economic characteristics [Ref 1]
Appearance: Odourless single or white needle crystals.
Molecular Formula: C9H8O4
Relative molecular mass: 180.16
Boiling point: decomposes
Melting Point: 135 º C (with rapid heating, the melt solidifies at 118 º C)
Density: 1,40 g/cm3
Solubility in water: 1 g in 300 mL at 25 º C or 100 mL at 37 º C
In other solvents: 1 g in 5 mL of alcohol in 17 mL CHCl3 and 10-15 mL
ether.
Split into boiling water or in solutions of strong bases.
Stable in dry air, gradually hydrolyzed in moist air (acquired odor of acetic
acid).
Dissociation constant (pKa) = 3,49 (25 º C)
LD50 (mice): 1,1 - 1,5 g / kg. It has carcinogenic and reproductive toxicity
has not

Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin)

(2-aketoxyvenzoiko acid)
Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin)
(2-acetoxybenzoic acid)
"For this publication concerning this precious substance, I have other
motives, beyond the hope that it can receive a fair and full trial in all its
variety and in each case and situation, and maybe one day the world may
benefit from this "
(Pastor Edmund Stone, 2 Ιουνίου 1763, announcement before the Royal
Society, on the healing properties of willow bark [Ref 8b]) Aspirin, the most
widely used drug in the world acetylsalicylic acid (acetylsalicylic acid,
ASA), widely known as aspirin (aspirin), is one of the most popular
analgesics. The global annual consumption of aspirin was approximately
40,000 tonnes antistoichounperipou to 120 billion tablets of 300 mg [REF
2nd]. In the U.S. estimated that the annual consumption reaches 16,000
tons.
Aspirin is used to treat a wide variety of health problems: As a general
analgesic and antipyretic (2 to 6 tablets a day) as a precautionary measure
cerebral thrombosis (1 tablet a day) against rheumatic fever and arthritis.
Also, take precautions against heart attacks. The wide range of
pharmaceutical applications of aspirin it difficult to investigate the
mechanism of action and only after 1970 was suggested that aspirin and
similar drugs interfere with this composition of certain substances that are
involved in generation mechanisms of pain and inflammation
The main stages in the history of aspirin
400 BC Hippocrates recommends leaves and shavings of the bark of
willow trees as analgesics and antipyretics drugs

1763 Notice of Pastor Edmund Stone, before the Royal Society, the
potential benefits of using the bark of willow
The 1832 French chemist Charles Gerhardt experimenting with salicin and
salicylic acid manufacturing
1897, Felix Hoffman, studied experiments Gergardt and "xanaanakalyptei"
acetylsalicylic acid
1899 The pharmaceutical Bayer distributes aspirin powder to physicians
for administration to patients
1900, Bayer makes aspirin tablets and soluble form of aspirin is the first
drug available in this format
1915 Aspirin is available without prescription in tablet form
1948 Lawrence Craven notes that aspirin reduces the chances of heart
attack
1971 John Vane theorizes that perhaps the aspirin works by blocking the
formation of prostaglandins

Historical path of discovery and use of aspirin [Ref 3]

In the Old Testament refers to the therapeutic properties of poplar. The
father of medicine Hippocrates (460-377 BC) used a bitter powder from the
bark of willow trees, and tea leaves or white willow to relieve patients from
pain and fever. Wealthy patients in ancient times ordering drinks poplar
bark (a broth prepared by soaking the bark of these trees with vinegar) to
address sciatica pain and arthritis.
The great physician of the Greco Roman world, Claudius Galen (129-199
AD) studied the antiseptic properties of extracts of the bark of trees and
their healing properties on wounds and ulcers. Medicinal products based
on willow or poplar used by the Chinese, as well as from American Indians
to treat wounds, rheumatism, colds and headaches. The Pedanios
Dioscorides (40-90 AD) granted poplar leaf extracts (a mixture with pepper
and wine) for the treatment of colic pain. The Gaius Plinius Sekoundos
(23-79 AD) in his book of the Naturalis Historia, refers to a substance
(presumably derived from salicylic acid) prepared from the powdered bark
of willow and poplar.
In 1757, the 'English cleric Edmund Stone has highlighted its therapeutic
properties of willow bark. He knew that many parishioners, who suffered
from rheumatism, used extracts to soothe the pain of the disease. The
bitter taste of the bark reminded him of the taste of the bark of the tree of
Peru, Peruvian Cinchona officinales (pharmaceutical kinchoni), which was
manufactured from an expensive drug (quinine) for the treatment of fever
in patients with malaria and apparently assumed some correlation. The
Stone presented to the Royal Society for his work on the analgesic
properties of this extract of willow bark, which was interested in the
medical world. Then searching for an effective analgesic drug to replace
this laudanum (an opiate preparation), the sole active analgesic that time.
The laudanum had many side effects and frequent use led to addiction.
During the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815), due to the naval blockade,
quinine imports from South America were significantly reduced
Old ads for Bayer aspirin. It is worth to note that in the first, along with
aspirin, and heroin is advertised as a soothing remedy for cough.
Synthesis of salicylic acid and acetylsalicylic acid
Adolf Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe (1818 - 1884). German chemical to which
is the modern method of preparation of salicylic acid. Known for the
electrochemical synthesis of alkanes (reaction Kolbe) The salicylic acid (o-
hydroxy benzoic acid) is produced in quantities of 60 thousand tonnes
annually in the Kolbe method and the dirt cheap raw material phenol, one
of the distillates tar [REF 4a]. Phenolic sodium reacts at high temperature
(125 º C) and pressure (100 atm) with carbon dioxide and sodium
salicylate produced by sulfuric acid yields salicylic acid, according to the
following reaction is a reaction known as Kolbe-Schmitt [REF 4b]:

Reaction Kolbe - Schmitt

If used instead of NaOH KOH, favored the formation of mainly para-
hydroxy benzoic acid, which is used for the manufacture of so-called
paravenion (parabens), ie esters of p-hydroxy benzoic acid with various
alcohols. The paravenia widely used as biocides and preservatives
personal hygiene. The synthesis of aspirin is the raw material salicylic acid
and acetic anhydride, which is acetylated phenolic hydroxyl in the
molecule. Small amounts of sulfuric or phosphoric acid catalyze the
reaction. The preparation is very easy and is usually the pilot exercise in
the laboratory of Organic Chemistry undergraduate students.

As mentioned in the previous synthesis of acetylsalicylic acid was used by

Gerhardt acetyl (CH3COCl), which is drastikotato aketyliotiko average, but
is much more volatile liquid (BP 52 º C) of acetic anhydride (s.z . 139 º C),
making it more cumbersome laboratory.
derivatives of salicylic acid.
In nature have been found on several derivatives of salicylic acid and
many other prepared in the laboratory. The characteristic properties and
uses of salicylic acid and several of the most popular derivatives are
summarized below:

Needle crystals of salicylic acid. Right: leaf crystals of acetylsalicylic acid

[Ref 4c] Left:
Salicylic acid: In old Greek writings referred Chemistry and calicylic acid.
Needle crystals, s.t. 157-159 º C. 1 g dissolves in 460 mL water. Irritating
to skin, was used as a food preservative (the use of the most banned in
most countries). Used in some pharmaceutical preparations for external
use (tylofthora) and particularly for the manufacture of derivatives.
Salicin: Glycosides of salicyl alcohol and alcohol beta-glucose. Crystalline
substance s.t. 199-202 º C. 1 g dissolved in 23 mL water. The main
salicylate derivative of willow bark. Granted in the past as antirheumatic
and analgesic. He has very bitter taste.
Salicyl alcohol: crystalline substance s.t. 86-87 º C.1 g dissolved in 15 mL
water. Hydrolyzate of salicin. Known as saligenini. Used as a local
anesthetic.
Salicyl aldehyde: oily colorless liquid almond smell, BP 196-197 º C.
Slightly soluble in water. Used in perfumery and in organic synthesis.
Salikylamidio: White crystalline substance s.t. 140 º C. Used in some
pharmaceutical products as an analgesic and antipyretic.
Methyl salicylate: oily colorless (yellow when Eve) liquid with a
characteristic, rather pleasant odor (though in small concentrations), BP
220-224 º C. Found in various essential oils. Widely used in various
analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents (ointments, such as once
dimofiiles analgesic rubs preparation for Sloan's), which gives a very
characteristic odor. It acts as flogistiko (rubefacient), ie, causing local
hyperemia (redness of skin).
Salicylate fainylesteras: fusible crystalline substance s.t. 41-43 º C. Is used
as an analgesic and antipyretic (known as Salol) and sunscreen. Also
used as an additive colored plastic to reduce the discoloration under the
effect of sunlight.
Acetylsalicylic acid crystalline substance s.t. 135 º C. The most widely
used derivative of salicylic acid. The so-called aspirin.
Stability of acetylsalicylic acid in pharmaceutical formulations

Effect of pH on rate constants hydrolysed-tion of acetylsalicylic acid at 17 º

C [REF 5]
Acetylsalicylic acid is hydrolyzed easily in an alkaline environment, as in
boiling water to the ingredients, ie, salicylic acid and acetic acid.
Hydrolyzed slowly under the influence of humidity and are characteristic
smell of vinegar (from acetic acid) aspirin tablets exposed to moisture for
long periods. Such fragmentation is undesirable because of the formed
salicylic acid, which can cause gastric disturbances.
In aqueous solutions of acetylsalicylic acid shows greater stability in the
range pH 2 to 3 and hydrolyzed rapidly at pH less than 2 or greater than 8
as shown in the adjacent diagram (measured at 17 º C) [Ref 5]. From the
graph we can estimate the rate constants of hydrolysis of acetylsalicylic
acid at pH 7 is about 0,1 d-1, which corresponds to a half-life of about 7
days.
Acetylsalicylic acid in the decision is subject to hydrolysis, especially in
slightly alkaline environment of the intestines, from where it is absorbed.

Experiments hydrolysis of acetylsalicylic acid with water isotopically

enriched oxygen-18 showed that the produced salicylic acid does not
contain O-18, which strengthens the hypothesis of hydrolysis through
intramolecular nucleophilic catalysis [Ref 5c].
He has done many studies on factors that could halt or accelerate the
hydrolysis of acetylsalicylic acid in pharmaceutical preparations. The
influence of different excipients and other drugs in mixed compounds [Ref
6]. According to the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, the maximum permissible level
medicines aspirin salicylic acid, depending on the type ranges from 0.3%
to 3% [Ref 6d].
Small amounts of free salicylic acid in aspirin medications easily detected
by reacting with nitric acid solution of iron (III). The trivalent iron reacts only
with free salicylic acid complex providing intense violet color. The
determination of salicylic acid in pharmaceutical preparations made in
liquid chromatographic. The determination of traces of salicylic acid in
acetylsalicylic samples is relatively difficult, since the dissolution of the
sample in water and immediately begin its processing. To avoid hydrolysis
of acetylsalicylic acid samples used as solvent acetonitrile with a small
proportion (1%) of formic acid [Ref 6e].
What also may contain one tablet of aspirin [Ref 6f]
Almost never a tablet of medicine is not 100% of the active substance.
Indeed, often the latter is only a small percentage of the weight of a tablet.
The addition of the active drug substance materials are carriers
(excipients), which act as fillers and binders, and holding constant the
tablet to the desired size and shape. Other excipients impart a pleasant
flavor, but also used for coloring the tablet. Often, the carriers also contain
substances that prevent the division of the pharmaceutical substance and
regulate the "liberation" or the pace and how "engagement" of the body. In
the case of aspirin, acetylsalicylic acid is usually mixed with starch and
some water. Often added polyydroxyalkooles (mannitol, sorbitol) and
sugars (lactose, sucrose) or synthetic sweeteners (saccharin) and flavor,
which help the tablet dissolve faster in water, impart a pleasant taste when
chewed (baby aspirin). Other materials act as lubricants (lubricants), which
help to prevent the welding of the tablets in different machines during their
manufacture. Such materials are hydrogenated vegetable oils, stearic acid
and stearates and salts
Metabolism of acetylsalicylic acid

Acetylsalicylic acid, a weak acid, ionizing little stomach after swallowing

the tablet. The solubility is low in the acidic stomach (pH <1), which slows
the absorption of high doses for 8-24 hours. Acetylsalicylic acid degraded
to salicylic acid and is rapidly absorbed from the intestine, due to slightly
alkaline (pH about 8). However, when making a single toxic dose of aspirin
(eg in cases of attempted suicide), absorption is slow and the levels of
salicylic acid in plasma increased to 24 hours after the reception, which
leaves some time for medical intervention (by gastric lavage). Aspirin, 50
to 80% bound to proteins in the blood, while the remainder remains active
ionised state. The saturation of the positions of protein association with
salicylic acid leads to the release of aspirin in the blood and increases the
toxicity. 80% of the therapeutic dose of salicylic acid is metabolized in the
liver. Linked to the amino acid glycine forming salikylouriko while
connecting to glucuronate acid leads to salicylates and acyl-and phenol-
derivatives of glucuronate acid. The glucuronate acid is easily connected
to various toxic substances and helps in their removal from the body
through the kidneys. Salicylates excreted primarily by the kidneys as
salikylouriko acid (75%), free salicylic acid (10%), salicylates phenolics
(10%) and acyl (5%) derivatives of glucuronate gentisiko acid and acid
(<1%) [Ref 7]. Sir John Robert Vane (1927-2004). In English-medicinal
makologos who discovered the mechanism of action of aspirin. He
received the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1982. Pharmacological action of
acetylsalicylic acid
The mechanism of pharmacological action of aspirin became known in
1971 with his studies pharmacologist John Robert Vane (Royal College of
Surgeons, Royal College of Surgeons, London). The Vane showed that
aspirin suppresses the production of prostaglandins and thromboxane.
Together with biochemical Sune K. Bergström and Bengt I. Samuelsson
was honored with the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1982 "for their
discoveries concerning the prostaglandins and related biologically active
substances [Ref 8].
Prostanoeidi. The prostaglandins together with the thromboxanes and
leukotrienes, are collectively known as prostanoeidi (prostanoids). The
chemical prostanoeidi a group of fatty acids, oxygen and typical five-or six
members ring and have great biological significance. A subgroup of
eikosanoeidon (unsaturated acids with 20 carbon atoms) produced in the
body by enzymatic oxidation of an omega-6 polyunsaturated C-20 fatty
acid, arachidonic acid (5,8,11,14-tetraen-twenty-house acid, All double
bonds cis), which is in the form fosfolipoeidon in cell membranes.
Arachidonic acid is particularly important biochemical and owns
flegmonogonos factor. If the membrane of a cell damaged in some way
(eg by injury or infection) than fosfolipoeidi released, which decompose
and release enzymatic arachidonic acid, which in turn is oxidized to form a
variety of enzymatic prostanoeidon.

1. Some prostaglandins may be involved in memory and other brain

functions
2. Some prostaglandins sensitize nerve endings and transmit pain to the
brain and spinal cord
3. Two prostaglandins relax the muscles of the lungs and one of the
narrows
4. Two prostaglandins protect the inner wall of the stomach
5. Some prostaglandins dilate small blood vessels, leading to a reddening
of the skin and a burning sensation that accompanies each infection
6. Two prostaglandins furl muscles of the uterus, and another to relax.
7. Two prostaglandins increase blood flow to the kidneys.
The prostanoeidi involved in many pathophysiological functions, such as
inflammation, hemostasis is the thermostasi, thrombosis, cytoprotection by
the ulceration and renal failure [Ref 9].
Prostaglandins (prostaglandins, PG) is typically prostanoeidi. Their name
comes from the prostate + gland (prostate gland) because we thought that
they are produced in the prostate. Today it is known to be produced in
many tissues of the body. The prostaglandins act as "ground hormones, ie
hormones produced and act at the point where a fault occurs. Involved in
numerous functions in the body such as the spread of pain to the brain in
thermostasi and inflammation. Typical concentration of prostaglandin E2 in
synovial fluid from rheumatoid arthritis sufferer is 20 ng / mL [Ref 8b]. The
thromboxane (thromboxanes, TX) are mainly involved in the mechanisms
of accumulation of platelets and blood clots. Figure out the right some of
the most characteristic actions of prostaglandins [REF 9c]. O Vane
showed that groups of prostaglandins E2 and I2 (PGE2, PGI2) causing
symptoms of inflammation, including vasodilation of blood vessels and
increased temperature (fever). By radioactively labeled arachidonic acid
demonstrated that aspirin and drugs with similar properties, collectively
referred to as "non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs» (non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs, NSAIDs), inhibit the production of prostaglandins E2
and F2a. COX. The COX (cyclooxygenases, COX) are enzymes that
catalyze the oxidation of arachidonic acid to form prostaglandins and
thromboxane then. The name probably derives from the "cyclization" of
arachidonic acid and introducing oxygen groups (hydroxy groups,
carbonyls, ydroperoxy-groups). The pharmacological action of aspirin and
other "non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs" due to inhibition of COX [REF
10].

Acetylation of COX-1 by aspirin prevents the binding of arachidonic acid.

[Clicking here you can see three-dimensional representation of the active
site through the Jmol, from Davidson College, Charlotte, North Carolina,
USA]
Of the three isoforms of the enzyme exist, have been studied extensively
as COX COX-1 and COX-2. Are structurally similar and the molecular
weights are 70 and 72 kDa, respectively. They have approximately 65%
over the same amino acid sequence and the active centers are almost
identical.
The COX-1 produces the (necessary) level of prostaglandin (baseline
level). Continuously produced in the stomach, blood vessels, platelets and
in parts of the kidneys. Inhibition of COX-1 is not desirable, since catalyzes
the production of prostaglandins at the basic level of "maintenance". The
COX-2 in a few institutions, such as brain and kidney sections. Produced
anywhere but on stimulation (through stimulation) by various mediators
and leads to inflammation, ie, where tissue damage or infection cases.
Catalyzes the production of prostaglandins involved in inflammation and
related immune mechanisms. Unlike COX-1, inhibition of COX-2 is
desirable, it produces prostaglandins that cause inflammation, pain and
fever. Furthermore, it is believed that inhibition of COX-2 reduces the
chances of developing certain types of cancer. A third known COX, the
COX-3, believed to brain cells and is associated with the beneficial effect
of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on headaches (headaches).
Unfortunately aspirin with the COX-2 and inhibit COX-1 and thus does not
allow the production of prostaglandins naturally necessary. The
prostaglandins are necessary to protect the inner surface of the stomach
by hydrochloric acid in gastric fluid, the smooth functioning of the kidneys
and accumulation of platelets, when necessary, eg for healing a wound.
Platelets are especially susceptible to the action of aspirin. This is
because, unlike other cells, platelets have the capacity to epanaparagoun
COX. In practice this means that only one dose of 40 mg of aspirin will
inhibit the COX platelets for 8 to 10 days, which is the average years of life
[Ref 10c]. Mode of action of aspirin. Aspirin acts as aketyliotiko reagent.
Acetylated a serine (amino acid) in the active site of COX (Ser530 in COX-
1, Ser516 in COX-2) and off, making it impossible to fasten (docking) of
the molecule of arachidonic acid so as to be subjected to oxidation and
then formed series prostaglandins. This leads to the conclusion that
aketyloomada aspirin does not act only as hiding the phenolic hydroxyl
group (which thus makes it more tolerable salicylic acid in the stomach),
but only gives a particular physiological effect on drug action has the free
salicylic acid. The aketyliotiki action of aspirin makes it different from other
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as diclofenac and ibuprofen,
which inhibit the action of COX, but reversible manner. It is striking that
aspirin is very radical inhibitor non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [Ref
11] The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (Nonsteroidal Anti-
inflammatory Drugs, NSAIDs) are chemically heterogeneous large groups
of drugs that suppress inflammation in a manner similar to that of steroids,
but with far fewer side effects (sedation, respiratory depression,
addiction ). Widely used to treat inflammatory conditions and pain in
conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, gouty arthritis (gout), period pain
and headaches. It is also effective antipyretics and analgesics in general.
The NSAID designated as "COX inhibitors. Hinder the action of COX
enzymes (cyclooxugenase, COX) responsible for the synthesis of
prostaglandins, leukotrienes and the thromboxane known as prostanoeidi,
involved in many pathophysiological functions, such as the creation of
inflammation. This does not mean it's only dangerous substances in the
body. Aspirin is the main representative of the NSAID (but non-selective
inhibitor of COX). Some of the most popular and widely used NSAID are:

Typical selective NSAID: The drug Celebrex linked only to the active
position of the COX-2 and not COX-1. This is because the critical position
of COX-2 is the amino acid valine, which leaves space (pocket) host
molecule drug. Conversely, COX-1, the position is the amino acid
isoleucine, which is superimposed a bit does not allow efficient binding of
the drug. Because of this small structural difference between the two COX,
the Celebrex works as a selective inhibitor of COX-2 [Ref 9c]. "Selective»
NSAID: Small prostanoeidon levels in the stomach (as a result of
suspension of COX-1) increase the likelihood of ulcer and GI perforation of
the stomach. Currently seeking composition selective NSAID that inhibit
only COX-2 and not COX-1. This is made possible thanks to some small
structural differences between active sites of both enzymes. Selective
NSAID are better tolerated by the body, it creates stomach problems,
since it will not affect the production of prostanoeidon basic level.
Unfortunately, a production of prostaglandins in relation to the free (non-
acetylated), salicylic acid [Ref 8b]. inhibitor. The case of paracetamol: One
of the most widely used analgesics and antipyretics drugs are paracetamol
(or acetaminophen: N-acetyl-p-aminofainoli). Administered alone (Depon,
Tylenol) or in combination with other analgesic-antipyretic drugs.
Paracetamol is not subject to the NSAID and the precise mechanism is not
yet known. The analgesic effect of paracetamol is due to "lift" the threshold
of pain perceived by a person. Reduces fever by acting on
thermorythmistic center of the brain (hypothalamus). Paracetamol reduces
pain in mild cases of arthritis, but it has some beneficial effect on the
inflammation and swelling of the joints. This lack of inflammatory activity of
paracetamol excludes from the category of NSAID [REF 11c]. Aspirin and
cardiovascular events
Low doses of aspirin for a long time interrupt the formation of thromboxane
A2 (TXA2) in platelets, thus inhibiting the accumulation of platelets. This
anticoagulant activity makes aspirin useful drug for reducing the risk of
heart attacks. Daily doses of 40 mg aspirin prevent a large percentage of
the release of TXA2, while the biosynthesis of prostaglandin I2 useful
(prostacyclin: potent antithrombotic and vasodilating agent) is affected
little.
However, serious adverse effect of long-term aspirin use is to reduce the
gelling ability of the blood and increase the likelihood of bleeding episodes,
depending on the dose received [REF 7th, 12]. The effect of aspirin in
cases of heart attack almost immediately and may prove beneficial. In a
study on the best way to take aspirin when they found that chewing the
tablet (325 mg) decreases much faster levels of thromboxane B2,
compared with swallowing or ingestion of dissolution in water (see chart
left) [REF 13]. Aspirin (alone or in combination with other drugs) is used by
millions of people who have problems in the circulatory system. It is
estimated that about 30 million Americans who have cardiovascular
problems, take daily aspirin. Indications so far are that aspirin is often
beneficial to the circulatory and blood anticoagulant, but many individuals
(such as diabetes have type 2) positive results and reduce the risk of heart
attacks are limited . Many studies and epidemiological investigations
indicate these problems [Ref 14]. However, daily aspirin to prevent
cardiovascular events in some cases can be considered a dangerous
practice and should not be anyone to enter without first consulting a doctor
[REF 14g].

