Constanta Maritime Univesity

Electromechanical Faculty
Introduction into Naval-Mechanical Engineering

Student: Efteme Ionut Alexandru

Group: MA 14
Supervisor: drd. asist.univ. ing.
DUMITRESCU LAURENIU

HOMEWORK NO.1
A. THEORETICAL ASPECTS
1. THE BASICS.
1.1 Give and explain the definition of :
Displacement(of gravity, of mass and of volume);
> > Buoyancy.
Equally, write the measure unit of them.
It was Archimedes who first realised, in his eureka moment, that a body that is immersed
completely in water will displace a volume of water equal to the volume of the body and that
the apparent weight of the body, when immersed,will be reduced by the weight of water equal
to its own volume, then it will not become immersed completely. It will float with part if its
own volume above the water surface such that the weight of the displaced water equals the
weight of the body. Thus a body, floating freely in water will be acted upon by forces due to
the water pressure at each point of its wetted surface. The resultant of these forces will be an
upward force equal to the weight of the water displaced by the body. This is the bodys
displacement, often denoted by the symbol . If the water density is then the pressure acting
upon a small area A will be h and the force will be hA. By integrating over the whole of
the wetted surface the total force on the body is hA.= V where V is the volume of the boy
below water (called the volume of displacement). This total force is termed the buoyancy
force, or simply the buoyancy. For equilibrium this force must act vertically as any resultant
horizontal force would cause the body to move in the direction of that resultant. Also for
equilibrium the buoyancy force must be equal and opposite to the weight of the body. If it were
not the body would move up or down, The two forces must act in the same line otherwise there
would exist a moment causing the body to rotate. Another way of looking at his is to consider
the body removed and replaced by a volume of water, surrounded by a weightless membrane
of the same shape as the bodys underwater form. The water surface will be horizontal and the
forces on the membrane will support the weight of water within.
1.2 Write and explain the formulas for coefficient of fineness!
The overall dimensions of length, breadth and draught determine whether a ship can use a
given dry dock or negotiate a specific canal or harbour. Also a table of offsets cab accurately
define the hull shape. However, neither set of data provides an immediate feel of the main

characteristics of the hull shape, e.g. how full it is. There are some coefficients which can
be obtained for the underwater hull which provide clues as to its general nature and its likely
behavior at sea. They are derived by relating certain areas and volumes to their circumscribing
rectangles or prisms. These coefficients are known as the coefficients of fineness if:
V
A
AM
L,B and T

is the volume of displacement;

is the waterplane area;
is the underwater area of the midship section;and
are the length,beam and draught.

Then the coefficients of fineness are defined as follows:

Block coefficient, CB

= V/LBT

Waterplane coefficient, CWP

Midship area coefficient, CM

= A/LB
= AM/BT

Horizontal prismatic coefficient, CP = V/AML

Vertical prismatic coefficient, CVP =V/ AWT

In comparing values of these coefficients between ships it is important to ensure that the same
definitions of L, B and T are used. Usually L is the length between perpendiculars except for
the waterplane coefficient where the length on waterline is taken. B is usually the mean
draught between perpendiculars. Also, usually L,B and T are taken as defining the external hull
but sometimes moulded dimensions are used, that is to the inside of the plating. The external
hull dimensions help to determine the behavior of a ship in responding to the thrust of the
propellers, to waves and to the movements of control surfaces, such as rudders and stabilisers.
The moulded dimensions assist in finding the internal volume available for equipment,
accommodation and cargo.
Example
A ship of length 150 m and beam 18 m floats at a mean draught of 7,5 m when in water of
density 1,025 tonnes/m3. Assuming her block coefficient is 0,5 and her waterplane coefficient
of fineness is 0,6 , calculate the ships displacement and her approximate draught when it
enters water of 1,015 tonnes/m3.

Solution:
Volume of circumscribing rectangular
Solid = 150 X 18 X 7.5 = 20,250 m3
Volume of displacement = 0.5 X 20250 = 10,125 m3
Hence displacement = 10,125 X 1,025 = 10,378 tonnes
The waterplane area = 0,6 X 150 X 18 = 1620 m2
In the less dense water the ship must displace more water to produce a buoyancy force equal to
its weight.
New volume in the less dense water = 10,378/1,015 = 10,225 m3
The ship will sink in the water to compensate for the added volume
Added volume = 10,225 10,125 = 100 m3
Sinkage = 100/1620 = 6,17 cm
New draught is approximately 7, 56 m

