ENERGY FROM OUR NEAREST STAR:

BUILDING AN EXPERIMENTAL SOLAR HEATING SYSTEM

LOTHAR GRAUDINS, Ph.D

JOHN FLEMING

Copyright 2009
You have probably noticed that a garden hose left in the sun (after you've shut the water
off) eventually contains some very hot water. Or, a chrome-plated wrench left in the sun
actually becomes too hot to handle. Simply put, our sun continuously produces a
tremendous amount of energy, not only in the visible spectrum but shorter wavelengths,
ultraviolet, as well as longer wavelengths known as infrared. The challenge is how to
make use of this energy that can potentially be used for heating or cooling.

I have called our system experimental because, at the time of building it, there was
limited technical information available. Also, this system was built to be flexible. It can
be expanded to incorporate other uses, such as directly heating a hot water heater or hot
tub. Moreover, due to the high cost of commercial water panels, we intend to build our
own panels and incorporate these into the system.(More about that later). Finally,
environmental conditions such a fog or excessive cloudiness will impact the overall
performance. In this regard, it is always necessary to have an alternate heating
system. I use a small conventional propane furnace and a wood-burning stove. A good
back-up is a hot water heater running on gas. As the panels fail to support the floor
temperature, the water heater takes over.

One of many possibilities for a solar heating system is to build a hydronic system
consisting of Rehau Brand Pex tubing. A hydronic system means a pattern or circuit of
tubing, usually installed under the floor. “Pex” is very tough, yet flexible (cross-linked
polyethylene) plastic tubing. The tubing is also freeze resistant and tolerates hot water. It
is a superior product in most plumbing applications and comes with a complement of
fittings and joints. When we first built this system, initially for a 1,200 ft. workshop, we
installed the Pex tubing directly under (inside) the concrete slab. Although concrete has
only about 20 percent of the heat capacity of water, i.e., water can hold 5 times the heat
energy, a large slab makes for a sizable heat storage system. Nevertheless, all things
considered, installing the tubing above an insulated slab is preferred. (The
installation is covered with a wood floor.) In either case, there is a decided advantage
over conventional heating. Heat rises upward from the floor and no circulation system is
needed. Fans that are used by conventional systems are often noisy and blow dust and
pollen around. Incidentally, Rehau also has some solid engineering data available as to
practical application of Pex tubing for a hydronic system.

Take a look at the simplified illustration on page 7 (Figure 1). Sunlight enters the
panels from a southern direction. Once the panel temperature exceeds the floor
temperature (a controller, a Goldline GL-30 was used) the circulation pump starts. It
pumps the hot water from a storage tank into the floor loops. A return pipe leads into the
bottom of the panels, feeding the cooled water back into the closed system.

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Before beginning a solar project, we want to know approximately, if not as accurately as
possible, how much energy we can expect from the sun. We are interested in knowing
the efficiency with which we can harness this energy. Finally, we also want to know
how much energy our proposed project might require. Let's take look at some of the
parameters of interest that will facilitate making such measurements.

We start with a “constant” known as the “Solar Constant.” In reality, a complex variable,
but it does give us a starting point for solar applications. It has been calculated that the
sun's total output of radiant energy produces about 1,366 watts per square meter. Of
course, this represents a maximum, measured by satellites and before impacting the
atmosphere. The watt is a unit of energy, technically defined as the energy expended by one
amp driven across a potential of one volt. In a more familiar context, a common 60 watt light
bulb operating in a 120 volt circuit that is supplying .5 amps of power expends 60 watts. To
calculate watts, you multiply amps times volts.

If we start with 1,366 watts per square meter, we can calculate the number of watts per
square foot:

1,366 watts/ sq. meter / 10.76 sq. feet/ sq. meter) = 127 watts per square foot.

As previously stated, this represents available radiant power prior to entering the
atmosphere. Studies show, on average, that the sun's radiant energy is attenuated by 23
per cent in passing through the atmosphere. Or, conversely, we retain about 77 per cent
of what is available. In keeping with our dimensions, 77 per cent of 127 watts per
square foot is 98 watts per square foot. Or, if you prefer, this amounts to about

98 watts per sq. ft. X 10.76 sq. ft./sq. meter = 1,054, roughly a 1,000 watts/ sq. meter.

The second parameter of convenient use is the British Thermal Unit or BTU. It requires
1 BTU (or unit of power) to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water to 1 degree F.
Given, for example, that we wanted to raise the temperature of 5 gallons of water from
40 degrees F. to 90 degrees F., we calculate:

5 gallons (8.3 lbs./gallon) = 41.5 lbs.