‘Other pharmacological effects of aspirin

Several clinical studies have shown that aspirin as an anti-inflammatory
drug has anticancer properties, especially reducing the risk of colorectal
cancer (colorectal), prostate cancer and does not appear to have any
effect on lung cancer [Ref 15]. Aspirin has been described as "a
fantastic product» (wonder drug, miracle drug, amazing aspirin). Rightly
remains a subject of intensive research. Apart from research on the
prevention of colon cancer, under consideration is the ability of aspirin
to prevent fetal growth retardation, pre-eclampsia, as well as senile
dementia [Ref 16].

large number of books dedicated to the history and the beneficial

effects of aspirin (cover from Amazon.com).

Some of the many stamps of various countries that adopted in the late
1990s for the 100th anniversary of the discovery of aspirin [Ref 17].
General literature and history of aspirin
Gross M, Greenburg LA: "The Salicylates; A Critical bibliographical
Review", Hillhouse, New Haven, CT, 1948.
Fairley P: "The Conquest of Pain", Michael Joseph, London, 1978.
Rainsford KD: "Aspirin and the Salicylates", Butterworth, London, 1984.

Alstaedrer Ed: "Aspirin, The Medicine of the Century", Bayer AG, AG,
1984.
Robert O, Vargaftig BB: "L'aspirine", La Recherche 17 (No. 182) :1322-
1331, 1986.
Verg E, Gottfried P, Scultheies: "Milestone: the Bayer Story 1863-
1988", Leverkunsen, Bayer AG, 1988.
Royal Society of Chemistry: "Aspirin: A Curriculum Resource for Post-
16 Chemistry Courses", RSC publications, London, 1998.
Jourdier S: "A miracle drug", Chemistry in Britain 34:33-35, 1999.
Cheng TO: "The History of Aspirin", The Texas Heart Institute Journal
34:392-393, 2007.

J. R E S P E C T I K E T A L L E S or L I N E I S PA T
M A R K I N I O N A K A I N T R O P A S
Microorganisms interact with the human body
in very many ways, sometimes beneficial and sometimes
harmful. In this section we will examine the microbes
living naturally in the body of a healthy adult.
In this chapter we begin to contemplate the direct assis-
Equal interaction of microorganisms with
man. Microorganisms grow both in
surface and inside the human body
and sometimes reach very large numbers. Examples-
tion example, the human gut often likened
Long growing tube length, while the mucous
membranes covering the oral surface of Com-
lotitas, intestine, the secretory and Reproductive
system have a healthy population of microbes
either work for the benefit of human health
or sometimes it is absolutely necessary for it.
But there is a small but important group of micro-
agencies armed with a variety of direct or em-
media devices, allowing them to penetrate
the human body and cause infections, patient-
all diseases and ultimately harm the host. Some mikroor-
tions, for example, use vs. host disease
specialized and very powerful biological toxins.
Ling as in in r i s e a r c a s a ss to upper respiratory tract (upper
respiratory tract), the nasopharynx, oral-bent
quantity and throat colonization (colonization) proliferation
a pathogen upon entry and
establishment of the Organization of
host
illness, disease (disease), damage caused
Tai the host and overburden, or prevent
a function of
bacteremia (bacteremia), the presence of micro-
bodies in blood
mucus (mucus) discharge glykoprote-soluble
fiber produced by the epithelial-
achieved over the cells surrounding a vlen-
nogono membrane
mucous membranes (mucous membrane) On-
vades epithelial cell interactions;
acting with the external environment
vlennostivada, slimy layer (slime layer)
diffuse network of fibers and polymers, the
which surrounds an entire cell
does not seem stuck in concrete;
rage cell
glykokalykas (glycocalyx) loose network of
fibers and polymers, which extends
other cell
endotoxin (endotoxin) in lipopolysaccharide-
Governing Board of the cell envelope of certain
new Gram-negative bacteria, the
which acts as a poison when taken from
the inner membrane and dissolved-
thei in body fluids
enterotoxin (enterotoxin) protein res-
leftheronetai the extracellular space from
an organism, during
development, which is responsible for
Direct damage to the small intestine of xenopho-
main proceedings constitute
attenuation (attenuation) reduction or loss
infectivity
exotoxini (exotoxin) protein liberated;
ronetai the extracellular space by a
organism, during the per-
Development, which causes direct-vla
pacemakers in the host
invasiveness (invasiveness) pathogen-
ness due to the ability of a
pathogen to invade and spread-
to in the host body
lower respiratory tract (lower respiratory
tract) the trachea and bronchi and the spirit;
alone
capsule (capsule) thick, well defined
layer of polysaccharide or protein
closely surrounds a cell
white blood cells (leukocytes) nucleated cells
blood (white cells)
infection, infection (infection) to develop micro-
organisms within a host
infectivity (virulence) the degree of pathogen-
nikotitas a pathogen
host (host), the organization hosts an
parasite
Dental plaque (dental plaque) matrix
extracellular polymers and products
saliva, which grows in road-
tant surface and surrounds the bacterial-
border cells
pathogenicity (pathogenicity) capacity
a parasite to cause damage to
host
pathogen (pathogen) bacterial parasite
causing damage to host
parasite (parasite) organization that develops,
list drawn up on or within a host
causing damage to it
fever (fever) abnormal growth
body temperature
decay (dental caries) degradation of
dental crown, due to bacterial-
border infection
toxicity (toxicity) which is pathogenic
due to toxins produced by a BAC-
thogono
inflammation (inflammation) of the host response
to injury or infection, which charac-
however the income from redness, swelling, local
increase in temperature and pain
normal flora (normal flora) mikroorga-
tion usually develop fysiolo-
giki compared to healthy body tissues
21.1 ■ of the total y o u alilepidraseon post bugs and human ■ 837
21.1 Summary of interactions between
microbes and man
The human body is constantly exposed to mu-
kroorganismous. Even simple daily functions;
s, such as breathing, bring us into direct contact with million-
τομμύρια micro-environment. There are
hundreds of species of organisms, and billions
respective individuals, collectively known physio-
sense plants, which grow naturally
the surface or inside the body. The more-
than microorganisms, but not all, are harmless.
Pathogens
Organisations are living on a host, or the stern
threaten the internal, and cause harm are called parasites.
When pests are microbial origin, then name-
mazontai pathogens. The end result of interaction;
host-parasite action depends on the pathogen;
 quantity of the parasite (ie the ability to be an-
operating faults in the host) and the strength or receptive;
ness of the host for this parasite.
The pathogenicity varies widely from one like-
particular pathogens. The quantitative measure of certain pathogenic
Zeta as infectivity is expressed as the number of
cells causes a pathogenic response to host-
in a given period. The interaction of host-
the parasite, is a dynamic relationship between the two organi-
tions and, consequently, both the infectiousness of the BAC-
thogonou and host resistance are parameters that
constantly changing.
Infection and disease
The term infection or infection in talk-
those positions where a microorganism has
installed and multiply in a host, inde-
spective of whether or not it causes harm. Disease is
damage or injury to the host, affecting fy;
Freelancing function. The infection is not the same obli-
with ear disease since the development of a mikroorga-
tion to a host does not always cause damage.
For example, the normal flora can occasionally
cause bacterial infections, but seldom-
to cause disease. Sometimes, however, spontaneously
ab flora may actually cause disease, which
occurs when weakened the resistance of xenopho-
main proceedings constitute, u972 as, for example In the case of
cancer
and AIDS (f Section 26.14).

Host-parasite interactions
The animal body is a physicochemical environment
fostering the development of many organisms. Be
rich in organic nutrients and growth-PA
ragontes, components necessary for the development of
chemical-
meiorganotrofikon microorganisms while simultaneously
PA-
rechei relatively steady pH, osmotic pressure and
temperature. The animal body, however, is not a peer-
borne environment for the growth of microorganisms.
Ka-
each region and each body is different from the others in

physicochemical properties, so each region or organi-

law favors the development of specific microorganisms.
The skin, respiratory tract, the gastrointestinal route, etc.
create a wide variety of physicochemical conditions
allowing selective growth of different organi-
tions. For example, the relatively dry environment
skin favors the growth of Gram-positive organisms;
tions, such as Staphylococcus aureus (f Section 26.9).
The
oxygen-rich environment of the lung favors
the aerobic growth of obligatory Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
(F Section 26.5), while anaerobic
colon promote the development of certain liabilities;
ear anaerobic species of the genus Clostridium (f-Tmi
But 12.21). Furthermore, animals also have varied
defense mechanisms that prevent or inhibit
microbial invasion and development. Thus, those micro-
smoi ultimately fail to colonize successfully the body;
But the host, should have developed ways of BAC-
rakampsis these defense mechanisms.
These infections often start with mucous
membranes of the animal. Such membranes are all over
the sixth-
importance of the body, such as mouth, the pharynx, the
esophagus, and in the urogenital, to the respiratory-
ern and the gastrointestinal tract. The mucous
membranes de-
committed by one or more layers of thick-diatetag
tion of epithelial cells, which are the positions of al-
lilepidrasis the organization with the external
environment.
Normally, mucous membranes epic-
lyptontai a protective layer of soluble glyco-
protein, known as mucus, which protects the on-u964
thiliaka cells. When bacteria come in contact with
the mucous membrane tissue of a host, connect-
Dai with him either loosely or closely. If the connection is

relaxed, it will probably be removed by

a physical mechanism (ie expectoration). Some mu-
kroorganismoi, however, adhere firmly to the surface
reference to the epithelium, the intracellular specific
identifi-
ing pathogen-host. If this happens, then Bo-
Ray actually caused local infection of epithelial
tissue. In this case, the barrier of mucus is divided;
rift and the pathogen invades deeper tissues
(Figure 21.1).
In areas of the body exposed to
environment, such as skin, in the oral cavity,
gastrointestinal tract, respiratory and
urogenital tract, occurring almost always mikroorga-
tion. In contrast, under normal circumstances there is no
838 ■ 21 ■ Capital alilepidraseis man - microbial
microorganisms in the organs, blood, lymph or the
nervous system. Possible presence of microorganisms
the relatively sterile environment of these tissues will be
effec-
bathe evidence of a serious infection.
Table 21.1 are some of the main-
analysis more types of naturally occurring
microorganisms
the surfaces of the body. The area considered
reasonable;
ered directly exposed to the environment is the skin (2
m2), which normally is home to many species of
microbes;
s. However, even greater variety of microbes ambience;
hosted by mucous membranes. This is partly due
in protected, moist mucous membranes, etc;
Athos and the enormous total surface area of the surface

inclusion of new diseases in the body (400 m2). For

example, spe-
NH running a mucinous body, such as
small intestine, involves a large and specialized
membrane transport of nutrients, which de-
is simultaneously address proliferation of germs. Para-
below, we will examine in more detail the normal al-
lilepidraseis of bacteria in parts of the human
body.
✓ 21.1 Control concepts
Environment anatomical very conducive to growth-
all organisms, most of whom do not like-
so harmful. u908 Those microorganisms grow on or
inside the body and cause injuries known as PA-
thogonoi. The initial development of pathogens occurs in

surface of the host, usually a mucous membrane, and

can cause infection (infection) and disease. The able-
quantity of disease is influenced by complex interactions;

tions between host and pathogen. The functions of the

pathogen
restricted by the host defense mechanisms.
✓ How does infection with the disease?
✓ Why can a body surface to be appro-
liloteri for microbial growth than another?
21.2 Normal skin flora
On average, the surface skin of an adult-like
yes about 2 m2 and can vary significantly from person-
Name a person in chemical composition and hydration.
In Figure 21.2 shows the anatomy of the skin, and
and areas where bacteria grow. The surface
skin (epidermis) is not conducive to the development of
micro-
lives because it is subject to periodic drying.
Most organisms are directly or
indirectly through the sweat glands. These glands
respond
located mainly in the armpits, the sexual areas
nipples and navel. Are inactive during the child-
ab age and begin to gain full-leitourgikoti
them from puberty onwards. The bacterial populations in
these hot and humid areas are quite aneptygme-
Vol, in contrast to the smooth and dry surfaces under-
Microbial
cell
Epithelial
cell
(A) (b) (c)
Mucus
E IKON 21.1 Interaction of bacteria with mucosal
membranes. (A)
Loose connection. (B) P roskollisi. (C) D ieisdysi
epithelial cells Ka-
attached to the layer of mucus.
TABLE 21.1 Typical strains of micro-organisms
the normal flora of humans
Anatomical position Organismosa
Skin Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium, Acinetobacter,
Pityrosporum (dough), Propionibacterium, Micrococcus
Oral Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, Fusobacterium,
Veillonella,
Corynebacterium, Neisseria, Actinomyces
Respiratory Tract Streptococcus, Staphylococcus,
Corynebacterium,
Neisseria
Gastrointestinal route Lactobacillus, Streptococcus,
Bacteroides,
Bifidobacterium, Eubacterium, Peptococcus,
Peptostreptococcus, Ruminococcus, Clostridium,
Escherichia, Klebsiella, Proteus, Enterococcus,
Staphylococcus
Genital tract Escherichia, Klebsiella, Proteus, Neisseria,
Lactobacillus
(Bay of adult women), Corynebacterium,
Staphylococcus, Candida, Provotella, Clostridium,
Peptostreptococcus
A: The list is not exhaustive and, moreover, there is
every human being in all these organizations. T he
majority of these organizations may, under certain
conditions, to participate in unhealthy processes. Dead
layer of follicle sebaceous gland responds Resource
Idrotopoios gland Epidermis Dermida subcutaneous
tissue Hair
The IKON S 21.2 human skin. I installed the micro-
are normally sweat glands and hair follicles.
other regions of the skin. The axillary odor can be
attributed;
Tai in the presence of bacteria in the secretions was
responding
glands. When secretions were collected aseptically, then

found to be odorless and acquire odor alone

after growth of bacteria. Each follicle environ-
Leta from a sebaceous gland, which secretes a
lubricant. The hair follicles are attractive
habitat for microorganisms such areas,
who live in areas directly beneath the exter-
PA layers of skin. The secretions of the skin
glands are rich in bacterial nutrients, Ms-
Athos containing urea, amino acids, salts, lactic acid and
li-
pidia. The pH of human excreta is almost Fr-
ntote acid and the average price of between 4 and 6.
The normal skin flora consists of
temporary and permanent populations of
microorganisms.
The skin constantly receive temporary population
tions, which in practice can not multiplied;
tions and eventually die. In contrast, permanent
populations
microorganisms to the skin can not simply
survive and multiply. Normal
skin flora consists mainly of me-
rikes groups Gram-positive bacteria (Table 21.1).
These include some species of the genus
Staphylococcus
and a variety of aerobic and anaerobic korynovakti-
tion. In the latter group belongs Propionibacterium
acnes, which sometimes involved in a pathological in-
situation known as acne. Gram negative bacteria
is a small, usually part of normal
skin flora. Their presence is partly
u964 contamination with intestinal microorganisms, such
as like-
YES Escherichia coli, by objects that come in
contact with faeces. But there are some negative
camera Gram-bacteria non-intestinal origin, such as
the Acinetobacter, which are often detected in bacterial
skin flora. Generally, however, the negative
Gram bacteria rarely develop in the skin, rather
because they are unable to compete against Gram-
positive
bodies in dry conditions there. Co-
Usually there are large numbers of yeasts in skin-
one or mucous membranes. But if we are missing
mechanisms of host resistance (as in
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, AIDSØ f
Department
26.14), or lacking the normal microflora of skin;
tion, it is possible to develop fungi (eg certain
ling species of the genus Candida), and indeed, that
cause serious infections in the skin surface
office. The lipophilic yeast Pityrosporum ovalis, αντίθε-
them, is occasionally the scalp of the skull.
Although permanent microflora remains more or less
stable, several factors influence the establishment and
the density of normal flora (1) Weather
conditions can cause a rise in temperature
and moisture of the skin, thereby increasing
density of the skin microflora. (2) The age-playing,
lives important role, as young children have greatest
Mars species diversity in the microflora and, in relation to

adults carry more potentially pathogenic-

to Gram-negative bacteria. (3) The Standing mikrochlo-
harmonized standards which comply depends on
personal hygiene. People who do not
care of personal cleanliness are high-
exceeding density of bacterial populations on their skin.
Organizations that fail to survive the
skin succumb either due to low humidity or
because of low pH (which in turn caused
the presence of high concentrations of organic acids).
✓ 21.2 Control concepts
The environment of the skin is dry and acidic and not
conducive;
like growth of most microorganisms. However,
moist areas of skin, especially areas around the
sweat glands colonized by Gram-positive bacterial-
Other members limits of normal skin flora.
✓ How big is the surface of human skin?
✓ Describe the properties of microorganisms that are
being developed;
sontai well over the skin.

21.3 Normal oral flora

cavity
The oral cavity is one of the most complex and
heterogeneous microbial habitats in the body. Although
Saliva is a source of nutrients that reach all
parts of the mouth, so each could-
oritika to feed the microbes wherever they are in
Internally, however, is not very good cultivate;
gitiko tool because it contains very few nutrients
and some antibacterial substances such as enzyme-
But galaktouperoxeidasi and lysozyme. Lysozyme
cleaves
the glycosidic bonds of peptidoglycan in the ba-
building the cell wall, weakening it and nail;
lontas the final solution (f Section 4.8). The Dairy
peroxeidasi is an enzyme in saliva and milk
that kills bacteria through a reaction by
produced solitary oxygen (f Sections 6.13 and
22.2). Despite the action of various antimicrobial agents;
s, the presence of food residues and biological materiel;
Kon from dead epithelial cells makes the mouth-
ab cavity especially favorable habitat for microbes.
The teeth and dental plaque
Teeth consist of a complex inorganic crystal
all calcium phosphate, which is called enamel,
inside of which is the living tissue of the tooth-
Procedure (the dentin and polfosO Figure 21.3). The
bacteria
detected in the oral cavity during the first year
21.3 ■ F ysiologiki x strip of mouth ■ 839
840 ■ 21 ■ Capital alilepidraseis man - microbial
life (when not even get their first teeth) is
usually several aeranektika anaerobic, such as twisted-
granules and lactobacilli, but in small numbers
There are several other bacteria, including
and some aerobic. With the emergence of teeth
production
observed a significant difference in the balance of the
mu-
krochloridas, enriched with species anerovion ba-
buildings adapted to thrive in the tooth
u964 surfaces and grooves of the gums.
The bacterial colonization of tooth surfaces
due to adhesion of individual bacteria
cells, which then multiply and formation;
matizoun microcolonies. As soon cleared a path-
tant surface begins to form a thin body;
party film thickness of some micrometers, because of
proskol-
ment of acidic glycoproteins in saliva. This film
is a stable substrate for adhesion
colonization and multiplication of bacterial microcolonies;

s (Figure 21.4). The colonization of the glycoprotein-MTT

June is a very specialized process,

involving only a few species of the genus Streptococcus
(Mainly species S. sanguis, S. sobrinus, S. mutans and
S. mitis).
The rapid proliferation of these organizations Direc-
gei the formation of a thick layer of bacterial
called dental plaque (Figures 21.5 and 21.6). If
plaque continues to form, then begin to re-
development of high nematode species of
Fusobacterium. The thread-
toeidi bacteria incorporated in the grid formation;
living streptococci and begin to expand vertically
to the tooth surface, creating an ever
thicker layer of bacteria. In conjunction with thread-
toeidi Streptococci and they also appeared
mark the Gram positive bacteria rodlike, negative
Gram-grains, and pallidum, eg various kinds
genus Borellia (fTmima 12.33). In particular plates
increased thickness may be superseded by different
filamentous anaerobic species of the genus
Actinomyces.
Perhaps surprisingly, the anaerobic nature of mouth-
tion plant, since the mouth there is plenty available
oxygen. The development of anoxia is probably due to
the action
optional aerobic bacteria growing in
tooth surface by consuming organic matter. The
swelling of the plate creates a dense layer
reduces the availability of oxygen to the tooth surface
surface, eventually forming an anoxic microenvironment.