1.3 Write and explain the Archimedes Law for a freely floating body ( equally
in scalar and
vectorial form ). Write the equilibrium equations!
Practically, the Archimedes principle allows the buoyancy of an object partially or
wholly immersed in a liquid to be calculated. The downward force on the object is simply its
weight. The upward, or buoyant, force on the object is that stated by Archimedes' principle,
above. Thus the net upward force on the object is the difference between the buoyant force and
its weight. If this net force is positive, the object rises; if negative, the object sinks; and if zero,
the object is neutrally buoyant - that is, it remains in place without either rising or sinking. In
simple words, Archimedes' principle states that when a body is partially or completely
immersed in a fluid, it experiences an apparent loss in weight which is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the immersed part of the body.
Consider a cube immersed in a fluid, with its sides parallel to the direction of gravity.
The fluid will exert a normal force on each face, and therefore only the forces on the top and
bottom faces will contribute to buoyancy. The pressure difference between the bottom and the
top face is directly proportional to the height (difference in depth). Multiplying the pressure
difference by the area of a face gives the net force on the cube the buoyancy, or the weight of
the fluid displaced. By extending this reasoning to irregular shapes, we can see that, whatever

the shape of the submerged body, the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced. apparent loss in wt of water= wt of object in air-wt of object in water
The weight of the displaced fluid is directly proportional to the volume of the displaced fluid
(if the surrounding fluid is of uniform density). The weight of the object in the fluid is reduced,
because of the force acting on it, which is called upthrust. In simple terms, the principle states
that the buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object, or
the density of the fluid multiplied by the submerged volume times the gravitational constant, g.
Thus, among completely submerged objects with equal masses, objects with greater volume
have greater buoyancy.
Suppose a rock's weight is measured as 10 newtons when suspended by a string in
a vacuum with gravity acting on it. Suppose that when the rock is lowered into water, it
displaces water of weight 3 newtons. The force it then exerts on the string from which it hangs
would be 10 newtons minus the 3 newtons of buoyant force: 10 3 = 7 newtons. Buoyancy
reduces the apparent weight of objects that have sunk completely to the sea floor. It is
generally easier to lift an object up through the water than it is to pull it out of the water.
For a fully submerged object, Archimedes' principle can be reformulated as follows:
then inserted into the quotient of weights, which has been expanded by the mutual volume

yields the formula below. The density of the immersed object relative to the density of
the fluid can easily be calculated without measuring any volumes:

Example: If you drop wood into water, buoyancy will keep it afloat.
Example: A helium balloon in a moving car. When increasing speed or driving in a
curve, the air moves in the opposite direction to the car's acceleration. However, due to
buoyancy, the balloon is pushed "out of the way" by the air, and will actually drift in the same
direction as the car's acceleration.
When an object is immersed in a liquid, the liquid exerts an upward force, which is known
as the buoyant force, that is proportional to the weight of the displaced liquid. The sum force
acting on the object, then, is equal to the difference between the weight of the object ('down'
force) and the weight of displaced liquid ('up' force). Equilibrium, or neutral buoyancy, is
achieved when these two weights (and thus forces) are equal.

2. DRAUGHTS
2.1 What means draughts? Unit measure?

The draft (American) or draught (British) of a ship's hull is the vertical distance between
the waterline and the bottom of the hull (keel), with the thickness of the hull included; in the
case of not being included the draft outline would be obtained. Draft determines the minimum
depth of water a ship or boat can safely navigate. The draft can also be used to determine the
weight of the cargo on board by calculating the total displacement of water and then
using Archimedes' principle. A table made by the shipyard shows the water displacement for
each draft. The density of the water (salt or fresh) and the content of the ship's bunkers has to
be taken into account. The closely related term "trim" is defined as the difference between the
forward and aft drafts.

The draft aft (stern) is measured in the perpendicular of the stern.

The draft forward (bow) is measured in the perpendicular of the bow.
The mean draft is obtained by calculating from the averaging of the stern and bow
drafts, with correction for water level variation and value of the position of F with respect
to the average perpendicular.

2.2 Explain the concept of metacentre(equally, transversal and longitudinal).

So far the ship has been considered as floating in a state of equilibrium, upright and at
the design draught.It is now necessary to consider departures from this state.First take
the case when a ship is heeled through a small angle. The centre of buoyancy moves to a
new position B1 and the buoyancy force,which acts vertically, that is, normal to the new
waterline,acts through a point M on the centerline.M is known as the transverse
metacenter.For angles of up to about 10 degrees,M can be regarded as a fixed point.
The positions of B and M depend only upon the geometry of the ship and are fixed for
the draught at which it is floating. The designer can provide information on B and M for