Thus, the microbial populations of dental plaque living

a microenvironment that create and sustain the
themselves, despite large variations in makroperivallon
the oral cavity.
Caries
As the plaque builds up and start u954
acidic products are formed, begins to appear and
the decay, that decay teeth. Ie
tooth decay is an infection due;
Tai micro-organisms. Those smooth surfaces of teeth;
s exposed to the cleansing action of lan-
, your cheeks, saliva, or the toothbrush
occlusal abrasion is relatively resistant to exceeding-
Donna. Instead, those dental surfaces are
the beneficial effects of these mechanisms, such as
are the areas between the teeth or close
grooves on the gum, which remains trapped Food
voice are the usual places of occurrence of caries-
One. This explains the high resistance of dogs
in decay, having the shape of their teeth dissuasive
penalties;
said to contain food residues. One-diaitolo
son high in sugars are highly cariogenic, Wherefore;
that the lactic acid bacteria convert kneading-
important sugars into lactic acid, which causes employ-
svestosi enamel (see Figure 21.3). Just begin-
sei degradation of the hard tissue, ie the layers
tion of the enamel, begins and proteolysis by
various proteolytic enzymes of bacterial origin.
As degradation continues, more and more;
microorganisms penetrate deeper than layer
the adamantinisO however, the later stages of this
the process can evolve very slowly and is
usually very complicated. Great importance to the sixth-
importance of caries is also the structure of calcified
tissue. The incorporation of fluoride in complex crystals
Calcium phosphate makes the network more resistant
apasvestotiki the action of lactic acid. The use
Enamel
Dentin
Groove
gingival
Gum
Pulp
Alveolar bone
Periodontal
membrane
Medulla
bone
Coron
Root
E IKON 21.3 Cross-section tooth and surrounding
tissues in comparative
Thun the gum.
fluorine compounds in drinking water and medicines;
the dental care, therefore, is to protect
from tooth decay.
The two agencies primarily implicated
for caries is Streptococcus sobrinus and Streptococcus
mutansØ both produce lactic acid. The S.
sobrinus is capable colonizes smooth tooth
surfaces, thanks to a special kinship with the sweet-
koproteines saliva (Figure 21.6) and is probably the
organization that largely contributes to the degradation
smooth surfaces. The S. mutans responds mainly to rise
or fall;
lacquers and gums in small cracks between the teeth
diastimatonO ability to adhere to the road;
gram of surfaces is due to produce a pol-
lysakcharitiki dextran with very high ability to pre-
skollisis (Figure 21.7). The S. mutans produces this dex-
trans only in the presence of sucrose (sucrose), with the
noise-
Aunt enzyme dextranosakcharasi:
Dextranosakcharasi
nSakcharozi ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ → Dextran (nGlykozi) +
nFrouktozi
Sucrose, which is the common table sugar,
an integral part of the diet of more-
soteron people in developed countries, Bcc;
cariogenic hour, just because it is a substrate for
dextranosakcharasis action.
The susceptibility to dental caries varies considerably
person to person and is influenced by inherited
characteristics;
Definitive, and the dietary pattern and other
external factors. Studies on the division-
non of oral streptococci demonstrate direct assis-
significant correlation exists between the extent of road-
gram of plaque and the presence of S. mutans and a
mu-
krotero extent, S. sobrinus. In the U.S. and Western
Europe, for example, 80-90% of the population have
colonies of S. mutans to teeth and dental caries has de-
possessions in those societies character pandemic.
Antithe-
of the children in Tanzania not only have caries
(Probably because their diet contains almost no
no sucrose), but is entirely absent, and S.
mutans on the plaque.
The microorganisms of the mouth may be
cause other types of infections. Those areas u-
(A)
(B)
T. T. Lie Lie
E IKON 21.4 microcolonies of bacteria that developed in
pre-
plasma tooth surface, placed in the mouth of man
six hours. (B) M growth of the preparation shown in (a).
P A-
ratiriste the varied morphology of these organisms and
vlen-
nostivada (arrows), which keeps them all together.
21.3 ■ F ________ysiologiki x strip of the oral cavity
geopithttp: / /
www.blogger.com/profile/01139093926868921394geopit
1966 @ gmail.comBlogger18125tag: blogger.com, 1999:
blog-30172310.post-30413364268486305142009-06-
26T09: 52:00.003 +03:002009-06-26T09: 56: 57.289
+03:00
Significantly increased the incidence of new flu in less
than a month in Greece. From May 31, when the country
had identified a total of five cases, the number rose to 67
yesterday - with 7 of them have stuck influenza after
close contact with 'imported' patients.
Experts appear reassuring, however, stressed that
citizens must follow strict hygiene rules. Give special
emphasis to the protection of children, are more
vulnerable to new virus A (H1N1). Please note that two
days ago a girl fell ill three and a half years after visiting
relatives in the U.S..
"Travelers, whether or not symptoms, they should keep
distance from the babies, as they are not immune
competence and antibodies," says "new" Professor of
Epidemiology at the Medical School of Harvard
University Dimitris Trichopoulos.
Same time, stressing that calm is no need to limit the
social lives - travelers and others - enough to take
protective measures.
Indeed they may not appear immediately symptoms and
thus people become infected, ignoring that they are
exposed to new virus. "They have already identified two
cases in our country that was initially asymptomatic and
did not take precautions for themselves and those
around them. Thus, although not recommended as a
guide, advise people to avoid close contact with travelers
visiting our country, "says Sotiris Tsiodras, Infectious -
Director of the Center for Disease Control and
Prevention. Of course, as he notes, and travelers should
be ... Physicians themselves, checking the state of
health. "In the first seven days after their arrival, it is be
very careful with their families, avoiding hugs and kisses,
especially if visiting friends and relatives who belong to
vulnerable groups and children."
'Chain' cases
The first case of secondary transmission _ that
transmission from person to person within the Greek
borders _ announced on June 13, two days after the
decision of the World Health Organization's move on to
phase 6 and characterize the new flu pandemic. From
then until June 21 and there was no new case in the
country, while 22 to June 24 and found 6 other cases of
secondary transmission. "To record the transmission of
novel influenza in Greece, the competent authorities of
the country you have only to follow the example of the
U.S. because the spread of the virus is favored in
younger ages, it must necessarily be exhaustive review
of areas of concentration of small children during the
summer months, that the camp, "says" new "American
virologists, Dr. Michael Naiman. As for the "imported"
cases, ie Greek or other origin travelers entering the
country and identified as carriers of new influenza peaks
recorded on June 12 when 11 cases were detected in
 less than 24 hours. In addition, during the weekend June
22-24 found 18 cases, while 18 to 21 of the 17 other
month.
The expansion in Greece
As is clear from the data of the European Centre for
Disease Prevention and Control, the rate of spread of
new flu is in full correspondence with those of other
European countries: While in the second half of May
across Europe of new cases recorded did not exceed 50
per day; the beginning of the month and then we are
shown up 7plasia increase. In fact, on June 13 and 12
recorded the first major outbreak of new cases can
amount to 280 and 240, respectively. The second "wave"
came on 19 and 20 of the month with 350 and 300 new
cases and the third on June 22 with 320 cases.
How not to stick by the ... Aunt from Chicago
"No to extremism 'is adamant Mr Trichopoulos, who
advises people to follow closely the hand hygiene and to
protect their babies because they are not immune
competence, but not to limit their social lives.
What to watch the ... Local
• frequent and careful hand washing with soap and water
(especially after shaking hands with the traveler or by
using public transportation and places where there is
overcrowding)
• avoid contact with eyes, hands, nose and mouth
• avoid close contact with people who have symptoms
• protecting children and young people belonging to
vulnerable groups
What should I watch for travelers, visitors
During the trip:
• standards of hygiene (eg, washing hands, covering
mouth and nose when coughing, avoid hand contact with
nose and mouth)
When you cross the border:

Monitor their health for seven days

• In the meantime to avoid close contact with young children and people
who have chronic diseases
* If you experience fever (38 degrees Celsius and above) and flu
symptoms to stay home or hotel and contact the KEELPNO (-5212054 210
and 210 to 5,222,339), virus of swine influenza is an unprecedented mix of
viruses are usually pigs, birds and people. In Mexico, where there have
been several deaths so far, the first signs of the epidemic became
apparent in late March this year, a sharp increase in cases in April. The
concerned officials of the World Health Organization (WHO), is justified by
the fact that pigs can be a home birth of a new strain of highly pathogenic
for humans, by combining the genetic material of swine influenza and
avian influenza. The pigs involved in the emergence of new strains of
viruses responsible for two flu pandemics in the 20th century. The
respiratory system of pigs have receptors that make these animals
vulnerable to infection from both viruses and human viruses in birds.
What is the swine flu
Swine flu is a highly contagious acute respiratory disease in pigs. The
morbidity tends to be high and low mortality (1-4%). The virus is spread
among pigs by aerosols, and direct or indirect contact. Outbreaks occur in
pigs throughout the year, with an increased incidence in autumn and
winter. Many countries vaccinate populations usually pigs against swine
flu. The swine flu viruses are more common strain H1N1 (the USA
announced that the virus responsible for the disease had taftopoiithithei as
the H1N1 strain), but there are other strains in pigs (eg, H1N2, H3N1,
H3N2). Pigs can also be infected with avian influenza viruses and human
seasonal influenza viruses. The H3N2 virus is believed that fever was
originally introduced in pigs than people. Sometimes pigs can be infected
with multiple virus types at a time, which could allow the genes of these
viruses to mix. This can lead to an influenza virus containing genes from
different sources. Although the swine flu viruses normally infect only
specific and pigs, sometimes it can cause illness in humans. He has 4
children of mixed DNA. MILITARY PRODUCT IS BIOLOGICAL WAR
What is the impact on human health?
The general clinical symptoms are similar to seasonal flu but the reported
clinical situation varies widely from asymptomatic infection to severe
pneumonia, the resulting death. As the clinical condition similar to
seasonal flu, most cases of viral fever in humans have been detected by
chance, through surveillance of seasonal influenza. Mild or asymptomatic
cases may have escaped recognition. Therefore, the true extent of this in
humans is unknown.
How do people become infected?
People usually acquire the swine flu from infected pigs, but in some cases
have been recorded, there is a lack of people with the pigs or the
environment where the pigs have been found. He has been transmitted
from human to human, but has appeared in a few cases, but was limited to
close contacts and close groups of people.
Is it safe to eat pork products from pigs?
Yes. The swine flu has not proven to be transmitted to humans by this
method. The virus of swine influenza killed by cooking temperatures
(around 70 ° C), corresponding to the general instructions for preparing
pork.
What should worry?
It is not clear yet how serious the situation is or how fast the disease
spreads. The evidence is conflicting (lethal in Mexico, mild in the U.S.).
Each time that a new strain of influenza (as seems the case now), which
has acquired the ability to "jump" from person to person, closely watched
by scientists and health authorities do have the potential to evolve into an
epidemic or pandemic. The Spanish flu pandemic of 1918 (caused by a
mutation of H1N1) was the most deadly in modern times, contaminated
about 40% of world population and killed more than 50 million people,
especially young people. The 1957 Asian flu (a mutation of the virus I2N2
human influenza, combined with a mutation of the avian wild duck) killed 2
million people, especially seniors. In 1968, a mutation known as H3N2,
which began in Hong Kong, killing 1 million people worldwide, including
over 65 years.
For the new case of swine flu, the World Health Organization warns that it
is serious and could potentially lead to a global pandemic. But stresses
that it is too early to assess properly the situation develops. It is
encouraging that, unlike the lethal outbreaks in Mexico in other countries
(notably the U.S. and most are due to proximity) the patient's symptoms
are more mild, which probably means that something unusual is
happening in Mexico. Probably exists in this country in action a second
unrelated virus is local, but will not affect the rest of the world. Judging that
something unusual is happening is that the new flu fever mainly affects
young people (who have fewer antibodies) and no seniors, as usual
regular flu.
Is there a cure?
Two common flu drugs, Tamiflu and Relenza, appear to be effective in
addressing the incidents so far, according to U.S. authorities. But because
the virus can develop resistance, it can not be sure how long these
medicines are effective. It is also still uncertain whether it can be effective
flu vaccines against the new strain, which is genetically different from other
strains of flu. On the other hand, there are no stocks of vaccine for the new
virus. American scientists are already preparing a new vaccine, but it will
take time to be perfected and be produced in sufficient quantities from
pharmaceutical companies, to cover the huge global demand - if
necessary. However, if the virus experienced successive waves of
exacerbation and remission, as in previous cases, we will have more time
to prepare.
Related to avian influenza in the swine flu?
The strain of avian influenza (H5N1) has caused several deaths in East
Asia in recent years, but also influenza A, is different from that of swine
influenza (H1N1). Although scientists fear that avian influenza has the
potential to cause a pandemic because of the ability to rapidly mutate, until
now has remained virtually disease of birds and people who are stuck,
almost without exception, were working near poultry. The cases of
infection among people from the H5N1 is rare at the moment, so there
seems to still have this flu develop the ability of easy transmission between
humans - something that remains to be seen whether now is the case of
swine flu.
It relates the swine flu, or influenza, the common cold?
Too often confused because both the flu and colds are caused by viruses
that carry similar symptoms, so it is almost impossible to distinguish them
based only on symptoms. However, the flu is more intense symptoms
(particularly fever and feeling exhausted) and above can lead to serious
complications.
Can the swine flu to reach any country?
Authorities in many countries (and Greece) are already taking precautions.
Since travel is now so widespread, it is likely that a player can transfer it to
another country. The degree of risk depends on so readily transmitted the
virus to other people - something that scientists are investigating. The
symptoms need several days to occur and meanwhile the virus can spread
before the onset of first symptoms.
May eventually be a pandemic at some point?
Any new virus that is transmitted between humans causes such fear,
because the human body immune system is not appropriate antibodies.
Most countries have in the drawer of plans for such a case, including
medicines, vaccines and quarantine measures of the players - something
already done in Mexico, banning public gatherings, closing schools, etc.
What are the appropriate safeguards?
The usual. Frequent hand washing with soap, avoid contact with hands
nose and mouth, safety distances from the sick, mask, etc.
Event 1976 Event virus of swine flu appeared in the American camp in
New Jersey in 1976, after the return of soldiers from the licensing of
Christmas. The virus has symptoms of pneumonia in at least four soldiers
and one died. The virus spread among soldiers during training, while
confined within the limits of military installations. Hotline for suspected
cases have any information concerning suspicious incident KE.EL.P.NO
operates the hotline 210 52 12 054 52 210 and 22 339.
www.kathimerini.gr with information from WHO - APE
It is a very common disease that disappears quickly. The number of
viruses that cause the common cold is too great. The rinoios appears in
more than 100 types. There are other viruses such as adenoviruses,
viruses influenzae of paraiyflouentas. It is found mainly in the winter
months. Adults during the winter exhibit on average 2-4 "colds", while
children up to about 6. Viruses with droplets eksfentonizontai the strong
speech, coughing and sneezing and "pollute" the air we breathe the
person to be infected. Also hands come into contact with nose or objects
that have fallen droplets which are viruses. The symptoms last from 48
hours up to 3 weeks. The main symptoms are: fever, malaise - joint pains -
muscle aches - sneezing - runny nose - cough - expectoration.
Treatment is symptomatic. Based on the rest, but the use of certain drugs
such as antihistamines, the bronchodilator, non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory. No antibiotics for the treatment of the flu.
Cigarettes with low tar associated with increased incidence of
adenocarcinoma increased use of cigarettes with low tar content can be
associated with increased incidence and lower survival rates from
adenocarcinoma, according to a study conducted in Holland and published
in Epidemiology . We studied 7000 patients for the period from 1975 to
1994.Paratirithike that the percentage of adenkarkinomaton men with non-
small cell lung cancer almost doubled to reach 18% within a period of 20
years ran the study. Also, a fall in survival rates from 59% to 43% for the
period of one year from diagnosis and from 36% to 27% for the five-year
survival despite improvements in the level of health services.
One possible explanation for this phenomenon is that increased use of
cigarettes, low tar led to changes in smoking habits, ie smokers inhale far
stronger and keep the smoke inside the lungs longer, resulting in
increased risk of developing malignancies in the region lung developing
and most adenocarcinomas. In contrast, in women, which has long
preferred cigarettes low tar, no significant changes in the epidemiology of
this malignancy. Come and should therefore be added to the negative
effects of smoking. I read the Times and I can convey here:

The best ones are at risk from passive smoking

Smokers now have another reason to quit smoking. Health of their beloved
pet, which is threatened by passive smoking. According to U.S. research,
published in the issue of American Journal of Tobacco Control the effects
of passive smoking in humans is unknown. However, investigations
conducted and the effects of passive smoking in animals have shown a
link between exposure to tobacco smoke and animal cancers (lymphoma
in cats or cancer of the nose and lungs in dogs). Surveys have shown a
correlation between Passive smoking and allergic reactions to dogs or eye
diseases and breathing problems and skin of birds. Few smokers seem to
know the consequences of harmful habits to their own pets. Research
team of Henry Ford Health System in Detroit, had a telephone survey of
pet owners in Michigan on their habits with regard to smoking and to
determine whether respondents know about the impact on animals.
Around 3300 people participated in the survey. One in five of them were
smokers and at least one in four lived with at least one smoker. The
average number of cigarettes smoked daily was 13.5 and half of them
smoke at home. For about one in three smokers (28.4%), the fact that
smoking harms the health of animals would be perhaps an incentive to
quit. 14% would ask their partner or family member who smokes to stop
smoking inside the house and about 9% would ask him to stop smoking
completely. The researchers believe that the animal can be used as an
effective anti-smoking campaigns in the argument. Approximately two to
three families in the U.S. have a pet. People who suffer a heart attack and
beyond are more likely to experience cardiology re serious problem if
routinely exposed to cigarette smoke of others, say Greek researchers. As
noted by Dr. Demosthenes Panagiotakos from Harokopio University of
Athens, and colleagues, patients hospitalized with heart attack or a serious
type of chest pain called unstable angina, are 61% more likely to develop
new acute coronary syndrome within the next 30 days if they are
systematically exposed to passive smoke. "Considering that the risk of
recurrent events in people who already have one (acute coronary
syndrome), is much higher during the first 30 days after the attack, chronic
exposure to Passive smoking appears to significantly increase the added
risk, "the scientists write in the journal Heart." In the Greek study involved
2172 patients who had diakomisthei six hospitals with myocardial infarction
or unstable angina. 46% said at home or in the workplace are exposed to
cigarette smoke of others. Within 30 days after the evacuation to hospital,
11% of those people were wrong with more coronary events, while the rate
among patients was not systematic passive smokers was 8%.
When the researchers took into account other risk factors, found that
passive smoking increases the risk of second heart attack or unstable
angina crisis by 61% - and the effect of passive smoking were twice as
high in patients who themselves were smokers. Exposure to tobacco
smoke in the workplace proved to be more dangerous than as passive
smoking at home, more than doubling the risk of second cardiac event.
Based on their findings, researchers estimated that 45% of the second
acute coronary syndromes who are passive smokers can be attributed
directly to passive smoking. Patris newspaperΈνας στους πέντε θανάτους
από καρκίνο στην Αυστραλία αποδίδονται στο κάπνισμα Ο αριθμός των
γυναικών που πεθαίνουν από ασθένειες που προκαλεί το κάπνισμα, όπως
ο καρκίνος των πνευμόνων, είναι πλέον μεγαλύτερος από αυτόν που
προκαλεί ο καρκίνος του στήθους. Η αύξηση του αριθμού των γυναικών
που άρχισαν να καπνίζουν στις δεκαετίες του 1970 και 1980 έχει ως
αποτέλεσμα και την αύξηση των θανάτων σήμερα από ασθένειες που
σχετίζονται με το κάπνισμα, ενώ η κατάσταση αναμένεται να χειροτερέψει
με την πάροδο των χρόνων. Σύμφωνα με τα πρόσφατα στοιχεία που
έδωσε στη δημοσιότητα το Αυστραλιανό Ινστιτούτο Υγείας, ένας στους
πέντε θανάτους από καρκίνο στην Αυστραλία αποδίδονται στο κάπνισμα.
Αυτό σημαίνει ότι 8.511 άτομα πεθαίνουν κάθε χρόνο από σχετικές
ασθένειες. Το 2005 πέθαναν 2.716 γυναίκες από ασθένειες του
καπνίσματος, ενώ ο αριθμός των γυναικών που πέθαναν από καρκίνο του
στήθους τον ίδιο χρόνο ανήλθε στις 2.707. Το 2010 ο καρκίνος των
πνευμόνων αναμένεται να σκοτώσει 3.277 γυναίκες, ενώ ο καρκίνος του
στήθους 2.930.
Ο καρκίνος των πνευμόνων συνεχίζει να είναι και ο μεγαλύτερος «φονιάς»
των ανδρών. Το 2005 πέθαναν 4.711 άνδρες από καρκίνο των πνευμόνων
Πηγή: skai.gr

New York: Women who are surrounded by regular smokers may find it
difficult to become pregnant, according to new findings published in the
journal Tobacco Control. Studies have shown that women who smoke
increase the risk of various complications during pregnancy and the baby
itself. But less information is known about the dangers of passive smoking,
although some studies have linked exposure to tobacco smoke during
pregnancy are at increased risk of miscarriage. In this investigation,
researchers at the University of Rochester in New York, they studied 4804
women who had visited the Cancer Institute Rosgouel Park between 1982-
1998 to control or cure cancer. All had a surrogate mother at least once in
their lives. Overall the data found that 11% of women have difficulty
achieving pregnancy, while the third had eliminates or had a stillborn
infant. The risk of these problems tended to increase while the number of
hours per day a woman was exposed secondary to tobacco smoke, a
pattern clearly shows a causal relationship. Indeed, women who grow up
with one parent smoked were 39% more likely to achieve pregnancy,
defined as an effort to more than one year. Additionally, women who were
exposed to tobacco smoke both during childhood and into adulthood were
39% more likely to abort or have stillborn baby and 68% more likely to
have problems achieving pregnancy. Tobacco smoke contains a group of
toxic ingredients that may cause harm to the reproductive system of
women. The toxins in tobacco can damage the cell genetic material to
interfere with conception, increase the risk of miscarriage or inhibiting
hormones necessary for conception and successful
egkymosyni.Iealth.in.gr
London: Babies born to non-emergency caesarean section are four times
more likely to have respiratory problems than those born naturally,
according to Danish study published in the journal British Medical Journal.
A team at the University of Aarhus in Denmark, led by Dr. Anne Hansen
notes that the risk is greater when the cesarean section performed early.
This is an important observation especially for women who choose to
undergo a caesarean section. The researchers do not recommend
caesarean sections performed before 39ievdomada pregnancy, as many
of the selective caesarean sections performed between 37isai 38th week.
Because babies born by Caesarean section at higher risk remains unclear,
but Dr. Hansen explains that it may be due to hormonal and physiological
changes associated with childbirth. The process of birth causes the
secretion of stress hormones in the mother are transmitted to the fetus and
are believed to be key to maturing the lungs of the newborn. The cases of
respiratory problems associated with caesarean section and are often
severe and require incubator and oxygen therapy. The Danish researcher
has verified more than 34,000 births and found four times the risk of
respiratory difficulties in babies born by Caesarean section at 37 weeks,
three times higher for those born at 38 weeks and twice the risk were born
at 39 weeks. As a result, 10% of babies were born by Caesarean section
had respiratory problems when born at 37 weeks, compared with 2.8% of
those born with normal birth. At 39 weeks gestation, the rate was 2.1%
and 1.1% respectively. But Dr. Hansen notes that caesarean section may
have benefits, especially in the case of infants who have the wrong
position during childbirth in cases where the mother or fetus are at
immediate risk. source: health.in.gr London: The Smoking causes damage
to the skin over the entire surface of the body, according to a new study
published in the journal Archives of Dermatology. Researchers at the
University of Michigan came to this conclusion by studying the upper
interior of the arm and non-smokers. Previous studies have focused on the
face, where skin can also be altered by exposure to sunlight.
The researchers photographed the upper right arm 82 people. Participants
were 22-91 years and the ratio used broad solar spectrum was to study
the physical condition of new and aging skin. Half of the participants had a
history of smoking and had smoked on average 24 years. The number of
packs of cigarettes smoked ranged from a quarter of the package to four
packs a day.
Scientists have created a nine-step scale to measure the harm suffered by
the skin, which is not exposed. In people over 65 years, recorded nearly
two points difference between smokers and non. In people over 45 years,
the difference was in one unit.
"We found that the number of packages smoked per day, total years of
smoking and the average number of packets smoked per day ton in the
number of years smoking correlated with degree of skin aging. After
checking the age and other variables, we found that only packs of
cigarettes smoked per day was a strong predictor of the degree of photo-
protected skin aging.
Previous studies have shown that smokers have a greater degree of skin
aging, but were focused on the facial skin of course been raised objections
because the sun affects the skin of the face. We demonstrated that a
significant degree of damage occurs from smoking. Of course we need
more research on the issue about the mechanism of action of smoking on
the skin, "notes Dr. Yolanda Chelfrich, who led the research
diadikasion.HEALTH.IN.GR New York: The results of a new Irish study
confirm that smokers have a harder arteries non-smokers, but the adverse
vascular effects are reversible with smoking cessation. Certainly need
more than ten years of stopping smoking for reversing arterial sclerosis.
Researchers at Trinity College Dublin, led by Dr. Noor Tzatoi compared
the differences in arterial sclerosis using analytical method with arterial
pulse wave in a sample of 554 patients 18-80 years old with significant
hypertension was not addressed. The 150 were current smokers, 136
were former smokers and 268 were non-smokers. Former smokers
separated according to the downtime of a cigarette to a group of less than
one year, more than one year or more than ten years. In ex-smokers
during the cessation of the habit was associated with improvements in
arterial sclerosis, the hardening parameters of the blood returning to
insignificant levels after a decade of abstinence from smoking. The arterial
sclerosis is an independent predictor of events in hypertensive patients.
Stopping smoking can help reduce cardiovascular events by improving
arterial sclerosis even in longstanding hypertensive smokers
HEALTH.IN.GR
When you decide to quit the following happens:
In 20 minutes: Blood pressure and pulse drop in temperature extremes
kanonikoI rises to normal
In 8 hours: Carbon monoxide in blood drops to kanoniko.To oxygen rises
to normal levels
In 24 hours: It decreases the chance of heart attack
In 48 hours: Strengthens the taste and smell
In 72 hours: Breathing begins to operate omalotera.Afxanetai capacity of
the lungs
From 2 weeks to 3 months: circulation is walking veltionetai.To efkolotero.I
lung function increases by 30%
From 1 to 9 months: Stops coughing and breathing takes kourasi.I
perissotero.Archizei restoration of endothelial loops
After 5 years: The death from lung cancer in the average smoker (one
pack a day) reduced (50%) of 137 per 100,000 to 72 per 100,000
After 10 years: The precancerous cells antikathistantai.Oi chances of other
cancers (mouth, larynx, esophagus), bladder (kidney and pancreas)
decrease. (Source: Internet)
geopithttp: / /
www.blogger.com/profile/01139093926868921394geopit1966 @
gmail.com0tag: blogger.com, 1999: blog-30172310.post-
46692551368312777662007-03-21T10: 37:00.002 +02:002009-03-26T13:
28: 43.807 +02:00
Value smoking, wheezing and childhood asthma:
Exposure to tobacco smoke at home is associated with increased risk for
developing respiratory infections and chronic respiratory symptoms in the
first years of life. The relationship between exposure to tobacco smoke at
home with asthma and with wheeze was examined among 11,534 children
aged 8-11 years in the U.S. and America in 1988-1993. Information on
symptoms the previous year and the child's history of exposure to tobacco
smoke was complemented by his mother in the form of a questionnaire.
Children who were exposed to cigarette smoke at home are at greater risk
for developing wheezing after every cold. These children often go to
emergency departments in the hospital and had persistent wheezing
syriptousa breath. These symptoms increase with the level of exposure
and there was no difference, if smoking was derived from the father,
mother or other adults. Contrary to the appearance of symptoms of
wheezing, diagnosed by the doctor and asthma drug use for asthma does
not significantly associated with exposure to tobacco smoke at home. The
conclusion of the article is that exposure to tobacco smoke inside the
home is associated with wheezing, and wheezing in the ambulance to
emergency departments of hospitals in the U.S. and Canada.
(Cunningham J, O'Connor GT, Dockery DW, Speizer FE. Am J Respir Crit
Care Med 153:218-224, 1996)
You think you know the truth about smoking. But is it? You know, really,
what substances are contained in a cigarette? GET READY FOR RS
Did you know that cigarettes contain formaldehyde, the same substance
used for maintenance of dead frogs? NET CARCINOGENS;
Did you know that the same cyanide, used in rat poison found in tobacco
smoke, which is next-whether you smoke or socialize people who smoke?
And the nicotine in cigarettes? Probably already know that it is highly
addictive, but did you know that it is also a powerful insecticide?
• Prepared smoke can cause six times more contamination than a major
highway in rush hour, when the smoke in a crowded restaurant.
• Prepared smoke causes 30 times more deaths from lung cancer, the
combination of all known contaminants.
• Prepared tobacco gives an unpleasant smell as in clothes and hair.
• Prepared tobacco causes shortness of breath, cough, pain in ears and
asthma attacks.
• Prepared smoke fills the air, with many of the same poisons present in
the atmosphere of the burial of toxic waste.
• Prepared Tobacco destroys the scent and taste of food.
• Prepared tobacco causes redness and itching, eye irritation and lacrimal
glands.
• Prepared Tobacco kills nearly 3,000 passive smoking each year due to
cancer pnefmonon.3 Prepared by tobacco causes 300,000 lung infections
(like pneumonia and bronchitis) in infants and young children each year.
The leading causes of death from smoking is lung cancer, heart disease
and chronic obstructive airways disease. The list of other diseases
associated with smoking is long: bladder cancer, esophagus, larynx,
mouth, head and neck cancer, effects on the reproductive system • also:
abdominal aortic aneurysm, acute myeloid leukemia, cataract, trachilou
cancer of the uterus, kidney, pancreas, etc.
Thinking about stopping smoking? There are many ways, with or without
aids, abruptly or gradually. The decision is yours provided that you are fully
reconciled with the idea that things would not be so easy. Did you know
that within five minutes of smoking a cigarette, nicotine travels "already in
the brain where you give the signal release chemicals that make the
smoker wants to smoke more? Every cigarette you smoke cut 5 ½ 'from
life us. Every ten 10 seconds one person dies on earth because of
smoking.
For those who now have decided to quit smoking if you want you can also
use some of his methods may help in smoking cessation such as nicotine
gum, nicotine patches, medication given by your doctor.
"Source: Internet"
An allergy occurs when the body reacts abnormally and over a wide range
paragonton.Oi factors are called allergens, typically most people do not
cause allergies provlimata.Se however, the autonomic nervous system
reacts abnormally, released large quantities of chemical substances body
cells such as histamine, serotonin and prostaglandines.Oi active
substances in various organs, skin, lungs and bronchi, nose and vases.
The actions of these substances leads to the development of different
types of symptoms can be mild but sometimes can be threatening and life
(anaphylactic shock). The avoidance of allergens that cause an
overreaction of the body is not easy ypothesi.Archika must be established
what is the factor that caused the allergic reaction. When identification of
the allergens that are responsible for the problem, then either be removed
or the patient should be kept as far away from them.
What's This template allergy house dust?
Unfortunately there is no house without powder. This routine can dust
some people simply by inhalation can cause severe allergic reactions. The
house dust is composed of hair and dandruff humans and animals,
feathers and shredded cloth fibers, fungal, and especially by ticks.
What are ticks?
It is very small insects which the human eye can not see them without a
magnifying lens. Biologically, the same family as the spider and feeding
among other organic substances such dandruff on the skin, feather and
the content of pillows and mattresses.
The tiny bugs are not carrying diseases, but unfortunately allergic alert too
many people.
How can you recognize an allergy house dust?
His eyes are watery and itchy. Also presented torturous itching nose,
sneezing, coughing and wheezing. These symptoms appear kath1 guide
throughout the year. These symptoms are at an advanced stage may
become allergic asthma, the more the young atoma.Oi flare reactions are
wet and warm periods.
So just to banish the dust of the house?
We all know that it is possible to remove the dust completely from spiti.Alla
can do different things, and to reduce contact with household dust mites
and cruel. The most important is to clean up the bedroom:

* Change your bed everything is made from organic substances with

similar synthetic materials.
So change your mattress if it is cotton or wool or horse hair, etc. contain
and put a layer of synthetic material. Also, sheets, pillows and blankets to
be fabricated.
* Ventilate each day the mattress, blankets, etc., if possible in the sun.
* Change linen every week.
* Remove from your bedroom anything "pulls" powder: carpet, furniture
fabric lining, woolen carpets, longhaired and heavy curtains, books,
shelves, etc. Even fake wool and various animals, which children love to
have in their bed, must be removed from the bedroom.
* Make sure you do not have much humidity in your home and especially
in the bedroom temperature is not high (ideal temperature of 18 ° C).
What can we do preventive home?
Do not lift dust, if dust off. The best solution is sucked up the dust with a
vacuum cleaner. But the very allergic patient should not be cleaned with a
vacuum cleaner. Also you should avoid animals you have to. home.
Can the doctor to identify the disease responsible for allergens: Yes,
practical methods of diagnosis of allergy. In these - including the precise
examination of the patient-record information, which referred to and the
months or weeks in the year where symptoms occur and describe the
symptoms of them. Finally, with the usual skin tests, doctor identify the
responsible allergens.

"Source: Allergiology surgery Antifymatikis Venizelio Unit '

Hay fever is rare disease?
Unfortunately not. The hay fever is the most common allergic disease. In
Northern and Central Europe affected each year about 1% of the entire
population, while in North America 3-10%. The symptoms of hay fever
occur in conjunctiva of the eyes, mucous membranes of the nose and
lower respiratory system. The reason is the inhalation of pollen. Key
features are: frequent sneezing in the spring and summer, runny nose,
cough and breathlessness.
What part of the dust of the flower is responsible for the seasonal sniffles?
Found after many inquiries, it is the grains of pollen. Many different types
yperantidraseis cause the mucous membranes of susceptible people,
especially in spring and summer, because then gyreis suspended in large
quantities in the air.
Causing all kinds of pollen allergy;
Fortunately not. If one type of pollen allergy often causes or not depends
mainly on whether the plant from which it derives, is fertilized by air or by
insects.
The plants are fertilized with air, typically produce large amounts of light,
dry pollen that is transferred by air at a distance of one hundred or even
several kilometers. These plants often cause allergies.
The plants are fertilized by insects typically produce heavier and sticky
pollen and cause no allergy so frequently.
Different plants bloom according to the location and climate where they
grow and have different blooming periods. So, from spring to autumn in the
air hover several types of pollen.
What are dangerous times for hay fever?
theoretically from the beginning of the year until late October because the
different species have different flowering times. The major strength of
anthiseos prevalent in spring and to a lesser degree in the summer.
How to recognize the hay fever?
The disease's acute phase is recognized by redness of the conjunctiva of
the eye, the annoying itching, often accompanied with tears in her eyes,
irritation to nose, the strong nose and sneezing.
Although hay fever can last long enough to lead to cough, cause voice
hoarseness, dyspnea, dryness and abortion vlennis.Prosochi: No
treatment of hay fever, allergic to the sick every year! And after a few years
this may develop into asthma.
What can we do?
We can give some allergy guidelines:
At flowering plants tease you, reduce your contact with them to a
minimum.
If possible, do not go to the countryside at the time you have reactions.
When the weather is warm you have closed your windows from the night
until early morning, especially since the early
hours large quantities of pollen floating in the air.
Avoid doing sports or other physical labor outdoors. This also applies to
garden work.
Wash your hair before going to bed, because otherwise you may be stuck
pollen in your hair.
Do not change your clothes in the bedroom. Also not to store there. When
driving a car to avoid you open the window.
Is there any method by which to identify those responsible for allergy
gyreis (= allergen);
Fortunately yes. Detection is currently available methods of diagnosis of
allergy. These include the analysis of medical patient record information,
which describes the symptoms and referred to within the months and
weeks in the year, showing these symptoms. Finally, with known skin test
identifies the responsibility for raising awareness of the individual
allergens.
How does the doctor successfully hay fever?
The most successful treatment is immunotherapy (desensitization), in
which the patient gradually ceases to be sensitive to the allergen that in
mind and developed an immune protection to the body.
You must always follow this treatment when symptoms of allergy lasting
more than 3 weeks time or if they developed asthma.
To relieve the symptoms but not cure the allergy, antihistamines are also
used, several drops and drops for the nose. Such a potential
pharmacotherapy for the relief of suffering should not be considered as a
treatment because the drugs to relieve not immune activity such as special
vaccines used for this purpose. "Source: Allergiology surgery Antifymatikis
Venizelio Unit '
OVERCOMING FORMALDEFDIS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS TOXIKOLOGIAS
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
3.1. Introduction to Air Pollution
The Environmental Toxicology has established important research areas
for the effects of air pollution on living organisms, with particular emphasis
on residents of urban areas. Air pollution is mainly associated with
gaseous pollutants, aerosols and particles emitted from a wide variety of
contaminants (such as vehicles, industries, power plants, etc.). These
pollutants can enter the lungs by breathing, causing respiratory problems
especially, but also the effect on plants and animals can cause various
damage to living tissue. Initial investigations into the toxic effects of air
pollutants were applied in the workplace, where workers were in an
environment with high concentrations and exposure was long.
Employees accepting the influence of toxic and hazardous substances,
mixtures of substances and physical agents, thereby significantly damage
their health (occupational diseases, occupational cancer, chronic lung
disease). In contrast to the natural environment (cities, areas with plants
and crafts)
concentrations of toxic substances and reports are much lower and the
severity of impact depends on the duration of exposure, age and lifestyle
of people.
1 The term air pollution covers a wide range of toxic pollutants and
suspended particulate matter emitted into the global troposphere (0-15
km), and a variety of secondary photochemical pollutants and other
atmospheric phenomena resulting from anthropogenic emissions. The
stratosphere (15-50 km) is the area where there is a thin layer of ozone,
the main purpose of protecting life on Earth from ultraviolet radiation from
sunlight. The main sources of air pollution are
exhaust from vehicles, emissions from factories and small industries
(mainly from burning fossil fuels for energy production u960 and powder
processing equipment), power plants, central heating of houses, burning of
agricultural waste and
waste, air emissions from agriculture and animal husbandry and natural
emissions of plants and trees. The main pollutants are carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide (CO, CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs, volatile
 organic compounds), and a variety of suspended particles (suspended
particulate matter), fumes, industrial facilities, construction and volcanic
drastiriotita.2

3.1.1. Atmospheric pollutants

The most significant emissions of air pollution on carbon dioxide (CO2),
which is non-toxic gas but with the excessive concentration of atmospheric
greenhouse gases. Worldwide CO2 emissions by 14,520,000 tons