each mean draught, assuming the waterline is parallel to the design waterline. Small
departures from this state are unlikely to be significant. With such a plot,known as a
metacentric diagram, a master can find M and B for the condition the ship is in.
We have seen how the centre of buoyancy, the centroid of the volume of the displaced
water, can be found.BM is given by:
BM=I/V, where I is the transverse second moment, or inertia, of the waterplane and V is
the volume of displacement.
A mathematical proof of this relationship can be found in standard textbooks on naval
architecture.The student is asked to accept it and to note that BM will vary directly with
the square of the beam and inversely with the draught. A large beam and shallow
draught would lead to a very stable ship one difficult to roll over. However, there
would be disadvantages in terms of rapid rolling in waves and slamming (see later).
Also, the high angle stability would be poor. The Designer has to balance up a number of
factors in deciding upon the degree of stability to build into a ship. The concept of
stability is addressed in more detail in the next chapter.
There is a corresponding longitudinal metacenter for small changes in angle about a
transverse axis. It will be shown later that the two metacentres are critical to a study of a
ships stability. The position of the longitudinal metacenter is defined by:
BHL=IL/V, where IL is the longitudinal inertian of the waterplane about a transverse axis
through the centroid of the area of the waterplane
Example:
Consider a uniform rectangular solid, length L, beam B and depth D, floating in water
with its long dimension horizontal. Assuming the solids density is k times tha of
water,discuss the form of the metacentric diagram for a range of k values. The second
moment (or inertia) of a rectangle about a longitudinal axis is B3L/12.
Solution:
The solid will float at a draught T where: T = kD
For a rectangular cross-section:KB=draught/2 = kD/2
Thus for this case KB increases linearly with D and its plot will be a straight line passing
through the origin and with slope tan-1

For a rectangular waterplane: I=B3L/12 (The student is asked to accept this)

Now BM = I/V = [B3L/12]LBT = B2/12T = B2/12kD
BM will be infinite when k is zero and reduce as k increases.

2.3 Write and explain the formula for metacentric height(relation between KC,
KG and KM).
The metacentric height (GM) is a measurement of the initial static stability of a floating
body. It is calculated as the distance between the centre of gravity of a ship and its
metacentre. A larger metacentric height implies greater initial stability against
overturning. Metacentric height also influences the natural period of rolling of a hull,
with very large metacentric heights being associated with shorter periods of roll which
are uncomfortable for passengers. Hence, a sufficiently high but not excessively high
metacentric height is considered ideal for passenger ships
When a ship heeled, the centre of buoyancy of the ship moves laterally. It may also
move up or down with respect to the water line. The point at which a vertical line
through the heeled centre of buoyancy crosses the line through the original, vertical
centre of buoyancy is the metacentre. The metacentre remains directly above the centre
of buoyancy by definition.
In the diagram to the right the two Bs show the centres of buoyancy of a ship in the
upright and heeled condition, and M is the metacentre. The metacentre is considered to
be fixed for small angles of heel; however, at larger angles of heel the metacentre can no
longer be considered fixed, and its actual location must be found to calculate the ship's
stability.
The metacentre can be calculated using the formulae:
KM = KB + BM
BM =\frac{I}{V} \
Where KB is the centre of buoyancy (height above the keel), I is the Second moment of
area of the waterplane in metres4 and V is the volume of displacement in metres3. KM
is the distance from the keel to the metacentre. [1]

Stable floating objects have a natural rolling frequency like a weight on a spring, where
the frequency is increased as the spring gets stiffer. In a boat, the equivalent of the spring
stiffness is the distance called "GM" or "metacentric height", being the distance between
two points: "G" the centre of gravity of the boat and "M", which is a point called the
metacentre.
Metacentre is determined by the ratio between the inertia resistance of the boat and the
volume of the boat. (The inertia resistance is a quantified description of how the
waterline width of the boat resists overturning.) Wide and shallow or narrow and deep
hulls have high transverse metacenters (relative to the keel), and the opposite have low
metacenters; the extreme opposite is shaped like a log or round bottomed boat.
Ignoring the ballast, wide and shallow or narrow and deep means the ship is very quick
to roll and very hard to overturn and is stiff. A log shaped round bottomed means slow
rolls and easy to overturn and tender.
"G", is the center of gravity. "GM", the stiffness parameter of a boat, can be lengthened
by lowering the center of gravity or changing the hull form (and thus changing the
volume displaced and second moment of area of the waterplane) or both.
An ideal boat strikes a balance. Very tender boats with very slow roll periods are at risk
of overturning but are comfortable for passengers. However, vessels with a higher
metacentric height are "excessively stable" with a short roll period resulting in high
accelerations at the deck level.
Sailing yachts, especially racing yachts, are designed to be stiff, meaning the distance
between the centre of mass and the metacentre is very large in order to resist the heeling
effect of the wind on the sails. In such vessels the rolling motion is not uncomfortable
because of the moment of inertia of the tall mast and the aerodynamic damping of the
sails.
When setting a common reference for the centres, the molded (within the plate or
planking) line of the keel (K) is generally chosen; thus, the reference heights are:
KB - to Centre of Buoyancy
KG - to Centre of Gravity
KMT - to Transverse Metacentre

2.3 What means : TPC and MCT?

Tonnes Per Centimetre Immersion (TPC)
For each waterplane the area defines, for a given density of water, the cange in buoyancy in
tonnes is experienced due to unit increase or decrease in draught. The unit of draught change
considere is one centimeter, giving the tonnes per cm immersion (TPC). The other from that
is sometimes used is TPI, standing for tonnes per nit immersion. If the area of a waterplane is
A m2 and the water densiy is p tonnes per m3, then the TPC will be Ap/100.
Moment to Change Trim One Metre (MCT)
Now consider departures from the steady state by rotation about a transverse axis, that is when
the ship is trimmed. Let it trim through a small angle, , about an axis through the CF, extra
buoyancy will be created at the end of the ship at which the draught increases and a loss of
buoyancy at the end which emerges from the water.The forces due to these buoyancy forces
will produce a moment which will act so as to oppose the change of trim. The total buoyancy
will remain constant and equal to the ships weight, W , otherwise the ship would move up or
down. If ML is the longitudinal metacenter, the righting movement will be:
W.GML
This will be the moment required to hold the ship at the new trim angle. If the trim change is
one metre between perpendiculars, the moment is reterred to as the moment to change trim
one metre (MCT).
It will be noted that the MCT does depend upon the position of G, so it will vary with the
loading of the ship. However, BML(=IL/V) is large, typically of the order of the length of the
ship. It will be appreciated that the variation in the height of G above the kell wll be small
compared with GML. Hence , GML will not vary much with the loading of the ship. The student
will now appreciate why, in the previous chapter, the transverse and longitudinal inertias of the
waterplane were mentioned. They are important in defining the heights of the transverse and
longitudinal metacentres above the centre of buoyancy.
We have seen that for small changes in trim about the CF, there is no change in overall
displacement. If the trim, , is about amidships , there will be a change of draught at the CF
given by:
X where x is the distance of the CF from amidship

There will be a corresponding change in displacement given by:

X (TPC)
This change will be an increase when the trim is such that the draught at the CF position
increase.
A plot of the above data against draught gives rise to a set of curves known as the Hydrostatic
curves or simply hydrostatics.
3.

STABILITY
3.1

Explain the stability concept(transversal and longitudinal).

TRANSVERSE STABILITY,SMALL ANGLES

So far, consideration has been given only to a ship when in equilibrium or moving slowly from
one position of equilibrium to another. Now consider what happens when a ship is subject to a
small heeling moment.
For small disturbances, it is reasonable to assume that there is no change in trim and that the
upright and heeled waterlines will intersect on the centerline of the ship. The ship will take up
a small angle of heel.There will be a newly submerged wedge of hull on one side of the
centerline and a corresponding emerged wedge on the other.The centre of buoyancy will move
from its initial position in the centerline plane, B , to a new position B1 such that the distance
between the two wedges. The line BB1 will be parallel to the line joining the centres of volume
of the two wedges.
The total buoyancy force remains constant but it now acts in a vertical line through B1, that is
normal to the inclined waterline. This line intersects the ships centerline plane in M, the
metacenter. As previously noted for most common ship forms, M can be taken as a fixed point
for small angles, typically up to about 10 degrees.
The weight W (equal to the buoyancy) will act through the centre of gravity of the ship wich
remains fixed. The resultant momen acting on the ship will be given by:
W.GM. where is the angle of heel, assumed small
From a stability point of view, there are three possibilities:

 M is above G. In this case , the moment acting, due to the shift in buoyancy, is tending to
restore the ship to the upright position. The ship is said to be stable; it hasp positive
stability.
M is below G. In this case, the moment is trying to push the ship further from the
upright. The ship is said to be unstable; it has negative stability.
M and G coincide. In this case, there is no moment acting on the ship which will remain
in the heeled position.The ship is said to have neutral stability.
As stated previously, the vertical distance between the centre of buoyancy and the metacenter
is given by:
BM = I/V, where I is the second moment of area, or the inertia, of the waterplane about a
longitudinal axis and V is the total volume of displacement.
For a rectangular waterplane of length, L , and breadth, B , the inertias about its centerline are
given by:
I =B3L/12
In general terms, V will be proportional to LBT where T is the draught of the vessel concerned.
Thus, in this case, BM = Const.B2/T

[Note B3 changed to B2]

Although a normal ships waterplane is not rectangular, this general relationship will be
approximately true for ships. Thus, the beam has a very great influence on the initial stability
of a ship. It might appear, at first, that good stability could be obtained by making the draught
small. Whilst true for small angles, the stability at large angles would suffer.
In the above question, the cylinder floated with its axis vertical. The case of a circular cylinder
floating with its axis horizontal is interesting. As the cylinder turns about its axis, that is as it
heels, the vertical through the centre of buoyancy wil always act through the centre of the
circular cross-section. Thus, M is at the centre of the circle. This applies at whatever draught
the cylinder is floating at provided its axis is horizontal.

Longitudinal Stability

Parameters such as centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy have been used in describing
transverse stability, so far. They can also be used to describe longitudinal stability.
LCB and LCG

Figure 3.16 LCB Forward of LCG - Vessel trims by the stern

In Fig 3.16 LCB is the longitudinal centre of buoyancy. This is the longitudinal centre of the
underwater volume, and is the point through which all the buoyancy can be said to act
vertically upwards.
LCG is the longitudinal centre of gravity. This is the point through which all of the weight of
the vessel can be said to act vertically downwards.
If the position of LCG and LCB are as shown in Fig 3.16 then the actions of buoyancy and
weight will cause the vessel to rotate as shown by the arrow. The stern will sink deeper, the
bow will rise higher. LCB is the longitudinal centre of all underwater volume. As the vessel
rotates, the shape of the underwater volume will change and LCB will move to the new centre.