(1971) doubled to, approximately 30,000,000 tons in 2000 and is booming

because of high demand on energy production in developing countries
(China, India, etc.) .3,4 Numerous studies show that greenhouse gases
play an important role ecosystems and the main groups of nutrients and
stoicheion.5 6 Carbon monoxide (CO) is a highly toxic gas produced by
70-80% from car fumes. CO emissions from vehicles and industries are
estimated at about 200ekatommyria tonnes, of which 70% is the OECD
(Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD, the
body 24 most advanced industrial countries based in Paris). Similar
amounts of CO generated at the global scale forest fires and burning
viomazas.7
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is quite toxic gas pollutes the natural
environment. SO2 is the result of fossil fuel with high sulfur content and
emissions of volcanoes. It is estimated that SO2 emissions in the 80s was
about 100 million tonnes, of which 40% of countries OOSA.8 By improving
Fuel (desulphurization), SO2 emissions have decreased significantly.
The SO2 addition to its effect on human health in urban areas with
increased air pollution, causing damage to surfaces of buildings and
dissolve in water vapor creates acid rain (acid rain) destroying forests and
causing the acidification of lakes impacts on aquatic organismous.9
Nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2, NOx) are usually gaseous pollutants from
vehicle exhaust (40-50%), but produced 50% from various combustion at
high temperatures. NOx emissions on a global
level estimated at 60 million tonnes (late 80s), of which 54% come from
OECD countries. NOx is a factor in the production of acid rain and
contribute together with CO2 and methane (CH4) exacerbate the
greenhouse effect. Especially for NOx agreed special international treaty
to reduce tous.10
Particulate matter (suspended particulates, particulate matter, PM) is a
variety of small diameter particles (50 to 0.1 mm) from various materials
and combustion (solid soil, dust, tire burning carbon particles, etc.)
suspended in the atmosphere of urban and industrial areas. The total
emissions are estimated at 60 million tonnes (1980) of which 23% are due
OECD countries. The porous surface of the particles is the adsorption
of heavy metals, carcinogens and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
resulting in causing diseases and malignant neoplasms of respiratory
system. Epidemiological surveys in recent decades indicate increased
morbidity and mortality in urban areas due to high concentrations of
suspended particles inhaled (particularly small diameter particles, PM10,
PM2.5, and 2.5 to 10 mm) .11,12
The VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds, VOCs) are mainly
characterized by volatile aromatic compounds (such as benzene, toluene,
xylenes, etc.) emitted into the atmosphere. The sources of VOCs are
industrial and exhaust fumes, vehicle service stations
fuels, paints and construction materials. Although the total emissions is
difficult to estimate, the U.S. emit about 17,580,000 tons (1990), Great
Britain 2,600,000 tons and 2,545,000 tons, Germany. The VOCs may
persist for 1-2 days in the atmosphere degradation in a variety of
hydrocarbons. VOCs play an important role in photochemical reactions
and contribute to environmental pollution due to high toxic and
carcinogenic VOCs are hazardous to health anthropou.13, 14
polychlorinated organic compounds (dioxins, dibenzofurans,
polychlorinated biphenyls, PCBs) is atmospheric Gaseous pollutants
produced by various combustion (automobile exhaust, forest fires,
emissions from insulation materials), or use pesticides. The PCBs were
used as insulating and dielectric fluids in transformers (before the ban in
1985). In recent decades there have been major efforts worldwide to
reduce polychlorinated substances biodegrade in the environment and
bioaccumulate through the food chain (pesticides, etc). The Stockholm
Treaty on POPs (Persistent Organic Pollutants) aims at reducing the use
and emissions
polychlorinated substances (priority is to limit or ban certain
substances: Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Chlordane, Heptachlor,
Hexachlorobenzene, Mirex, Toxaphene, Polychlorinated Biphenyls,
Dioxins, Furans) .15,16
Ozone (O3) is a secondary air pollutant, produced as a result of
photochemical reactions between hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the
atmosphere. Because of the oxidizing capacity of ozone is considered
extremely dangerous pollutant, both for health
man, and for damage to plants, trees and ylika.17 18
the emission of toxic air pollutants. Air pollution is not confined to the
area where air pollutants are emitted, it has an impact on neighboring
countries
the transboundary movement. For this reason they have signed
international conventions on limitation and control of transboundary
pollution. StinEfropi since 1979 has signed the Convention on Long Range
Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) and controlled by the EMEP
(Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-
Range Transmission of Air Pollution in Europe). The original aim was to
check FOR THE acidification and eutrophication, but expanded ozone
tispolychloriomenes compounds, heavy metals and particulate
somatidia.19 burning waste, toxic waste and biomass are also
another form of pollution of the atmosphere with gaseous pollutants,
particulates, dioxins and furans. Although technology has
veltiotheisimantika to burn municipal waste and industrial waste (with
electrostatic filters in chimneys and high temperatures for toxic waste), the
problem of air pollution paramenei.20 21
3.2. Air Pollution, global warming and
Impact on Environment
The solar radiation penetrates most of the
atmosphere and warms the Earth's surface, affecting the climate and
seasonal changes. The Earth emits a part of this heat energy back into
space. The gases in the atmosphere, which are at extremely low
concentrations (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of
nitrogen), binding energy is creating the problem of overheating of the
atmosphere such as an artificial greenhouse.
Global warming (Greenhouse effect) is the result of greenhouse gases
emitted and bound back into the solar radiation at the surface of our
planet. Without tofainomeno gases, temperatures on Earth will itanpoly
lower and life as we know it today could not be maintained. Since the
beginning of the industrial revolution 250 years ago, atmospheric CO2
concentrations have remained unchanged for centuries, the decades have
increased from 300 ppm in 1900 to 360 ppm in 2000). Although these
concentrations are extremely small, their importance is great for sensitive
ecosystems and the delicate balance that exists in the atmosphere of our
planet. Also, the other GHG concentrations have increased. For example,
methane (CH4) almost doubled (at 1,8 ppm compared to previous
seasons) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) increased by 15% (to 310 ppb from
300 ppb at the beginning of the century). Important is that the ability of
global NOx is 300 times greater than that of CO2. Also polyfthoriomenes
compounds (concentrations of 0.5-0.3 ppb), such as CFC-12, HCFC-22,
CF4 SF6, contributing to global warming.
Figure 3.2. The major emissions of greenhouse gases over the last 40
years-30 (CO2, CH4, N2O, Cl2). These increases were maximized to
capture heat from the earth's atmosphere.
In contrast, sulphate aerosols, while gaseous pollutants, with the ability
to reflect sunlight back into space partially reduced the temperature of the
atmosphere. Temperatures in the Earth's surface, as measured
systematically for decades, show an increase of 0,5-0,7 ° C by the end of
the 19th century. In the 20th century, the ten warmest years were among
the last 15 years (1985-2000, warmer in 1998). With the pace of increasing
greenhouse gases, it is estimated that in the next 50 years the average
temperature will increase by 0,6-2,5 1,4-5,8 ° C and ° Celsius in the next
century (scenarios calculations tend to confirmed by recent surveys) .
22,23
Figure 3.3. Greenhouse and average global temperature over the period
1860-2000 (Hadley Center, UK Meteorological Office, and Climate
research Unit, University of East Anglia).
The causes of global warming, after
 several years of controversy and conflict between scientists and
national environmental organizations have become generally accepted.
But even today there are different considerations for long-term problems
that will arise how the technologically acceptable solutions to reduce. The
Protocol of Kyoto (1997) to reduce emissions (CO2, CH4 and NOx),
although it is inefficient and costly, signed by several countries (84 from
160) who accepted a reduction of emissions at 1990 levels. However,
countries such as USA, China, India, Australia and other countries not
ratifying the protocol or not accept the rates and measures to reduce
emissions. Eventually, after much hesitation, Russia signed at the end of
2005, the Kyoto Protocol and the Agreement episimopoiithike.24, 25 The
impact of the Kyoto Protocol on reducing greenhouse gases is evident,
particularly in the energy policy of countries and economic activity. The
U.S. (the country produces about 25% of CO2 emissions worldwide) is
definitely the country with the greatest economic and energy problems of
the agreement to reduce greenhouse gases. Unlike countries like Britain
and Germany have achieved the highest reductions in greenhouse gas
emissions over the last chronia.26 Although the effects of global warming,
particularly rising temperatures, the environment, forests, agriculture ,
ecosystems, human health and other specialized aspects of the ecology of
our planet are limited at present, there are several investigations and
projections about the impact the next 50 - 100 years. The Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) in the U.S. has an extensive online catalog for
the greenhouse effect and its impact on the environment, and changes in
infectious diseases will be developed in various areas (www.epa.gov /
globalwarming / home.html) . Higher temperatures are expected to
increase mortality from cardiovascular diseases, thermal shock, thermal
stress and some respiratory problems. Ozone concentrations will increase
and affect asthma attacks and lung diseases. Global warming will increase
the risk for certain infectious diseases (malaria, dengue, yellow fever and
encephalitis) .27,28 The greenhouse will directly affect the water bodies
due to increased evaporation of water and masses of storage. If the
balance of evaporation and rainfall change will lead to drying of the soil,
reducing the level of lakes and rivers. The result will be changes to
navigation in rivers and lakes, flooding more frequent, less hydroelectric
power, reducing the quantity and quality of water in many areas for use in
agriculture, industry and urban areas (drinking water). The amount of
oxygen in water will decrease due to lower solubility effects on aquatic life,
particularly fish. Simultaneously, the salinity of the water will increase with
higher temperatures, both the rising sea level, and the reduction of
precipitation in estuaries potamon.29, 30 believed that population growth
and global warming will adversely affect water supplies and other sources
of wealth production trofimon.31 Global warming will affect polar regions
(Alaska, North and South Pole) containing a variety of natural features and
ecosystems. Large areas around the polar regions (glaciers, forests,
meadows, etc.) are sensitive to changes in temperature, ocean
temperature and other climatic conditions. Already observed slight
changes in ecosystems and forests in polar perioches.32, 33 The
temperature changes have brought about some changes in mountain
areas and forests, although from a scientific perspective there are many
uncertainties about changes in forest fires, forest and mountain
ecosystems, sharing water and biodiversity of wildlife. Although some tree
species can use the CO2 for enhanced growth and better uptake of water,
the negative impact of the drier soil and increased forest fires are most
important for the dynamics of forests and numerous mountain
periochon.34, 35 In recent years Several solutions to the issue of reducing
CO2 in the atmosphere. The most important solution seems to be the
expansion of tropical forests (forest and general) that could absorb the
extra CO2 in the atmosphere. Already several studies have estimated the
extent of tropical forest were lost from
systematic deforestation and forest fires, since 1980, was between 0,4 -
2.5 Pg (Pg = 1 δισεκατομμύριο metric tons, billion metric tons),
representing 35-50% of CO2 emissions from burning fossil kafsimon.36,
37
The different types of land is forest or agricultural crops,
as natural grassland (pasture), deserts, wetlands and coastal areas will
suffer the effects of global warming. With higher temperatures and water
loss will be the impact on soil moisture and extensive erosion, changes in
biodiversity, changes or endangered fauna and flora of these areas, and
changes to sensitive oikosystimata.38, 39 In recent years carried out
numerous environmental studies and environmental toxicology studies on
the effects of global warming and oikosystimata.40 Although it is too early
to detect significant changes in sensitive ecosystems, there is already
evidence of local and temporal shifts in species of plants and trees,
changes in the behavior of wild species nature, migration and colonization
of birds and other species in colder areas, klp.41, 42
Many scientists believe that major changes and impacts of global warming
will occur in agricultural production. While the warmer climate will
benefit crops in some cold regions of the planet and the presence of
elevated concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere will increase the
efficiency of some crops, other effects such as adequate water, soil
moisture, yield and quality of some crops will be arnitiki.43, 44
Agricultural production in countries like the U.S. and other developed
countries have the technological and economic power to adapt to new
conditions, avoid negative consequences. However, there are many
uncertainties about the impact on agriculture and food production,
depending on different scenarios of global warming and climate
allagon.45, 46
Global warming will affect the rising temperature of oceans, aquatic
organisms and ecosystems and fisheries. Scientists estimate that the
aquatic organisms and fish in open ocean will benefit from increased
temperatures, but in wetlands, coastal and inland sea areas (islands)
aqueous regions, changes in salinity, the dissolved oxygen and
temperature changes between high and low at different times will affect
negatively alieia.47, 48 Corals and coral islands in the oceans are
sensitive sensors of the phenomenon of global warming and surveys
show they have suffered a slight loss of color (bleaching) .49 Despite
the initial opposition to u945 the greenhouse effect, the
regular cyclical fluctuations in temperature on the surface oceans of
the Earth from solar flares of radiation, the average global temperature
has been shown to increase consistently in response to increases in
greenhouse gas pollutants thermokipiou.50 Although the Kyoto
Protocol is one long-term solutions to the problem have been proposed,
and other technological and ecological lyseis.51 The last decade has
begun a systematic inventory of greenhouse gas emissions and
reductions achieved by different countries. The European Union has an
active program of research and measurement of the phenomenon of
thermokipiou.52 The greenhouse effect is assumed to play the next
decades a leading role in major environmental and climatic changes on
our planet. Environmental toxicology, along with other environmental
science and ecotoxicology can explore the subtle biochemical changes
in living organisms and ecosystems, and toxicological effects
tissygkentroseis toxic pollutants in various environmental
compartments.
3.3.Fotochimiki Air Pollution, Ozone and Oxides of Nitrogen
Recent decades have been investigated and documented the
complex photochemical reactions that occur between organic and
inorganic pollutants and volatile compounds, producing secondary
pollutants that threaten the toxicity to human health and the
environment. The photochemical reactions are the result of energy
absorption (associated with solar radiation) from certain substances
with the effect of changing energy situation. This causes electronic
excitement which in turn leads to the creation of active substances such
as ions and free radicals capable of chain reaction and create
secondary rypon.53 The main photochemical reactions that occur are
the result of solar ultraviolet (UV), the active volatile hydrocarbons
(such as aldehydes), carbon monoxide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen
u964. The reactions are triggered by the mixture leads to the production
of key active pollutants such as ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2), nitric yperoxyloaketylio [CH3C (O) OONO2, peroxyacetyl
nitrate, PAN] and peroxides, of free nitrogen through mechanisms
rizon.54 Ozone is produced photochemically by oxidation of carbon
monoxide (CO) and VOCs with nitrogen oxides (NOx). The reactions
are: a) production by the root hydroxyl O3: O3 + hv + H2O → HO • +
O2
b) alkanes and hydroxyl root:
RH + HO • → H2O + R •
R • + O2 → RO2
RO2
• + NO • → NO2
• + RO •
c) formation of carbonyl compounds:
RO • + O2 → HO2
• + RCHO (aldehyde) or RCOR (ketone)
The ydrouperoxylo-root transformed to NO ozone
H2O • + NO • → NO2
• + HO •
NO2
• + hv → NO • + O.
O • + O2 → O3
Figure 3.4. A representative sample of chain reactions in the
photochemical
pollution (complexity of the mechanisms and the large number of
secondary
gaseous pollutants).
NO2 + hv → NO2
•
NO2
• + hv → NO + O
O • + O2 → O3
O3 + NO → NO2 + O2
O3 + HC → Ozone-HC complexes
↓
Aldehydes and other
oxidation products
Aldehydes
Advanced
organic compounds
Eye irritation
HC + O2 + NO2 + hv
↓
Ozone Aldehydes + + PAN
• oxidation products
Products
oxidation
Polymerization
and
core development
Aerosols
fog
O3 PAN Formaldehyde,
Acrolein, etc.
O3
NO
Exhaust
cars
HC NO2
SUN Nuclei
aerosol
UV-radiation
UV-radiation
Damage to plants
Eye irritation Eye irritation
NO3-
OH
HONO NO
NO2
NO3
N2O5
HO2NO2 RO2NO2
HONO2
hv
hv
O3
RO2
HO2
M
RO2
M
HCHO
OH
OHH +
NO2 M
H2O
O3 hv
OH
Plants and soil surfaces
Failures
plants
Plants and soil surfaces
The carbonyl compounds produced by the progress and
mechanisms fotokatalyontai stages in the production of additional
yperoxylo-free radicals, which eventually transformed into ozone. The
stage of reactions play a restrictive role in ozone production is the
relative speed with which decompose volatile rganikes compounds
(VOCs). The role of volatile organic compounds in the troposphere is
essential for different stages of photo-oxidants chaining antidraseon.55

3.3.1. Photochemical Pollution and Health

The photochemical pollution, particularly ozone, in the extreme
oxidation capacity of biomolecules u960 causes major health problems
in the respiratory system in urban periochon.56 Exposure to high
concentrations of ozone in photochemical smog days in urban areas,
increases morbidity and mortality (combined with particulate matter)
from inflammatory statements anpanefstikou system exacerbations of
asthma attacks and other pulmonary nosimata.57-59 Private health
problems from ozone air pollution are children and elderly people with
respiratory nosimata.60-62 Similar oxidative activity in tissues of the
lungs and are oxides of nitrogen when in high concentrations in urban
perioches.63, 64

3.3.2. Effects of ozone on plants, trees and forests

Tropospheric ozone is known for its phytotoxic action because of the
ability to penetrate through the pores in the cells of leaves and cause
oxidative damage to plant tissues. The lesions are similar to the
concentrations and separated into acute (sympomatikes) years, with
effects on growth of trees and plants, reducing productivity of
agricultural products and forest destruction. As ozone and other
oxidizing compounds cause oxidative stress by destroying antioxidant
defenses of fyton.65-67 in recent decades have become long-term
research on forests in Europe and U.S. on the effects of oxidative
action of ozone, oxides of nitrogen and acid rain (acid rain). Ozone
has the capacity to dissolve easily in water and penetrates
subcellular compartments. Lipid peroxidation and damage to
membranes, attack and damage proteins, enzymes, antioxidant
mechanisms and disaster reduction in photosynthetic capacity are
some of the damage caused by ozone in the trees of dasous.68-
Figure 3.5. Schematic diagram for the impact of tropospheric ozone
(O3) on cellular functions fyton.71
Ozone significantly high concentrations
Long-term exposure, trees and plants by preventing the
photosynthesis, growth and treat diseases. Numerous surveys and
experiments on specially arranged facilities with experimental cages
showed the variety and extent of damage caused by ozone on tree
growth and fyton.72, 73 Also, as a secondary pollutant ozone occurs at
long distances from urban areas. High ozone concentrations measured
in rural areas in Mediterranean countries. Ozone with high oxidative
activity of a negative impact on the physiology and metabolism of
agricultural plants and significant effects on the productivity of many
agricultural crops such as wheat, rice, corn, soybeans, vegetables,
melons, klp.74 -77 Attica region has high concentrations of ozone for
several days a year and especially during the summer months. High
ozone concentrations have been measured in the Gardens and Parnes.
Several studies on the effect of ozone on trees and plants have been
conducted in Greece. Particular emphasis has been placed in pine
(Pinus halepensis) in the region of Attica (Ymittos and Parnes) and in
agricultural kalliergeies.78-82

3.4. Stratospheric Ozone Layer and Implications

Human Health and the Environment
Stratospheric ozone is quite different from the ozone
atmosphere (troposphere), which is a secondary photochemical
pollutant. Stratospheric ozone (extremely low concentrations of 15-85
km from the Earth's surface) forms a thin protective layer that absorbs
harmful ultraviolet radiation (Ultra Violet radiation, UV) in sunlight is
harmful to humans and biota. The solar radiation is mainly composed of
UV-A (wavelengths above 320 nm), and small percentages of UV-B
(280-320 nm) and UVC (180-240 nm). The first is a region of the
spectrum of solar radiation not absorbed by the ozone layer and is the
sunlight received by Earth's surface, while other parts of the energy
spectrum is very active (causing damage to biomolecules), but
absorbed by the ozone layer. The ozone protects living beings, but also
participates with the other gases to maintain the thermal balance u964
system that includes the shell of the atmosphere and the Earth's
sphere. 83.84 The oxygen in Earth's atmosphere is the result of
photosynthetic activity of plants and ozone in the stratosphere is
produced by the reaction of O2 by ultraviolet radiation. The UV-C is
very active photons and a small stream leading to the breakdown of
oxygen in the stratosphere while and is a division of O3 by UV-B, which
leads to absorb a large part of it. Thus, the ozone concentration
remains constant with small seasonal variations (ozone production) O2
+ hv → O + O (l <242 nm) O + O2 + M → O3 + M (M = atmospheric
molecules such as N2, O2, or another ) (splitting layer) O3 + hv → O2 +
O (l 1.175 nm) X + O3 → XO + O2 (X = H, HO •, NO •, Cl •)
XO + O → X + O2
.................................................. .................................................. .....
The O3 + 2O2 →
H decomposition of ozone includes reactions
Free radicals generated in the stratosphere by various
pollutants and oxygen to the effects of ultraviolet aktinovolias.85 From
in 1974, Molina and Rowland (the history of the article) the predicted
role of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs, chlorofluorocarbons) in
depletion of ozontos.86
Figure 3.6. Satellite images of Antarctica showing the loss of ozone in
the stratosphere (a) image on 11.9.2000 and (b) on 19.2.2000, the
white area shows the lack of representative purple colors on the layer.
The units are Dobson units (DU) (Images of satellites NASA).
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have begun to prepare the
1928 and found numerous applications because of their properties
(coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners, propellants in spray cans
(spray), organic solvents in the electronics industry, etc., while
vromanthrakes in fire extinguishers) .87 Although the initial (a) ( b)
 provision of Molina and Rowland had many problems to be confirmed
eventually experimental data and satellite measurements of losses in
the ozone layer in Antarctica (1978) documented the role of CFCs. The
Molina, Rowland and Crutzen awarded for the discovery of the Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 1995.88-90 Out of CFCs used widely in refrigerants
(freon) proved the most potent of the polychlorinated as CFCl3 (CFC-
11) and CF2Cl2 (CFC- 12) which does not decompose easily (75 and
111 years respectively). By releasing amount of gaseous vortices in the
atmosphere and the stratosphere, where the effects of UV-B and UV-C
release free radicals chlorine compounds:
CFCs → Cl • + O3 → ClO • + O2