When LCG and LCB are in the same vertical line, the rotation will stop, the vessel will be
trimmed by the stern
as shown in Fig 3.17.

Figure 3.17 LCG and LCB in same vertical line - no trimming moment

If the vessel had started with LCB aft of LCG as shown in Fig 3.18 then the rotation would
cause a trim by the bow.

Figure 3.18 LCB aft of LCG - vessel trims by the head

3.2 Explain what means The Metacentric Diagram and write the formula
for stability at
small angle!

The Metacentric Diagram

It has been seen that the positions of points B and M depend only upon the geometry of the
ship and are fixed for the draught at which it is floating. G depends upon the loading condition
of the ship and will vary with time. With the metacentric diagram, a master can find M for the
draught at which the ship is floating. From the loading of the ship, the master will be able to
assess the position of G. The value of GM, and hence the initial stability follows.
TRANSVERSE STABILITY,SMALL ANGLES
So far, consideration has been given only to a ship when in equilibrium or moving slowly from
one position of equilibrium to another. Now consider what happens when a ship is subject to a
small heeling moment.
For small disturbances, it is reasonable to assume that there is no change in trim and that the
upright and heeled waterlines will intersect on the centerline of the ship. The ship will take up
a small angle of heel.There will be a newly submerged wedge of hull on one side of the
centerline and a corresponding emerged wedge on the other.The centre of buoyancy will move
from its initial position in the centerline plane, B , to a new position B1 such that the distance
between the two wedges. The line BB1 will be parallel to the line joining the centres of volume
of the two wedges.
The total buoyancy force remains constant but it now acts in a vertical line through B1, that is
normal to the inclined waterline. This line intersects the ships centerline plane in M, the
metacenter. As previously noted for most common ship forms, M can be taken as a fixed point
for small angles, typically up to about 10 degrees.
The weight W (equal to the buoyancy) will act through the centre of gravity of the ship wich
remains fixed. The resultant momen acting on the ship will be given by:
W.GM. where is the angle of heel, assumed small

From a stability point of view, there are three possibilities:

M is above G. In this case , the moment acting, due to the shift in buoyancy, is tending to
restore the ship to the upright position. The ship is said to be stable; it hasp positive stability.

M is below G. In this case, the moment is trying to push the ship further from the
upright. The ship is said to be unstable; it has negative stability.


M and G coincide. In this case, there is no moment acting on the ship which will remain
in the heeled position.The ship is said to have neutral stability.
As stated previously, the vertical distance between the centre of buoyancy and the metacenter
is given by:
BM = I/V, where I is the second moment of area, or the inertia, of the waterplane about a
longitudinal axis and V is the total volume of displacement.
For a rectangular waterplane of length, L , and breadth, B , the inertias about its centerline are
given by:
I =B3L/12
In general terms, V will be proportional to LBT where T is the draught of the vessel concerned.
Thus, in this case, BM = Const.B2/T

[Note B3 changed to B2]

Although a normal ships waterplane is not rectangular, this general relationship will be
approximately true for ships. Thus, the beam has a very great influence on the initial stability
of a ship. It might appear, at first, that good stability could be obtained by making the draught
small. Whilst true for small angles, the stability at large angles would suffer.
In the above question, the cylinder floated with its axis vertical. The case of a circular cylinder
floating with its axis horizontal is interesting. As the cylinder turns about its axis, that is as it
heels, the vertical through the centre of buoyancy wil always act through the centre of the
circular cross-section. Thus, M is at the centre of the circle. This applies at whatever draught
the cylinder is floating at provided its axis is horizontal.

3.3 Explain in details , the typical GZ curve or curve of statical stability of

figure 3.3.
The GZ Curve or Curve of Statical Stability
A typical plot of GZ against angle of heel is shown in the next image.

Some interesting information can be deduced from the statical stability curve:
The slope of the curve at the origin represents the value of GM for small angles.
The maximum value of GZ multiplied by the displacement represents the greatest steady
heeling moment the ship can sustain without turning right over.
The angle at which GZ becomes zero is known as the point of vanishing stability and
defines the range of stability.
The point of inflexion on the way to the maximum is an indication of the angle at which
a reasonable length of deck edge becomes immersed.
The area under the curve up to any given angle, multiplied by the displacement,
represents the energy needed to heel the ship to that angle. It is referred to as the ships
dynamical stability and is a measure of the ability of the ship to absorb the energy

imparted by waves and gusting winds. This should not be confused with a ships
dynamic stability which is a measure of its ability to maintain a constant heading.