The free radical reacts with ClO • oxygen atom and produces new
chlorine free radicals: ClO → Cl • + O2 and reactions
repeated. A person can neutralize chlorine,
approximately 100,000 ozone molecules. The greatest
loss of ozone and the creation of the "ozone hole" at the
poles, especially in Antarctica, is result of low
temperatures (-80 ° C) and polar turbine to prevent the
exchange of air in the middle latitudes. In these
circumstances deep-formed ice crystals in stratospheric
clouds that play a catalytic role (entrapment water vapor
and nitrogen oxides removal) on the surface for the
chlorine and bromine compounds can break down
ozone. At the end of spring in the Antarctic, the polar
vortex breaks down and plenty of air transferred from
other parts of replenishing the ozone chathike.91
Measurements of the ozone layer in 1978 with the
Nimbus-7 satellite was after shooting program with
special cameras. During 1979-91, the ozone losses
estimated at 3-5% in middle latitudes, 6-8% higher and
the minimum at the equator. StiUV
period 1993-95 there were clear indications that the
southern hemisphere had
higher losses ozontos.92 This discovery has significant
environmental event and the phenomenon began to be
studied systematically. Measurements began long UV-B
in different regions of the world and with different
models, scientists are trying to estimate the increase will
occur in connection with the loss of ozone, taking into
account other factors (clouds, aerosols sulfates, etc.)
affecting the ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface of
Gis.93 The greatest impact of the reduction of
stratospheric ozone and corresponding increase in
ultraviolet radiation will increase skin cancer in humans,
the potential damage to tissues of living organisms and
harmful effects on sensitive ecosystems . In light of
these risks, the international community launched a
campaign to reduce the production of CFCs destined for
brief ban
replacing them with substances that do not affect the
ozone. The World Conference on the Protection of the
Ozone Layer (1985, Vienna, Convention for the
Protection of the Ozone Layer) decided drastic
measures against CFCs and vromanthrakes and
chlorinated solvents (carbon tetrachloride, chloroform,
1,1,1 - trichloroethane ). In 1987, the Montreal Protocol
(Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer) signed an agreement banning CFCs, long-
term action plan
to protect the stratospheric ozontos.94, 95 The impact
on human health from the destruction of the ozone layer
are mainly found in skin cancer (malignant melanoma
and tumors of the skin). Epidemiological studies show
that skin cancers due to exposure to
solar radiation differ from the latitude is
as the intensity of radiation and length of exposure. The
mortality is relatively low (around 1%) because they
easily treated malignant epithiliomata. In contrast,
malignant melanomas are dangerous and can be
thanatifora.96, 97 Calculations of the NRA provided that
for every 1% decrease in stratospheric ozone will occur
increases of 4-6% in skin cancers (ex-
which a rate of 20% can be fatal). But
These theoretical considerations have not confirmed that
measures
information and advice (sunscreen, covering sensitive
parts of the body and head) to be taken by the
general plithysmo.98, 99 Furthermore, increased solar
radiation will affect the rise in cases of eye cataracts in
humans exposed to the sun due to business conditions
(farmers, fishermen, builders, etc. ) .100 Also, UV
radiation can compromise the immune system in
humans and zoa.101 The environmental effects of the
destruction of the ozone layer and increased ultraviolet
radiation is natural to look u966 sensitive ecological
systems, phytoplankton and other terrestrial and aquatic
organisms. Some studies have found changes or
reductions in populations, but it is too early documented
erefnes.102, 103
3.5. Acid Rain: Acid deposition and Life
Effects on organisms and ecosystems
One of the most important environmental problems of
our era
We are the phenomenon of acid rain (acid rain),
caused by dry and wet precipitation and aerosol
deposition. The
precipitation are the result of sulphate (SO42-) and
nitrate (NO3 -) ions are emitted into the atmosphere from
anthropogenic sources, mainly fossil fuels with high
sulfur content, and other activities. From numerous
investigations it is known that acid precipitation and
deposition (acidic precipitations or depositions) have
harmful effects on living organisms, ecosystems,
materials and human ygeia.104, 105 The phenomenon
of acid rain (a term proposed in 1872 by RA Smith )
became more acute with the advent of the Industrial
Revolution and the use of fuels rich in sulfur. Since the
late 1970s, the potential impact on habitats, monuments
and taktiria and human health prompted many countries
to study and pass legislation to limit those emissions
create acid deposition (such as 10-year program of
National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program of the
U.S. Congress in 1980) .106 The pollution of acid rain is
a transboundary problem of acid aerosol transmission
between countries and continents. For this reason,
recent years have been numerous studies and
programs, national and international, to mitigate and
remedy the effects, and have published numerous
publications and anaskopiseis.107

3.5.1. Also cross-border air pollution: sources and

transport of
deposition
The deposition may be particulate or gaseous emissions
the atmosphere, or a combination of both, which later
precipitated with the help and the rain and deposited on
water, plants and soil. The main gaseous deposition
hydrogen ions (H +), sulphate (SO42-), nitric oxide (NO),
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) that act as catalysts in photochemical reactions
produce acidic compounds . The ammonia (NH3) is the
main gas atmosphere neutralizes acidic compounds or
ions to form salts. Particles containing these compounds
and chlorine, ammonia or a variety of organic
compounds. The wet deposition made by rain, fog or
snow. The sulfates are the result of sulfur dioxide (SO2),
which
produced by burning fuel with sulfur (coal, oil). The
carbon is oxidized easily by ozone (O3), peroxides
(ROO-) or tisrizes hydroxyl (HO •) sulphate anions (SO4
2 -), which are converted to water-sulfuric acid (I2SO4).
Internationally natural sulfur deposition estimated at 50-
100 CH106 metric tons of sulfur (S) per year, while
anthropogenic emissions add about 80CH106 MT
theiou.109 from human activities: burning fossil fuels
contribute 65% of carbon sulfur and industry 15%.
Developed industrial countries produce 43% of
anthropogenic contributions to carbon dioxide worldwide.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) come mainly from vehicle exhaust
and industry. Internationally, an estimated 85-99x106
tonnes of nitrogen are deposited, of which 1 / 3 comes
from natural processes. Nitrogen oxides can be
converted into nitric acid (INO3). The deposition of
nitrogen oxides and nitric acid began to rise in the late
19th century and this increase
continues today. The result is a significant
acidification of lakes, soils and wetlands could be
detrimental to aquatic oikosystimata.Stin Europe
transboundary pollution have created a major
environmental problem in many chores.To problem,
however, transboundary transport of acid deposition has
been settled between the countries with the signing of
regional and international agreements to limit .
Acid rain and acidification of water caused by varying
region to region. Important role played by soil type and
ability to neutralize the sulfates or nitrates. The
assessment of
acidity of water is a matter of dispute among scientists.
Some believe that represents pH 5,6 deposition,
while others believe that pH 5,0, without any other
anthropogenic contributions are more satisfactory in
some areas very clean the 4.0-6.0.115 In areas where
soils are capable of neutralizing acid because they
contain basic cations, especially calcium (Ca2 +), but
magnesium (Mg2 +), sodium (Na +) and potassium (K
+). Territories over granitic substrates have little ability to
neutralize the acid deposition (as is the case in the
Nordic countries, especially
Sweden). Figure 3.7. European countries and acid
rain and contribute to each country to transboundary
pollution (size storage to hundreds of metric tons / year
and the percentage received from other countries).
Acidification of surface waters in recent decades may
be the result of acid deposition and other pollutants;
compounds. CO2 and aluminum hydroxide can act as
weak acids. Also the decomposition of organic matter
forming acids and releases ions ydrogonou.116
Important research on acid rain and mapping
different areas with these problems have been in the
U.S. and Evropi.117 ERA investigated more than 2,000
lakes and 500 streams, creeks in the U.S. (National
Surface Water Survey) with systematic measurements of
surface water acidity. Similar surveys have become
acidic deposition in Canada
3.5.2. Biological effects of acid deposition on aquatic
organisms
There are several general conclusions about the
biological effects
of acid deposition on aquatic organisms from
experimental
studies in lakes, rivers, streams, etc., which was artificial
creation of low-acid neron.120, 121 Aquatic organisms in

low pH difficult to regulate sodium ions (Na +),

chlorine (Cl-) and potassium (K +) .122 By reducing the
pH of the aluminum (Al), which is the most common
metal on the surface, moving-apoplynetaikai transferred
where water accumulates to toxic sygkentroseis.123 The
u963
toxicology of aluminum at low pH is complicated,
dependent on the concentration of the metal complexes
and the calcium levels in nero.124, 125 Aluminium,
according to studies, combines with phosphorus (P),
creating an insoluble complex and reduces the biological
simasia.126 addition to aluminum and other metals are
mobilized and become more toxic at low pH. Especially
the molyvdos127 the kadmio128,
and ydrargyros.129 Elevated mercury concentrations
in fish tissue caused by the deposition of metal and
increased methylation. The main ions neutralize the
acidity as calcium ions, which are usually at low
concentrations of pickled sea. The lethal pH values for
benthic invertebrates and fish often occur in soft water
than hard water containing calcium. Low concentrations
of calcium increase the permeability of plasma
membrane ion and water bodies and
increase the toxicity of hydrogen ions H + .131 The
increased acidity promotes the clarity of lakes, probably
due to changes in the composition of dissolved organic
compounds. This effect increases photosynthesis at
greater depths, and makes them more vulnerable to
predatory fish ptina.132
The humic acids (humic acids) and dissolved organic
matter
change at low pH. The humic substances can be
combined with nutrients, aluminum and other metals by
altering their availability to organismous.133 also high
levels of humic substances can be toxic to larvae
amfivion.134
The variety and richness of aquatic species is directly
linked to
pH of neron.135-137 Biological effects on
macrophytes in relation to the acidification of the water is
not documented. Some scientists have noted a reduction
and disappearance of macrophytes and vryofyton138,
others noticed the overgrowth of certain species into
extinction allon.139 in acidified water to various metals
(aluminum, cadmium and lead) have a negative impact
on the development of aquatic fyton.140 There is a large
body of research on effects of acidification water in
aquatic invertebrates. The common component of these
investigations u964 shows changes in species
composition and abundance tous.141 Crustaceans (such
as Daphnia, Diaptomus, Branchinecta and Lepidurus)
are usually the most sensitive invertebrates to
acidification of neron.142 reductions of biomass
observed in invertebrates acidified lakes and ryakia.143
Laboratory investigations and field surveys of fish
showed that
acid deposition affect their development. These
investigations should take into account other factors
before they begin to assess the impact on populations
psarion.144 eggs of fish are the most sensitive stage of
development in the acidification of neron.145 The main
effect of low pH on fish is interference with the
arrangement of ions, especially the loss of useful ion can
be thanatiforosDokimasies toxicity of 96-hour fish
showed 100% mortality pH 4.5 without fathead minnows
aluminum (fathead
minnows), while other species have survived in large
aluminum pososto.147 Adding 50 mg / l and pH 5.5
increased the mortality of 0-30% and 100 mg / l of
aluminum resulted in 100% Sub-lethal effects
thnisimotita.45 acidification of water include behavioral
changes, decreased growth, distortions, respiratory
problems and abnormal ostaEpisis there are surveys
that show changes in fish populations and communities
in experiments acidification of lakes and ponds
inspections.
Investigations have been made for the effects of acid
deposition on
amphibious animals. Frogs and salamanders are
affected by acidification of the water, especially in
sensitive stages anaptyxis.151 Amphibians withstand
lower pH compared with fish (various species of frogs,
about pH 3,0-4,5) .152 Toxic effects in amphibians by
low pH resulting in reduced growth, delayed
metamorphosis and delay the development of
emvryon.153 Aquatic birds often take their food from
lakes, ponds and streams affected by acidification of the
water, but studies show contradictory results. The effect
of acidification
in waterfowl is usually done through the food chain and
can affect species composition and abundance, to
reduce the caloric composition of aquatic insects or to
increase the levels of metals in organisms that serve as
trofi.154 Generally, ichthyovora (piscivorous ) birds are
those which are most at risk from acidification of the
water because they can not find food at low water pI.155
There are many studies supporting the restriction
of food as a root cause of risks to birds from acidification
neron.156 On the other hand, some species of waterfowl
can be
benefit from the reduced competition with fish for
invertebrates
(Because the fish are more sensitive in acidified
water) in lakes with low pI.157 The probability of
increased concentrations of toxic aluminum in the diet of
waterfowl in acidified lakes was first mentioned in
Souidia.158 Other studies, however, gave conflicting
results .159
The effects of acidification of the water or soil in
terrestrial animals
have not been studied systematically (no surveys
reptiles and
mammals). Studies with pigeons received food with 1000
mg / Kg
aluminum and low concentrations of calcium and
phosphorus showed no adverse epiptoseis.160 Other
 studies have shown that aluminum can interfere with the
metabolism of calcium and fosforou.161

3.5.3. Acid deposition and other causes of the destruction of forests

The acidic deposits have caused considerable damage
to
development and health of forests in many parts of the
world (particularly in Germany, Central Europe,
Scandinavia, USA and Canada). For this reason they
have been numerous erefnes.162 In Germany 50% of
forests show signs of decay and loss, particularly in the
pine forests south of the country. But in other European
countries have seen similar fainomena.163 In the U.S.
forests
influenced mainly of spruce (full of old spruces) .164 But
there are other factors that may play an important role,
as the climate dynamics community, air pollution
(especially ozone) .165 The spruce is sensitive to low pH
and high concentrations aluminum.
Figure 3.8. Picture of forest that has been the impact of
acid rain in
Central Europe. Images of naked branches and aged
trees in the forests of Germany were the catalyst for a
campaign against cross contamination. Have
investigated several factors for the decline of forests.
Recently, researchers at MIT showed that soil
contamination from heavy metals plays a role in aging
and death of spruce (Picea rubens) in northeastern U.S..
The fytochelatines (phytochelatines) of trees (which act
as antioxidants and glutathione polymers) are reduced to
trying to deal with metals (copper and cadmium), making
it impossible to deal with oxidative damage caused by air
pollution (especially ozone ) .167 The loss of forests and
deforestation is going on in many parts of the world has
significant ecological, economic and climatic
epiptoseis.168 In recent years there has been
considerable effort to save tropical forests, especially in
S. America because of its importance in the carbon cycle
and climate
the Gis.169 In Europe, air pollution and acid
precipitation have contributed significantly to lower
quality and health of dason.170
3.6. Suspended Particles: Impact on the Environment
and Human Health
In recent decades, attention has turned to scientists
issue of suspended particulate air pollution, both for the
problems in human health and the impact on the
environment and ecosystems. Health problems,
morbidity and mortality caused by inhaled airborne
particulate matter, especially with aerodynamic diameter
less than 10 micrometers (Particulate Matter, PM10 and
2.5 micrometers, PM2.5) have been demonstrated by
recent epidemiological erefnes.171-173 Particulate
matter is emitted in significant quantities by pallet,
industries burning fuel oil and diesel fuel for heating and
energy and other processes in urban areas (friction tires,
damage buildings, earthen dust, etc.). Small particles
remain suspended, depending on the size and
transported over long distances. The porous surface of
particulate aspiration can be heavy metals, sulfates and
nitrates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and
other toxic and carcinogenic chemicals. By inhaling the
particles entering the airways and alveoli where they
trapped the small size and the physicochemical
idiotiton.174, 175 The mechanism of action of the
particles have been studied. Mainly include mechanisms
for oxygen free radicals, depletion of antioxidant enzyme
systems and oxidative stress. The consequences are
mainly oxidative damage to biomolecules (lipids,
proteins, nucleic acids) of pulmonary iston.176-178 A
significant number of surveys documenting the particles
breaks and other oxidative DNA damage of kyttaron.179,
180 problems were studied by large-scale
epidemiological and toxicological investigations.
3.6.1. Suspended particles, acid deposition and oxidative
pollutants:
impacts on forests and ecosystems in recent years the
attention of scientists has shifted and the effects of
particulate matter and acid deposition (sulphate and
nitrate particles trapped in) in plant and animal species
and oikosystimata.181 Particulate matter is usually a
mixture of sulphate (SO42-) and nitrate (NO3
-), Organic matter, geological material and carbon
particles. In urban areas the rates are: 20% (SO4), 40%
(NO3), 28% (organic compounds), 10% (maximum earth
or geology) and 5% (coal), but these rates vary 5-10%
by region and by type of pollution. Particles after a
certain time deposited on the surface of plants and trees
in water bodies and soil. Their effects on living
organisms and ecosystems are
as the size, composition and content
adsorbed toxic metals, organic substances, sulphates
and nitrates
salts. The effects on the plants start to prevent the
photosynthesis, reducing plant respiration and uptake of
nutrients from the soil. While other effects of the
imbalance in the emission of nutrients from the leaves
and the distribution u964 coal plant tissues. In animals,
these particles can affect the breeding, genetic diversity,
distribution and population density and biodiversity.
Community-level species may be
affect the trophic levels in the distribution of root systems
of plants and trees in soil productivity and biomass.
Ecosystems, the effects of particles may occur in cycles
of nutrients in the water cycle and the flow of
energeias.183
The particles have a wide variety of sizes and
Recommendation (toxic substances, heavy metals, acid
and alkali salts) with
thereby affecting ordinary institutions, communities and
ecosystems in areas where deposition is long and at
high concentrations. Although the toxic effects of
particulate matter in plants, animals and ecosystems are
important have not been studied much like the other
gaseous and solid pollutants. Limited studies exist on the
effects of dust
lime kilns, foundries and other particles in plants, as well
as in forests and oikosystimata.Parola these, the effects
of particles that carry significant amounts of sulfate and
nitrate in plants and forests is an area that has been
studied more systematically the effects have been
reported in various scientific studies and ekdoseis.196-
204 Heavy metals carried by the particles are major
pollutants in the plants, trees and soils. There are
several studies on the effects of metals on the health of
forests and oikosystimata.205-207 Particular importance
has been attributed by scientists to the toxicity of
aluminum in plants and the mechanisms by which acts
on the roots of trees and fyton.208 The immunology is
The study of the immune system. The purpose of the
immune system is to protect us from disease by
identifying and killing pathogens and carcinogenic cells.
To achieved this recruited a number of sophisticated
mechanisms designed to eliminate pathogens that infect
humans. The immune system has two main parts (a) the
innate immunity and (b) adaptive immunity (shown below
the table features two key components of the immune
system). The two arms of the immune system
Innate
• Non-specific response to pathogenic
• Immediate response
• Includes cellular and humoral components
• Failure to maintain memory prior exposure to
pathogens
Adaptive
Specific response (for
specific pathogens)
• Delayed first
maximum response but
response to the second report
the same pathogen
• Includes cellular and
antibody mediated arms
• Memory installed after
first exposure to a pathogen if the immune system does
not function adequately or the pathogenic attack is too
great to fight then the body becomes ill. On the other
hand, if the immune system become overactive then
presented autoimmunity.
The autoimmunity occurs when a body can not
recognize the proteins and molecules, causing an
immune response against its own cells and tissues.
Some autoimmune diseases are: rheumatoid arthritis
(RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and Type I
diabetes mellitus (IDDM).
Useful websites for further information:
1. For general information about the immune system visit
Wikipedia
the free encyclopedia:
http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system
2. For information on diseases of autoimmunity visit the
American
autoimmune related disorders: http://www.aarda.org/
3. For more information about specific examinations visit
the Lab
tests online:
http://www.labtestsonline.org/understanding/index.html

IMMUNOLOGY
FBC
ESR
Uric Acid
RF
Anti CCP Antibodies (RF)
C Reactive Protein
ANA
PROFILE
I REFMATOLOGIAS
FBC + ESR
Uric Acid
ANA
ANCA-C
ANCA-P
Anti-ds DNA (Crithidia)
ENA
Anti nRNP
Anti Sm
Anti Ro (SS-A)
Anti La (SS-B)
Anti Jo-1
Anti Scl 70
RF
Anti CCP Antibodies (RF)
C Reactive Protein
PROFILE
REFMATOLOGIAS II
: SYNDETIKOS WEB
FBC + ESR
Antinuclear Autoantibodies
Anti-ds DNA
ENA
Anti nRNP, Sm, Ro,
La, Jo-1
RF
Anti CCP Antibodies (RF)
Anticardiolipin
Autoantibodies
Complement 3,4
C Reactive Protein
PROFILE
REFMATOLOGIAS III:
SLE
AIDS
The immune system is responsible for defending the
human body. Specifically, the CD4 lymphocytes of the
immune system specialized in the identification and
elimination of exogenous invaders. Every day, billions of
cells produced and destroyed for this role. When a
disease agent invades the body, the immune system
sends the CD4 cells to recognize and remove the
intruder.
The HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus, virus human
immune deficiency) is a retrovirus, which is the genetic
material is RNA, and copying during reproduction in
DNA. The HIV needs to process two key enzymes,
reverse transcriptase and protease. To multiply the HIV,
CD4 lymphocytes close to and bound by a receptor of
the outer membranes. The CD4, allowing penetration, to
"study" the virus and destroy easily. The virus uses its
reverse transcriptase and translate RNA into DNA,
genetic material that is like that of lymphocytes. This
material is incorporated into the DNA of lymphocytes.
The CD4 misled, thinking that the genetic material of HIV
is theirs, and copies, together with their constituents.
These copies are immature and inert and therefore non-
infectious. The protease, the second enzyme of HIV,
helping to produce mature virus. The mature viruses
leave the CD4 lymphocyte, after the slaughter, and
transported in the blood to infect more CD4 lymphocytes.
The viral load increases (ie copies of HIV in the blood),
the CD4 lymphocytes decrease and thus the body's
defenses weaken. The result is HIV positive (positive to
the virus HIV) can get sick often, because it is
susceptible to infections that normally would fight.
The HIV infection has three phases:
1. The virus has increased dramatically, but the immune
system has substantial damage and wins. Three to six
weeks from protoloimoxi the HIV positive have a short
disease like flu (fever, malaise, headache, swollen lymph
nodes). The disease resolves itself without treatment
and therefore, often goes unnoticed
2. The HIV positive patient for a long time he feels
healthy. The organization keeps a check on the virus,
but with more effort. Approximately 10 billion and 1
billion viruses CD4 lymphocytes are produced and
destroyed daily. This stage differs from organization to
organization.
3. The body's defenses shot down, the virus is rampant
and infected patients are susceptible to serious
infections and cancers. These are called opportunistic
infections because the pathogens actually find the
opportunity to invade the human body, because the
immune system could fight them, is weakened by HIV.
This stage is known as AIDS (Acquired
ImmunoDeficiency Syndrome, Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome)
The only HIV is transmitted in three ways, and this
makes it non-hazardous, opposite to our own information
and knowledge.
1. Contact with blood
2. Contact with vaginal fluids and sperm
3. Vertical transmission, ie from seropositive mother to
child during pregnancy, during childbirth and during
lactation.
From the above it is clear that no risk of infection in daily
human contact with a seropositive. HIV is not transmitted
by shaking hands, social kissing, shared utensils, from
toilets, swimming pools, the beach, mosquitoes, towels
and clothing in general.
We can not allow the HIV to invade the body by following
these simple instructions:
Use latex condoms for each contact, whether it be
vaginal, anal or oral. When using a lubricant, avoid
petroleum jelly and other fats, because they destroy the
condom. The lubricant should be water based.
Users of injecting substances should not share needles
or syringes with others.
We should avoid sharing items with others who may
have residual blood such as toothbrushes, razors, nail
scissors etc.
The HIV-positive pregnant women or those wishing to
become pregnant should consult their doctor.
The latest global epidemiological data on AIDS
published by the Office of the United Nations AIDS
(UNAIDS) and World Health Organization (WHO) in
November 2005
People living with HIV / AIDS
Total 40,300,000
Adults 38,000,000
Women 17,500,000
Children 2,300,000
People infected with HIV in 2005
Total 4,900,000
Adults 4,200,000
Children 700.000
Deaths from AIDS in 2005
Total 3,100,000
Adults 2,600,000
Children 570.000
Each day are infected with HIV 6000 people, of whom
half are young people (15-24 years) The latest
epidemiological data on HIV / AIDS in Greece, published
by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention
(KE.EL.P . NO) and includes data reported by 30/6/2005.

People living with HIV / AIDS in Greece

Total 7371
Men 5898
Women 1433
People infected with HIV in Greece in the first half of
2005
Total 248
Men 179
Women 69
The majority of women infected with HIV in 2005 are
aged 30-34 years, while the prominent age group in
women aged 25-29
To find someone, whether infected with HIV, should also
take the test (Elisa test). The positive results confirmed
with an additional consideration, greater specificity
(Western blot). This test is free at one of the reference
center of AIDS. The test result is strictly confidential and
protected by confidentiality.
CANCER GYMNOS ... fear, spells, panic and terror.
The following text was written with full respect for people
who struggle with cancer. I bow in awe before them.
They know first hand what cancer. They are fighters and
they will be the winners.
Anything I write here is to illustrate to us the rest of the
importance of proper treatment of cancer and patients
but also the attitude towards ourselves.
Just listening to the disrupted our whole being. The
secret we fear. The Agony and despair when diagnosed
with us or someone close to us. The person feels
helpless in front of the listening and only word. Spits the
bosom and tries to conjure. Even the term "malignancy"
we express our horror. But pretending that there do not
remove the problem.
I've written several times and I say even more because I
firmly believe that fear keeps us captive on many levels.
The only enemy of fear is knowledge. And most
importantly, the knowledge of oneself is tragic
mas.Anamfivola diagnosis. It has been shown, however,
the enormous importance of good physical, mental and
emotional state of anthropou.Prepei to the
disillusionment. We have to face. We have a duty to
know and believe the enormous capabilities and
potential of the human body. To make them but need to
know.
What is cancer?
I want to do here. To try and say a simple, everyday
words, avoiding wherever possible, strict terminology
(forgive me let the experts), what happens with cancer.
In broad outline, and because, as everyone understands
us, the issue is far from a simple post on a blog can (and
should perhaps) even cover a full description of the
disease or the magnitude of impact, nor any cases. This
is something we do every doctor in each individual
patient.
The word cancer is selected from a form of breast
cancer in which the abnormal cells invade the tissue with
a range.
Everything in our body are cells *. From the hair, skin
and organs in the blood and lymph. Everything. Starting
with the creation of man in the womb, the cells follow a
process which is called mitosis.
 ΣΚΟΠΟΣ ΤΗΣ ΠΑΡΟΥΣΑΣ ΜΕΛΕΤΗΣ

Έχοντας υπόψη την υπάρχουσα βιβλιογραφία και με περαιτέρω θεώρηση

της σοβαρότητας της νόσου του AIDS. καθώς και την απουσία
κατάλληλων φαρμακευτικών αγωγών, ειδικά στα πρώτα στάδια της
λοίμωξης από τον ιό HIV, σκοπός της μελέτης αυτής ήταν o έλεγχος της
αποτελεσματικότητας μιας συνδυασμένης θεραπευτικής παρέμβασης
εντός ενός βιοψυχοκοινωνικού πλαισίου, με τη χρήση ατομικής γνωσιακής-
συμπεριφορικής θεραπείας και ηλεκτρομυογραφικής-βιοανάδρασης.
Προοπτική αυτής της παρέμβασης είναι η χρήση της ως μιας
αποτελεσματικής θεραπευτικής μεθόδου συμπληρωματικής στις
διαθέσιμες φαρμακευτικές αγωγές, ή ακόμα και η πιθανότητα
υποκατάστασης των τελευταίων στα προκλινικά στάδια της λοίμωξης με
τον ιό HIV. Η ανάπτυξη αυτής της παρέμβασης βασίστηκε και δομήθηκε
σύμφωνα με την προκαταρκτική μελέτη των Wolff et al., (1996) και τη
βιοψυχοκοινωνική θεραπευτική προσέγγιση των Antoni et al., (1990) που
υπήρξαν επιτυχείς στην αντιμετώπιση ασυμπτωματικών οροθετικών
φορέων του ιού HIV. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, αντικαθιστώντας την ομαδική
γνωσιακή-συμπεριφορική θεραπευτική προσέγγιση της προκαταρκτικής
μελέτης των Wolff et al., (1996), με έναν συνδυασμό ατομικής γνωσιακής-
συμπεριφορικής θεραπείας και ηλεκτρομυογραφικής βιοανάδρασης, η
έμφαση της παρούσας θεραπευτικής προσέγγισης θα ήταν ή μείωση της
ψυχοφυσιολογικής έντασης με στόχο την ανακούφιση του υψηλού
επιπέδου άγχους που σχετίζεται με το ασυμπτωματικό στάδιο της
λοίμωξης HIV. Η ιδέα ήταν ότι η επιτυχής ηλεκτρομυογραφική
βιοανάδραση θα μπορούσε να βοηθήσει τα οροθετικά άτομα να
χρησιμοποιήσουν τις φυσικές δεξιότητές τους για χαλάρωση, μειώνοντας
με αυτόν τον τρόπο το άγχος και την ψυχοφυσιολογική τους ένταση, και
αυξάνοντας της πίστη τους στην αυτοκυριαρχία και τις ικανότητές τους
(Weinmam, et al., 1983; Rice & Blanchard, 1982 & Swartz, et al., 1987).
Θεωρήθηκε, επίσης, ότι εφόσον τα οροθετικά άτομα μπορούσαν να
αναγνωρίσουν και εκούσια να ελέγξουν τα φυσιολογικά τους επίπεδα
έντασης, μπορούσαν να μεταφέρουν αυτόν τον έλεγχο στις καταστάσεις
της καθημερινής τους ζωής-εκτός της κλινικής. Υποτέθηκε περαιτέρω, ότι ο
συνδυασμός της ατομικής γνωσιακής-συμπεριφορικής θεραπείας με μια
ψυχοφυσιολογική θεραπευτική μέθοδο, την ηλεκτρομυογραφική
βιοανάδραση, θα είχε ως αποτέλεσμα τόσο τη μείωση του άγχους, αλλά
και την αναστολή της εξασθένισης του ανοσοποιητικού συστήματος

ΜΕΘΟΔΟΣ

Για το σκοπό της παρούσας έρευνας ΧΡησιμοποιήθηκε σχέδιο έρευνας για

δύο ανεξάρτητα δείγματα ομάδες (two-randomized groups design) το
οποίο περιελάμβανε μετρήσεις πριν την εφαρμογή της θεραπευτικής
παρέμβασης και μετά την θεραπευτική παρέμβαση (pre-post intervension
measurements). Οι μετρήσεις αυτές αφορούσαν τόσο την πειραματική-
θεραπευτική ομάδα (experimental or treatment group), όσο και την ομάδα
ελέγχου (control group). Οι εξαρτημένες μεταβλητές (dependent variables)
περιελάμβαναν τις εξής ανοσολογικές εξαρτημένες μεταβλητές:
Συνολικός αριθμός λεμφοκυττάρων; υποσύνολα λεμφοκυττάρων (Τ4, Τ8,
αναλογία Τ4:Τ8) και τις εξής ψυχολογικές εξαρτημένες μεταβλητές:
Επίπεδα κατάθλιψης, (δοκιμασία-BDI), και παράγοντες Τ
(υχοφυσιολογικής έντασης-άγχους), D (κατάθλιψη-μελαγχολία), V
(Ζωτικότητα-Δραστηριότητα), F (κόπωση-αδράνεια) της δοκιμασίας
(POMS). Οι μετρήσεις πριν την εφαρμογή της θεραπευτικής παρέμβασης
(αρχικά επίπεδα-baseline measurements) έδωσαν πληροφορίες σχετικά
με την ισότητα των ομάδων πριν τη χορήγηση της θεραπευτικής
παρέμβασης. Οι μετρήσεις μετά την θεραπευτική παρέμβαση έδωσαν
πληροφορίες σχετικά με τις επιδράσεις της θεραπείας στην θεραπευτική
ομάδα σε σύγκριση με τις μετρήσεις που έγιναν στην ομάδα ελέγχου. Η
ανάλυση των δεδομένων έγινε με τη χρήση ανάλυση διακύμανσης. Για τον
υπολογισμό του τ, χρησιμοποιήθηκε το τ-τεστ για δύο ανεξάρτητα δείγματα
(ομάδες) μετά την γνωστοποίηση των τιμών.
Δείγμα

Η παρούσα μελέτη βασίστηκε σε μια ομάδα οροθετικών για HIV ατόμων

από τη Νότιο Αφρική, οι οποίοι βρίσκονταν είτε στο ασυμπτωματικό είτε
στο πρόωρο συμπτωματικό στάδιο της νόσου, (Centers for Disease
Control-CDC στάδια 2 και 3 και/ή στάδια Walter Reed 2- 4 Α, με μετρήσεις
Τ4 λεμφοκυττάρων πάνω από 200). 26 συμμετέχοντες, από ένα σύνολο
(Ν=98) HIV οροθετικών ασθενών που κάλυπταν τα κριτήρια
συμπερίληψης στη μελέτη χωρίστηκαν σε δύο θεραπευτικές ομάδες με
τυχαία δειγματοληψία. Η πρώτη ομάδα (Πειραματική-Θεραπευτική)
αποτελούταν από 14 άτομα (n=14) και η δεύτερη ομάδα (Ελέγχου ή
καθυστερημένης λήψης θεραπείας) από 12 άτομα (n=12). Οι
συμμετέχοντες ήταν ηλικίας 24-42, άνδρες και γυναίκες και
Νοτιοαφρικανοί. H κοινωνικοοικονομική τους κατάσταση ήταν ανάλογη. Οι
συμμετέχοντες μπορεί να προσβλήθηκαν από τον ιό HIV με οποιονδήποτε
τρόπο (ομοφυλοφυλική μετάδοση, ετεροφυλική μετάδοση, λοίμωξη
ανοιχτής πληγής ή ενδοφλέβια μετάδοση από χρήση ναρκωτικών ουσιών).
Πιο συγκεκριμένα, η Θεραπευτική ομάδα αποτελείτο από 14 άτομα, 6 από
τα οποία ήταν άνδρες και 8 γυναίκες. Η ομάδα ελέγχου ή καθυστερημένης
λήψης θεραπείας αποτελείτο από 12 συμμετέχοντες, 5 εκ των οποίων ήταν
άνδρες και 7 γυναίκες. Ο μέσος όρος ηλικίας των ανδρών στη θεραπευτική
ομάδα ήταν 32,6 και η μέση ηλικία των γυναικών 31,2. Η μέση ηλικία των
ανδρών στην ομάδα ελέγχου ή καθυστερημένης λήψης θεραπείας ήταν
31,0 και η μέση ηλικία των γυναικών 30,5. Την θεραπευτική ομάδα
αποτελούσαν ένας ομοφυλόφιλος άνδρας και 5 ετεροφυλόφιλοι, και 8
ετεροφυλικές γυναίκες. Η ομάδα ελέγχου-καθυστερημένης λήψης
θεραπείας αποτελείτο από 2 ετερόφυλους και 3 ομοφυλόφιλους άνδρες
καθώς και από 7 ετερόφυλες γυναίκες. Η εθνική σύνθεση των
συμμετεχόντων και στις δύο ομάδες ήταν όλοι μαύροι Νοτιοαφρικανοί, που
ζούσαν μόνιμα στη Νότιο Αφρική.

Επιλογή των συμμετεχόντων

Δόθηκε άδεια από τον Πρόεδρο του Γενικού Νοσοκομείου ΗiΙΙbrow στο
Γιαχάνεσμπουργκ-Ν. Αφρικής να επιλεχθούν ασθενείς που
παρακολουθούνταν στα Εξωτερικά Ιατρεία του Nοσοκομείου για λοίμωξη
με τον ιό HIV/AIDS. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, και σε συνεργασία με τον Καθηγητή
Ruben Sher, το νοσηλευτικό προσωπικό και τους κοινωνικούς λειτουργούς
του Νοσοκομείου Hillbrow στο Γιοχάνεσμπουργκ, στη Νότιο Αφρική, οι
ασθενείς αξιολογήθηκαν και επιλέχθηκαν για συμμετοχή στη μελέτη
σύμφωνα με συγκεκριμένα κριτήρια αποκλεισμού ή κριτήρια
συμπερίληψης (exclusion-inclusion criteria) και, κατόπιν, εισήχθησαν στο
θεραπευτικό πρόγραμμα που διατίθετο στην Κλινική Συμπεριφορικής
Ιατρικής του Πανεπιστημίου RAND AFRIKAANS. Όλοι οι συμμετέχοντες
επιλέχθηκαν την ίδια περίοδο. Λόγω του μεγάλου αριθμού ασθενών με
HIV που νοσηλεύονταν ή παρακολουθούνταν στο Νοσοκομείο Hillbrow,
δεν υπήρξε πρόβλημα με την επιλογή του αναγκαίου δείγματος για αυτή τη
μελέτη. Επιπλέον, με τη βοήθεια του Νοτιοαφρικανικού Ινστιτούτου
Ιατρικής Έρευνας, όλα τα αποτελέσματα των ανοσολογικών μεταβλητών
των συμμετεχόντων στο θεραπευτικό πρόγραμμα, ήταν διαθέσιμα σε εμάς.

Criteria for inclusion in the study

Candidates participating in the study had to meet the following criteria:
1. Be HIV positive to HIV, as defined by the World Health Organization
2. The seropositive status to be classified according to the Center for
Disease Control Centers for Disease Control-CDC, in steps 2 and 3 of
disease classification system, Walter Reed, the patients are in stages 2 to
4 numbers of T-lymphocytes above 4 200.
3. Be aged 18-45
4. Be mentally able to participate in and benefit from the therapeutic
sessions.
5. Have at least 8 years of formal education (schooling).
Criteria for exclusion from the study
The exclusion criteria for this study include
1. People aged under 18 and over 45.
2. Those assigned to the exposure to any of the criteria of AIDS according
to the World Health Organization (More than step 3 of the classification
criteria of the CDC and more than stage 4 A classification of Walter Reed,
that T-4 lymphocytes over 200).
3. Any history of substance use or alcohol within the past six months in this
study as defined by the criteria of DSM IV.
4. Any severe psychiatric disorder.
5. Use of medication within the past six months may have immune effects.
6. Participate in any formal therapeutic intervention within the preceding
six months.
Protection of participants
The study proposal was approved by the Board of protecting human rights
(human participants review board) of the university and the hospital
surveyed.
Consent form for participants
The consent form the participants made to obtain the consent of all
persons who took part in the study. The consent form used to inform all the
participants for the purpose of the study and the procedures to be
followed, risks, benefits and confidentiality of research data, and the right
to withdraw from the study at any time. Participants had to read and
understand the contents of the form, after announcing that they
understood the contents and know exactly the process of study, could
decide whether or not to take part in the study. An agreement was then
read again in detail, and participants had to agree to commit and sign the
form before you agree to sygkekrimenopoiimenous conditions.
EVALUATION
Immunological evaluation
It has been that we should use multiple indicators of cellular immunity to
measure the expected results in clinical studies on the infection of HIV
(Eller, 1995 & Wolff, et al. 1996). So, chosen four indicators to assess
cellular immunity: O total lymphocyte count, and measurement subgroups,
T4 lymphocytes, T8 lymphocytes and the ratio of T4: T8 lymphocytes.
Further confirmed by other investigations as appropriate indicators of
immune effects after cognitive-behavioral interventions to operators of HIV
(Antoni, et al. 1990 & Wolff et al. 1996). H measurement of T4 lymphocyte
serves as an indicator of disease progression and is highly correlated with
the severity of symptoms. The T8 cells are also an important indicator of
immunity in HIV-positive person, always in relative proportion to the T4
lymphocyte. The ratio of T4: T8 associated with the severity of symptoms
presented to operators of HIV, including fatigue, reduced vitality and
depression. The ratio of lymphocyte T4: T8 known as accessory:
suppressor ratio is reversed, and with an increasing number of T8
lymphocytes. The aim of clinical intervention is to increase the number of
T4 lymphocytes and reduction of T8 lymphocytes, and the maintenance of
the ratio of T4: T8 lymphocytes. The Institute of Medical Research in South
Africa conducted blood tests on the subgroups of T-lymphocytes. All blood
samples were analyzed under the strict control of microbiologists working
at the Institute for Medical Research of South Africa, under the supervision
of Prof. R. Sher, the ambulance officer for AIDS Hillbrow Hospital in
Johannesburg. In particular, collected seven milliliters of the total
peripheral blood aseptically by venipuncture into a blood collection tube
containing an anticoagulant aithylenodiaminotetraoxeiko acid (EDTA).
Blood samples were kept at room temperature and analyzed within 24
hours. After preparing the CoulterImmuno-Lyse Whole blood lysis, all
lymphocytes, lymphocyte subgroups and T4 and T8 were analyzed by
cytometric two-color direct immunofluorescence, using the EPICS Profile II
The percentage of positive cells chromenon for each cell antigen surface,
obtained by measuring 5000 cells. The T4 monoclonal antibody
conjugated with RDI, and T8 monoclonal antibodies conjugated to
fluorescent isotheiokynatio (FITC) were used to derive the lymphocytes T4
and T8 respectively. These procedures were made before the therapeutic
intervention (baseline) and after therapeutic intervention for participants in
both groups. Failure to find statistically significant differences (significant
differences) among participants of both groups in measurements of initial
levels supported the accuracy of laboratory tests.
Psychological Evaluation
The psychological tests used in this study included the Profile of Mood
States (POMS) and the Beck Depression Inventory-(BDI). These tests
were individual participants in both groups before the implementation of
therapeutic intervention and after the application of therapeutic
intervention. asked participants to answer honestly if they were given tests
and were informed that there were no right or wrong answers. Further
informed that these measures will help practitioners to better understand
their disposal when designing a therapeutic intervention with more
precision. test
The POMS questionnaire is a self-reference and can be administered
either individually or in groups. It is a quick and economical method of
recognizing transient, fluctuating emotional states. The POMS is
recommended primarily as a measure of the availability of external
psychiatric patients as a method for assessing the emotional changes
presented by each patient. It is also recommended, but only as a research
tool for normal participants aged 18 and older who have educated at least
two years in high school. Most participants complete the POMS 3-5
minutes and can easily be administered by research assistants or
psychometric. Typically, people with at least one level of education 8 years
of school did not encounter any difficulty in understanding the POMS. It
consists of six subscales that measure various recognizable situations and
emotions disposal. The six subscales are: Intensity-Anxiety, Depression,
Depression, Anger-Hostility, Animation-Activity, Fatigue-Inertia and
Confusion-Riot. A Overall Rating Impaired availability can be found by
summing the scores (with animation to measure negative) of six key
players available. This psychometric instrument was chosen specifically for
this study because it was designed and adapted to a non-psychiatric
sample has previously used in studies of the effect on the cognitive-
behavioral intervention in mood and the immune system of HIV-positive for
HIV, people (Antoni, et al. 1991; Schneiderman, 1992 & Wolff, et al. 1996).