3.4 What means angle of loll?

In calm conditions, the ship will float at an angle equal to that at which GZ becomes positive.
This is the angle of loll. The ship will loll to port or starboard depending on how she arrived at
the initial condition. A small moment applied to bring it upright will cause her to flop
suddenly to a similar angle on the other side. An experienced master will recognize from the
motion of the ship when she exhibits this characteristic and can decide what action needs to be
taken.

4.

STRENGHT

4.1 What means THE TORSOR OF A FORCE?

In the three-dimensional cutting case, the torsor of mechanical actions (forces and moments) is
often
truncated: the moments part of this torsor is neglected for lack of adapted metrology [1, 2, 3].
Unfortunately,
until now the results on the cutting forces are almost still validated using platforms of forces
(dynamometers)
measuring the three components of those. The torsor of actions is thus often truncated because
the torsor
moment part is probably neglected for lack of access to an adapted metrology [4, 5]. However,
forces and

pure moments (or torque) can be measured [6]. Recently, an application consisting in sixcomponent
measurements of the actions torsor during cutting process was carried out for the case of high
speed milling
[7], drilling [8, 9], etc. Cahuc et al., in [10], present another use of this six-component
dynamometer in an
experimental study: taking into account of the cut moments allows a better machine tool power
consumption
evaluation. It allows a better approach of the cut [8, 11, 12] and should thus allow in the
dynamic case to
reach new properties of the vibrations of the system piece-tool-matter.
Moreover, the tool torsor has the advantage of being transportable in any point of space and in
especially, at the tool tip in O point. The following study is carried out in several stages,
including two major
stages; the first of is related to the analysis of forces. The second of is dedicated to the
determining of the
central axis and a first moments analysis to the central axis during the cut.
In paragraph 2 we present first the experimental device used and the associated elements of
measurement. Paragraph 3 is devoted to the measurement of the torque of the cutting actions.
An analysis of
the forces exerted during the cut action is carried out. It allows to establish in experiments
certain properties
of the resultant of the cutting actions. The case of the moments at the tool tip point is also
examined with
precision. The central axis of the torque is required (paragraph 4). The beams of central axes
deduced from
the multiple tests confirm especially the presence of moments at the tool tip point. In paragraph
5, we more
particularly carry out the analysis of the moments at the central axis by looking at the case the
most sensitive
to vibrations (ap = 5 mm, f = 0.1 mm/rev). Before concluding, this study gives a certain
number of properties
and drive to some innovative reflexions.
4.2

Write and explain the TORSOR OF EXTERNAL FORCES!

The torsor of the external forces exerted on a solid (S), denoted [F], is determined by its
reduction elements comprising the resultant FA of these forces and by their moment mA at a
point A.By comparison with the reduction elements at another point B, we deduce:
FA = FB = F, mA = mB + AB X F
We write symbolically1 [F]=[F, mA].
The tensor of forces is [T]=[T(s), M(s)] and in M we have MM = M(s)+MP X T. By
derivation, we obtain the reduction elements of the torsor [d T / d s], so:
[d t/ ds]=[d T(s)/d s, d M(s)/ d s+t X T(s)]

4.3 Draw and explain the SIX FREEDOM DEGREE of the general
ship motions in Waves( three translations and three rotation).

The term is important in mechanical systems, especially biomechanical systems for analyzing
and measuring properties of these types of systems that need to account for all six
degrees of freedom. Measurement of the six degrees of freedom is accomplished today
through both AC and DC magnetic or electromagnetic fields in sensors that transmit
positional and angular data to a processing unit. The data are made relevant through
software that integrate the data based on the needs and programming of the users.
Ascension Technology Corporation has recently created a 6DoF device small enough to fit in a
biopsy needle, allowing physicians to better research at minute levels. The new sensor
passively senses pulsed DC magnetic fields generated by either a cubic transmitter or a
flat transmitter and is available for integration and manufacturability by medical OEMs.
An example of six degree of freedom movement is the motion of a ship at sea. It is described
as
Translation:
Moving up and down (heaving);
Moving left and right (swaying);
Moving forward and backward (surging);

Rotation
Tilting forward and backward (pitching);
Turning left and right (yawing);
Tilting side to side (rolling).

4.4 Write the DALEMBERT PRINCIPLE and explain the components

of the TORSOR OF INTERNAL FORCES(inside the ship body).
D'Alembert's principle, also known as the Lagranged'Alembert principle, is a statement of the
fundamental classical laws of motion. It is named after its discoverer, the French
physicist and mathematician Jean le Rond d'Alembert. It is the dynamic analogue to the
principle of virtual work for applied forces in a static system and in fact is more general
than Hamilton's principle, avoiding restriction to holonomic systems. A holonomic
constraint depends only on the coordinates and time. It does not depend on the velocities.
If the negative terms in accelerations are recognized as inertial forces, the statement of
d'Alembert's principle becomes The total virtual work of the impressed forces plus the
inertial forces vanishes for reversible displacements. The principle does not apply for
irreversible displacements, such as sliding friction, and more general specification of the
irreversibility is required.
The principle states that the sum of the differences between the forces acting on a system of
mass particles and the time derivatives of the momenta of the system itself along any
virtual displacement consistent with the constraints of the system, is zero. Thus, in
symbols d'Alembert's principle is written as following,

Where
is an integer used to indicate (via subscript) a variable corresponding to a particular
particle in the system,
is the total applied force (excluding constraint forces) on the -th particle,

is the mass of the i-th particle,

is the acceleration of the i-th particle,
together as product represents the time derivative of the momentum of the i-th particle,
and
is the virtual displacement of the i-th particle, consistent with the constraints.
D'Alembert's principle of inertial forces
D'Alembert showed that one can transform an accelerating rigid body into an equivalent static
system by adding the so-called "inertial force" and "inertial torque" or moment. The
inertial force must act through the center of mass and the inertial torque can act
anywhere. The system can then be analyzed exactly as a static system subjected to this
"inertial force and moment" and the external forces. The advantage is that, in the
equivalent static system one can take moments about any point (not just the center of
mass). This often leads to simpler calculations because any force (in turn) can be
eliminated from the moment equations by choosing the appropriate point about which to
apply the moment equation (sum of moments = zero). Even in the course of
Fundamentals of Dynamics and Kinematics of machines, this principle helps in
analyzing the forces that act on a link of a mechanism when it is in motion. In textbooks
of engineering dynamics this is sometimes referred to as d'Alembert's principle.

4.5

Explain the FATIGUE concept. What means FRACTURE?

FATIGUE
During a ships life, her structure is subject to fluctuating strains due to operations such as loading,and
a very importantly in a seaway as the hull flexes in the waves.
If cyclic stresses are very high, then the number of reversals a steel structure can withstand without
failre is limited. Consider a strip of steel being bent to and froin a vice.If bent through a small angle,
it can withstand many reversals. If bent through large angles, it will soon fracture. Further, if a notch is
made in the strip at the point of bending it breaks much more quickly due to the stress concentration
produced by the notch. The surface of the fracture will be fibrous in character.
For many materials, including mild steel, when subject to cyclic stressing in the laboratory there
appears to be a level of stress which can be repeated indefinitely without failure. This is known as the

fatigue limit and results are usually plotted as stress level (S) against number of reversais to failure
(N), the S-N curve for the material. The curve is asymptotic to the fatigue limit. Unfortunately, there is
now evidence that steels have no such limit when used in a corrosive environment such as that at sea.
Avoiding, or reducing, stress concetrations and build-in stresses will increase a structures fatigue life,
but it must always be considered in design. Experience shows that most problems arise from the
detailed design of welded connections. Laboratory test on typical connectons are carried out to
provide design guildance.At various mean stress levels, the specimens are subject to stress reversals at
various ranges of stress. Plots are usually in log/log from with the stress range plotted against the
number of reversals to failure. Typical plots for mild steel are straight lines with the number of
reversals increasing as the stress range reduces. At the fatigue limit, a second line parallel to the N axis
comes into play.
Care is needed in using laboratory results to predict performance at sea. Apart from the corrosive
atmosphere, already referred to, the range of stress and the mean stress to which the ship is subject are
constantly varying. Safety factors are applied to the laboratory results to allow for these influences.
FRACTURE
The characteristics of a fracture in steel depends upon its toughness, and temperature. At reasonable
temperatures fracture initiation is by the coalescence of voids in the material. The crack then grow
only if, and when, it is subjected to increased strain or load. Such cracks will extend at moderate rates
measured in mm/second and are likely to be detected by regular inspections before they can cause
serious trouble for the ship. At lower temperatures, fracture is by cleavage. The fracture is then said to
be brittle and rates of propagation can be about 500 m/second, causing catastrophic failure. The
temperature marking the transition from one mode of fracture to the other is known as the transition
temperature. It depends upon the microstructure of the material, the loading, rate, structural geometry
and the nature of the notch. In thick materials tri-axial stresses can be set up which favour brittle
fracture. High loading rates are bad.
The Charpy( for details of this test the student can refere to a standard text on strength of materials)
test is often used in quality control to indicate whether a material is likely to exhibit brittle fracture
over a range of temperatures. It is a simple standard test that is easy to carry out but it does not
reproduce the geometry and method of loading. However , within the general parameters of ship
structures and their loading, the Charpy test can indicate which steels are likely to be effective.
Recommendations are based on the percentage of the Charpy fracture that is crystalline. In some cases
specially tough steel strakes are provided to act as crack arresters and for these the percentage should
be zero. That is, the fracture must be totally fibrous. A figure of 50% provides good crack arrest
capability and should avoid fracture initiate 70% gives a god probability that brittle fracture will not
initate.