Assay depression-Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

Testing Depression Beck (Beck Depression Inventory-BDI) is a widely
available and easily used psychometric tool for assessing depression in
different populations. The full scale consists of 21 items (groups of
statements), with a maximum score of 63. People who score between
1420 considered to suffer from mild depression, moderate depression and
2126 are rated as over 26 are considered to suffer from severe
depression. A total score of around 20 or above is considered a reliable
criterion for the selection or exclusion of individuals for research purposes
(Scott, 19891. Studies on the internal validity and stability of the test
indicate a high degree of reliability. The use of various examples check the
reliability (repeated measurements, the reliability of two halves, alpha
index) showed acceptable reliability (0.90; 0.84 and 0.91, respectively),
both clinical and non-clinical groups (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock &
Erbaugh, 1961 & Keczmarek & Ames, 1989).
Evaluation of electromyographic biofeedback
The method used in this study described by Scwartz, et al. (1987). Details
are given in the evaluation part of the process
PROCEDURE
The 26 participants, which included both asymptomatic and symptomatic
entities entities in the early stage of HIV to the criteria for inclusion in the
study were divided by random sampling (random process of allocation and
stratification of patients) in group therapy or group therapy treatment group
( n = 14) and a control group control group (n = 12). The treatment group
took a combined 6-week intervention consisting of cognitive-behavioral
therapy and electromyographic biofeedback. The intervention carried out
individually with 2 graduate students in Clinical Psychology and a
Psychiatrist specializing. All therapists were approximately the same
training in treatment, but gnosiakisymperiforiki and electromyographic
biofeedback. The study participants meet twice a week. The participants of
the treatment group underwent 45-minute cognitive-behavioral therapy and
20 minute electromyographic biofeedback to the relaxation in each of the
six sessions. The control group underwent a sham therapeutic
intervention, with emphasis on providing information on HIV infection. HIV
and the psychological and medical complications of the disease AIDS.
More specifically, participants in the control group were individual meetings
once a week for a period of 6 weeks, Hillbrow Hospital in Johannesburg,
as part of the services offered to outpatients infected with HIV. The
counseling sessions lasted 30 minutes and initially focused on providing
information about the psychological and medical aspects of the disease of
AIDS, as well as social and cultural issues and the role of traditional
practitioners (traditional healers) in the treatment of infection by HIV. The
medical issues discussed were the unavailability of a vaccine to prevent
infection with HIV, medications to treat opportunistic infections, the
prevention of no further transmission of the virus and the use of medication
for the subsequent ( clinical) stages of infection with HIV. Participants in
the control group also had the opportunity to participate in a group
treatment program, cognitive behavioral therapy, when completed 6 weeks
of intervention in the treatment group and had completed all the
psychological and immunological measurements for both groups.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
Since the intervention was aimed specifically at reducing psychological
stress, anxiety and depression of the participants, as well as improve the
placing, each meeting has a theme which is the focus of this meeting.
These key issues have led to the healing process in certain areas where
there were gaps and weaknesses in coping strategies, and helped improve
overall availability by increasing self-esteem and reduce depression and
psychological stress. Meetings cognitive-behavioral therapy consisted of
three components: the training, the cognitive and behavioral.
Educational components
The educational component refers to the interactions between client and
therapist where the therapist may partly assume the role of the teacher
making clear the whole process of treatment. For example, the cognitive
triad explained to the patient, stating that a negative perception of himself,
let the man feel inadequate, deprived, unworthy and undesirable. Tend to
see the world, negative, demanding, in defeatism and expect failure and
punishment. Moreover, there is a waiting for continued distress, pain,
failure and deprivation. These errors are cognitive patterns that contribute
to the negative image of a person for himself. The therapist with the patient
and have tried cases during treatment.
Cognitive component
The cognitive component involves using four processes.
- Posting this thought-Testing automatic thoughts
- Recognition of poorly adapted cases
- Check the validity of poorly adapted cases
Behavioral components of the control and the change adopted children
was wrong and inaccurate thoughts helped patients to understand the
inaccuracies of the assumptions of cognitive and through it to learn new
strategies to help them cope with situations that were previously
problematic and intolerable.
Electromyographic biofeedback as a method of training in relaxation

The 14 participants in the treatment group were in therapeutic /

educational process of electromyographic biofeedback for 6 weeks.
Participants had two sessions a week. For 45 minutes they did cognitive-
behavioral therapy and 20 minutes electromyographic biofeedback to
relaxation. The biofeedback sessions were held in a room 4 to 6 meters,
which was dimly illuminated during the meetings. Participants were seated
in a fully relaxed position in a comfortable seat. The lights were dim in the
room and no outside noise to bother people. Also, given cushions to
support the people and to create the feeling of comfort, but also to help
participants to feel a state of general relaxation. After the front of the
participants cleaned with alcohol, were placed in frontal EMG electrodes
country silver chloride. The average conductivity was Hewlett Packard
Redux Paste. The placement of the electrodes was facilitated and asked
participants to raise their eyebrows to allow the clinician to accurately
locate the frontal muscle. An active recording electrode was placed over
each apple in the center of the forehead. The electromyographic
biofeedback produced using the instrument vioanadrastikou (EMG 100T,
manufactured by Thought Technology). The feedback activity of the frontal
muscle was converted to an acoustic format through a loudspeaker that
was placed near the right ear of the participants and consisted of a tone
that many fixed rate and the intensity of tone, depending on the level of
muscle tension recorded by electromyography. The acoustic feedback of
EMG was initially at low intensity, but when the participants reached a
relaxed state, the sound went a bit and people could no longer attend to
their normal state. The meetings consisted of a biofeedback session 10
minutes (baseline), 5 twenty-minute sessions and a 10-minute repeat
examination (follow up). Estimates of electromyographic biofeedback
included two five-minute original recordings of EMG, followed by a
stabilization period of 2 minutes. Initial experiments were performed after
the following instructions to the participants' lay-back, close your eyes and
let you feel as comfortable as possible. After five minutes, it will ask you to
open your eyes, completing the five-minute rest period. The same
instructions edothikan and the second 5 minutes. The average of two five-
minute was the initial level of relaxation. The key considerations included
the information and guidance on the process and the expected therapeutic
success of biofeedback. After the initial meeting, was a twenty-minute
biofeedback session a week for 5 weeks, with the recordings to be made
at intervals of five minutes. The purpose of these meetings was the
education therapy participants a certain level of relaxation. The level of
required levels of muscular tension of frontal electromyographic recording
is less than 1,5 mv / rms (average). To support education in vioanadrastiki
other assisted relaxation tapes used relaxation. These relaxation tapes
were pre-recorded. Side 1 of the tape contained a 25 minutes relaxation
exercise intensity. The party included a 20 minute 2 passive or progressive
muscle relaxation exercise. Both exercises were designed by syngrafeis.
The tape was given to participants after the first meeting. They were
instructed to engage the side 1 of tape at least once daily, and preferably
in the evening for a week. The second week they were given instructions
to carry out the second side at least once a day, again preferably in the
evening for a week. Then they were asked to choose which of the two
sides feel more comfortable or what you prefer, and make 20-minute
relaxation by themselves without the help of electronic instruments.
Participants were reassessed after 6 weeks (repeat test). During this
examination was repeated assessing the ability of participants to relax
without the aid of biofeedback equipment. More specifically, after a
stabilization period 2 minutes, recorded the electromyographic activity of
the forehead for the next ten minutes, and then found a mean value for
each participant. In this 10 minute session the participants were not
allowed to use equipment biofeedback to relax. This was done to assess
the ability of participants to relax and to control voluntarily their normal
intensity.
RESULTS
Correlation between treatment group and control group before the
development of therapeutic intervention
(Pretreatment Equivalence of groups) to assess the correlation between
the participants of the treatment group and control group before the
development of therapeutic intervention for the following immune-
dependent variables: Total lymphocyte count? Lymphocyte subsets (T4,
T8, T4 ratio: T8) and psychological as dependent variables: depression
levels (test-BDI), and T factors (ychofysiologikis tension-anxiety), D
(depression-depression), V (Vitality-Activity), F (fatigue-inertia) of the test
(POMS ) was analyzed using t-test. The results showed a statistical
correlation (ie there was no statistically significant difference) between the
groups before the development of therapeutic intervention for both
immunoassays and the psychological variables (P <0.05) (Table 1).

Static significance difference between groups

after the establishment of therapeutic intervention on immunological
variables
To find the difference between the treatment group and control group for
the immunological variables were analyzed using t-test. The comparison
between the averages of two groups on the immunological variables. The
results showed that there was no statistically significant difference
between the two groups. (P> 0.05), (Table 2).

Statistically significant difference between groups

after the establishment of therapeutic intervention on the psychological
variables
To find the difference between the treatment group and control group on
psychological variables were analyzed using t-test. The comparison
between the averages of two groups on psychological variables. The
results showed no statistically significant differences among the following
variables: levels of depression (test-BDI), (p <0.05) and the factors T
(ychofysiologikis stress intensity), (p <0.01), D (depression-depression ), (p
<0.01), <V (Vitality-Activity, (p <0.01). F (fatigue-inertia) (p <0.01),
psychological test (POMS), (Table 3).

Statistically significant difference between the measurements of initial

epipedonkai measurements after the establishment of therapeutic
intervention on immunological variables in the treatment group participants

`` To find the difference between the measurements of the original plane

wave don `and measurements after the establishment of therapeutic
intervention on immunological variables in participants of the treatment
group were analyzed using t-test. H comparison was made between the
average levels of initial measurements and measurements after the
establishment of therapeutic intervention on the immunological variables.
The results showed a statistically significant difference between the
measurements of the original drawings and measurements after the
establishment of therapeutic intervention for the total number of
lymphocytes in group therapy participants, (p <0.05), (Table 4).

Statistically significant difference between the measurements of the

original drawings and measurements after the establishment of therapeutic
intervention on psychological variables in the treatment group participants
To find the difference between the measurements of the original drawings
and measurements after the establishment of therapeutic intervention on
the psychological variables involved in the treatment group were analyzed
using t-test. H comparison was made between the average levels of initial
measurements and measurements after the establishment of therapeutic
intervention on the psychological variables. The results showed no
statistically significant differences between the measurements of the
original drawings and measurements after the establishment of therapeutic
intervention for the following variables: levels of depression (test-BDI), (p
<0.05) and the factors T (ychofysiologikis intensity; anxiety), (p <0.01), D
(depression-depression), (p <0.01), V (Vitality-Activity), (p <0.01)., F
(fatigue-inertia) (p <0.001), psychological test (POMS), for participants of
the treatment group, (p <0.05), (Table 5).

Psychological Neuro Immunology

Despite the lack of funding in some disciplines, the new area of
psychological nerve Immunology (N.PS.A) is gaining greater acceptance in
the medical world.The nerve psychological immunology examine the
interactions between brain, behavior, nervous system, immune system and
endocrine system. Today, new molecular techniques allow scientists to list
the links between mental disorders and organic diseases, and stress
hormones Joined changes in cells and the immune system.
According to Margaret Kemeny, professor of psychiatry and biobehavioral
science at the University of California, in a recent work has shown that
hormones and neurotransmitters released under stressful situations can
change the behavior of immune cells. One of the foci of (N.PS.A) is the
study of the phenomenon of stress and harmful influence on the body,
resulting in disease. Chronic stress and negative results are an example of
the connection between body and mind. The cause of the disease is the
result of many factors. It has been shown that chronic stress is a risk factor
in major causes of morbidity and mortality such as heart disease and
cancer. Our society teaches that we should ignore the power of thought
and how it can help us in some disorder and dysfunction. It teaches us that
imagination is a lie and that there is nothing in the preamble to the body
and vice versa. In the fight against the disease N.PS.A teaches us that the
collection of the concentrations of thinking, alertness, and the power of
thought, can increase the (neurological stimulation) in various organs, and
thus allow the agency to beat the dysfunction is.
The ... invulnerable EL_LINES
21 effective ways to protect yourself from any kind of virus (TECHNITES or
not) throughout the year.
Know the foods and habits to be put or remove from your daily life to make
sure that your body works to the max. SIMPLE so;
If until now believed that only oranges, lemons and garlic stimulate the
body's natural defenses, it's time to reconsider. "There are many other
foods - less known for their protective properties in response to viral
infections," explains Mario o Dimopoulos, Clinical Nutritionist. Here's what
to do.
Boost with tone: The fish is a natural health arsenal, but this contains a
number of important nutrients that support the immune system, such as
selenium, omega-3 fatty acids and zinc, while very low in harmful fats. So
salmon.
Aim the red: And to be more precise, in red (sweet) peppers. This is
because they contain more vitamin C than any other food, including
oranges! A raw red peppers contain more vitamin C than a glass of orange
juice and ½ cup. contains almost twice the recommended daily dose of
vitamin C.
Trust me pumpkins: Can you recall snapshot of American film, but the big
orange squash not only serve to Halloween. Imagine them as a portable
"bombs" beta carotene which the body converts to vitamin A. The same
goes for carrots.
Drink tea: Both green and black and white tea is rich in important
antioxidants. Studies have shown that tea contains some components
such as antioxidant epigallokatechini, with offensive and defensive action
in parallel. This means that acts directly on viruses and bacteria that
threaten your health, enhancing the body's defenses.
Eat Mushrooms: The Pharaoh thought the elixir of life and banned for
ordinary mortals to eat. Today mushrooms are widely consumed and the
special bow to the precious ingredients: among others, are richly protein,
selenium and mercury, while increasing the production and activity of white
blood cells, those that kill intruders in the body ie.
Limit
Sugar. Not only do harm to the balance, but also on your nerves by the
extra pounds. When the white blood cells exposed to high levels of blood
sugar, reduce their ability to fight viruses and bacteria. The same happens
with white bread, pasta and complex carbohydrates.
Physician
"Nobody is immune to bacteria and viruses, especially in the winter, to
thrive and grow indoors. Of course, this does not mean that we are
"doomed" to get sick. Enough time to take our measures, "said Ilias
Theodoropoulos, pathologists, and suggests:
Wash (good) your hands: from the dirty hands can transmit or solder from
a simple cold up hepatitis. So we need to take care of their health
thoroughly: rub well and insists beneath the nails and skin folds (as
microbes tend to be concentrated;; these points). To rinse with water and
dry with a clean dry towel.
Buy wipes: Because it is virtually impossible to wash your hands as often
as needed (eg supermarkets or after many handshakes), supplied the bag,
your child's backpack or your briefcase with your partner wipes. But not
any. Antibacterial clean hands effectively and protect it from
contamination. If used properly, virtually eliminate all the germs. Preferred
those containing more than 60% alcohol
Rest: Scientific studies leave no doubt that sleep and immune system
influence each other, so it is common for people who sleep very badly or
be vulnerable to viruses and infections. Cause, as experts believe, it is
disturbing to regulate certain chemicals that play an important role in
combating infections. To operate 100% immune need 8 hours of sleep
daily. As layers to sleep, in other words.
Get a ride: Not that you need another survey to be convinced of the
usefulness of the exercise, but according to research by the British
University Lofmpro, even the moderate exercise 3 times a week stimulates
the immune system by increasing white blood cells the concentration of
antibodies. This means that you become less prone to viral infections and
reduces recovery time.
Limit
Alcohol. Can a glass of wine is the secret of longevity, but when we lose a
measure poison the immune system, inhibiting the ability of bone marrow
to produce blood cells (which kill bacteria). So I have put a measure on ...
wine drinking!
The holistic doctor
"Many alternative therapies are very effective in stimulating the immune
system and neutralize viruses and bacteria that threaten our health,"
explains Dimitri Gianniotis, Reflexology, Shiatsu Master. If you are a lover
of the most ... natural solutions, read what the expert suggests.
Enjoy a therapeutic massage: A recent scientific research, massage can
boost the immune system while increasing your energy levels. Indeed, this
method also has beneficial effects in people who simply feel pressed by
the demands of everyday life.

Kβαντική Βιοανάδραση - Βιοσυντονισμός

Become architects of yourself! Discover your power!
The nervous system of the skin
The human skin is a complex network of nerve bundles,
which starts from the subcutaneous adipose tissue and
by dermidas goes live in the upper layers of the
epidermis. The human body has over one million
sensory organs. Important sensors are petaliodi particles
ton Vater-Pacini in the subcutaneous tissue, which
correspond to vibrations, and Meissner corpuscles and
tactile corpuscles facing dermidas-skin and respond to
stimuli of touch. In the area of dermidas are extra
particles in Ruffini (strain sensors) and the particles or
the skittles Krause (michanoupodocheis). The
intraepithelial nerve endings are nerve fibers in the skin
that respond to sensory stimuli: heat, cold, pain, touch
and pressure. Sensing nerves respond to external and
internal stimuli such as skin touch, tension, pain, heat
and cold. The nerves of the nervous system controlling
plant the pots, the components of skin and smooth
muscles to shiver
Melanocytes
Melanocytes produce melanin, the main pigment.
Melanin can get red, gold, brown or black color.
Melanocytes are found in germ layer of the epidermis
and hair follicles.
They have long endings that reach the upper layers of
the skin, through which supply the keratinocytes with
pigments. Thus, a melanocytes feeds an average of 36
keratinocytes.
 Cells Langerhans (istiokyttara)

(They got their name from the German physician Paul

Langerhans)
Langerhans cells are characterized as "guardians" of the
immune system and are found in basal cell layer. The
function of the immune system of the skin is twofold.
From a bind harmful substances that invade and inform
the body's defenses for invasion. On the other hand, in
his capacity as phagocytes contribute to the suppression
of the invaders.

Fibroblasts

Fibroblasts are in dermida. Contribute significantly to the production of

extracellular matrix. Main product of fibroblasts is the
structural protein collagen, which ensures stability of the
tissue and makes it resistant against mechanical
influences (eg impact, drag and thrust).
Keratinocytes
The epidermis is composed of 90% of keratinocytes. The
cells identified in the germ layer in the granular layer
called keratinocytes, while those occurring in the stratum
corneum called korneokyttara. Basic function is to create
an active protective barrier against environmental
influences and their participation in the reactions of the
immune system. The keratinocytes be renewed every 28
days and death have a high content of keratin.

1. Shaw IC, Chadwick J. Principles of Environmental Toxicology. Taylor &

Francis, London, 1998.
2. Elsom D. Atmospheric Pollution. Blackwell, London, 1989.
3. Harvey LDD. Global Warming: The Hard Science. Prentice Hall, New
York, 2000; Kump LR. Reducing uncertainty about carbon dioxide as a
climate driver. Nature, 2002, 419: 188-190.
4. EPA. Greenhouse gases and global warming. Potential values. US
Greenhouse Gas Inventory Program, Office of Atmospheric Programs,
Washington DC, 2002
(www.epa.gov/globalwarming/publications/emissions)
5. Rowland FS. Climate change and its consequences. Environment,
2001,
43: 29-34.
6. Root TL, Price JT, Hall KR, et al. Fingerprints of global warming on wild
animals and plants. Nature, 2003, 424: 57-60.
7. Newell RE, Reichle HG, Seiler W. Carbon monoxide and the burning
earth. Scientific American, 1989, 262: 82-88.
8. Mylona S. Trends of SO2 Emissions, Air Concentrations and
Depositions
of Sulphur in Europe since 1980. EMEP/MSC-W Report 2/93, EMEP,
Oslo, 1993.
9. National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program. Interim Assessment.
The Causes and Effects of Acid Deposition. Washington DC, 1987;
Reuss
JO, Johnson DW, eds. Acid Deposition and the Acidification of Soils
and
Waters. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1986; Steinberg CEW, Wright RF,
eds.
Acidification of Freshwater Ecosystems. Implications for the Future.
Wiley &
Sons Ltd. Chichester, 1994.
10.Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (Sofia, 1998).
103-
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)
Environment and Human Settlements Division. Protocol concerning
the
Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides
(http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/nitr )
11.Pope CA, III, Burnett RT, Thun MJ, Cale EE, Krewski D, Ito K, Thurston
GD. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality and long-term exposure to
fine particulate air pollution. J Am Med Assoc, 2002, 287:1132-1141.