It is clear that cracks cannot be prevented completely although their accourrence can be reduced by
good design. Once initated, they can extend due to fatigue or brittle fracture. Steels having high notch
toughness should be selected to reduce the rsik of catastrophic brittle fracture occurring. As steel is
more brittle at low temperatures, ships intended to operate in ice will require steels with higher
toughness. So will ships which must be capable of sustaining high loading rates, as steels react in
more brittle fashion when the rate of stress build-up is high. Such conditions may apply in collisions
or explosions.

B.

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
1. THE BASICS.

P1. The solved problem as an exemple after figure 1.6.

Example
A ship of length 150 m and beam 18 m floats at a mean draught of 7.5m when in water of
density 1.025 tonnes/m3.Assuming her block coefficient is 0.5 and her waterplane coefficient
of fineness is 0.6, calculate the ships displacement and her approximate draught when it enters
water of 1.015 tonnes/m3
Solution
Volume of circumscribing rectangular
Solid = 150 X 18 X 7.5 = 20,250 m3
Volume of displacement = 0.5 X 20250 = 10,125 m3
Hence displacement = 10,125 X 1,025 = 10,378 tonnes

The waterplane area = 0,6 X 150 X 18 = 1620 m2

In the less dense water the ship must displace more water to produce a buoyancy force equal to
its weight.
New volume in the less dense water = 10,378/1,015 = 10,225 m3
The ship will sink in the water to compensate for the added volume
Added volume = 10,225 10,125 = 100 m3
Sinkage = 100/1620 = 6,17 cm
New draught is approximately 7, 56 m

P2. Self-assessment question 1.

A ship has a length of 158 m, a beam of 17m and a draught of 6,75 m with a displacement of
10,000 tonnes and an immersed midship section area of 104 m2. Assuming a water density of
1.025 tonnes per cubic metre, find the block, longitudinal prismatic and midship-section
coefficinets.
The block coefficient (CB) is the ratio of the underwater hull volume of a ship at a particular
draft to the volume of a rectangular prism (the circumscribing prism) of the same length,
breadth, and draught as the ship.
CB = V/(L x B x T)
CB= 104/(158X17X6,75)
CB=174.331m2
The longitudinal prismatic coefficient (CP) is the ratio of the underwater hull volume of a ship
to the volume of a prism with length equal to the ship's and cross-section area identical to the
midship section. In other words, the prismatic coefficient is equal to the block coefficient (CB)
divided by the midship section coefficient (CM).
CP = V/(Am x L) = CB/CM
CP=104/(1.025 X 158) = 174.331/111.951
CP=1.5572081=1.5572081

The midship section coefficient (CM) is the ratio of the area of the underwater midship section
(Am) of a ship at a particular draft to the area of a rectangle (the circumscribing rectangle) of
the same breadth and draught as the ship.
CM = Am/(B x T)
CM=1.025/(17X6,75)
CM=111.951
P3. Self- assessment question 4.
A barge 50 m long by 8 m beam floats in water of density 1.025 tonnes/m3. The centre of
gravity of the barge itself is on the centerline amidships. Weights are added at the positions
indicated in the table.
Where must an additional weight of 15 tonnes be added so that the barge will sink bodily
without heel or trim?
What will be the increase in draught?

2.

DRAUGHTS.
P4. The solved problem as an exemple after figure 2.7.

A vessel displacement 20,000 tonnes, has a length between perpendiculars of 200 m, and has a
level draught of 6 m. It has a waterplane area of 5.000 m2, with its centre of flotation 5 m aft of
amidships.Calculate the new draughts forward and aft if a weight of 200 tonnes is added 30 m
forward of the centre of flotation. The longitudinal metacenter is 150 m above the ships
centre of gravity. Assume the water density is 1.025 tonnes/m3.
Solution
The TPC of the waterplane is 5..000 X 1.025/100 = 51.25 tonnes per cm.
If the weight were added at the CF the parallel sinkage would be 200/51.25 = 3.90 cms = 0.039
m
Moving the weight forward 30m causes a moment of 200 X 30 = 6.000 tonnes m trimming the
ship by bow
The resulting trim is 6.000/20.000 X 150 = 1/500 radians
The ship trims about the CF so the increase in draught fwd = 105/500 m = 21 cm
Aft = 6m + (3.9 19) cms = 5.849 m

P5. Self assessment question 3.

For the ship in the above worked example, in her initial condition, calculate the new draughts
and if a weight of 150 tonnes is removed from a point 20 m forward of amidships.
Find the position at which a 100 tonne weight must be added in order that the draught forward
does not change.

P6.Self-assessment question

4.

What condition must be met in order that a ship will not change trim in moving between waters
of different densities?
If a ship is of 150 m length with its centre of flotation 5 m aft of amidships, what weight placed
10 m forward of amidships will cause the same trim as a weight of 6 tonnes placed 15 m from
the bow?

BEGINNED: 17.11.2015
DEADLINE: FRIDAY, 15.12.2015.

Supervisor: drd. asist.univ. ing.

DUMITRESCU LAURENIU