90 degrees – 40 degrees= 50 degrees

BTU's required: (41.5)(50) = 2,075

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In terms of watt-hours, 2,075 BTU's is equivalent to about 608 Watts. This means that
1 watt-hour is equal to about 3.41 BTU's. A watt-hour is the energy expended by 1
watt during the course of one hour. We typically rate appliances in terms of kW or Kilo
(1,000) watt consumption.

The system we built was designed to be a “drain-back” system. Such a gravity

dependent system is more reliable than, for example, solenoid valves. A drain-back
system is insurance against freezing occurring within the panels. Once the circulating
pump shuts off, the panels drain into a small holding tank. Also, since the total volume
of water is small, we added antifreeze. The antifreeze used is propylene glycol, the kind
used in RV systems. A larger system would also benefit from the drain-back feature. In
place of antifreeze however, we recommend “heat-wrap” on vulnerable copper tubing.
We started with 4 used Revere brand commercial panels, measuring 77 X 35 inches
each. Each panel, measuring 18.7 square feet (a total of about 75 square feet). Using the
conversion factor of 3.41 BTU's per watt:

3.41 BTU's X 98 Watts/ sq. foot X 75 square feet=25,064 BTU's

This figure, 25,064 BTU's is the theoretical amount of energy received by the 4 panels in
question. However, there are considerable losses. For one, despite the use of selective
absorbents, a significant amount of energy is simply reflected from the panels into the
surrounding atmosphere. Energy in the form of heat is also released. Panels of this
nature seem to operate between 40 and 60 percent efficiency, depending upon panel
temperature. If we assume an efficiency of 60 % (rating for these particular commercial
panels) we end up with about :

(.60) (25, 064 BTU's) = 15, 038 BTU's

Over a period of 6 hours of bright sunlight, we expect a total daily total of 90,228 BTU's
of energy. This energy, in the form of hot water is transported into the building and
released into the concrete floor. Considering the BTU's of one gallon of propane rated at
91,330, about 1 gallon is saved daily.

Since the building measures 30 X 40 or 1,200 square feet and estimating 4 inches of
concrete, we calculate a total of 400 cubic feet of concrete. The particular aggregate of
concrete used weighs about 150 lbs. per cubic foot. Thus, the total weight of the floor is
60,000 lbs. Since the heat capacity of concrete is about 1/5 that of water or .21, it takes
.21BTU's to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of concrete 1 degree Fahrenheit. We can
calculate the theoretical amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 60,000 lbs.
of concrete by 1 degree F(.21 BTU's ) (60,000 lbs. Concrete) = 12, 600 BTU's

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This figure, 12,600 BTU's is the theoretical amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of the floor by 1 degree F. Of course, there will be losses. For example, in
our case, the floor is not insulated on the edges.

At first, by looking at the above figures, it would appear that if I could expect about a 6-
8 degree change in the floor temperature in the course of a sunny day. This is a good
estimate for typical fall weather. I don't use the system in the summer, a time of optimal
conditions. Nevada has sufficiently high temperatures during the summer months, often
in the 90's. During the fall, daytime temperatures are often in the low 70's but followed
by cold nights (30-40 degrees F). Since cold mornings contribute to a lower overall gain,
performance is reduced. Still, a 5-6 degree change is typical, with occasional 8-10
degree changes on a particularly warm day, (72F+) outside temperature.

In relatively warm Fall conditions, a loss of 6-7 degrees F. of room temperature over-
nite is typical. This is a well-insulated building, R-30 on walls and ceilings. The floor is
insulated (underneath) with R-7. Obviously, since the outside temperature might fall to
35 F, the floor is acting as a heat capacitor or storage system. During winter months, the
solar heat system keeps the building from freezing: rarely does the inside temperature
fall below 40 degrees. That is certainly one advantage of this installed system! During
the summer months, this system could accommodate a hot tub as well. The electrical bill
often shows an extra $50.00 per month for electrically heating a hot tub.

It should be pointed out that this system is presently limited by too few panels and the
lack of a sizable storage tank. Since water has the highest heat capacity of common
materials, a large and well- insulated storage tank would add to the reserve of thermal
energy. One suggestion is to have about two gallons of water per square foot of collector
area:

2 gallons water (75 square feet of panel) = 150 gallons

I would recommend a larger storage tank. Consider that a 2 X 3 X 8 foot tank (2 feet
deep) would hold 48 cubic feet or nearly 360 gallons. This more than doubles the
suggested capacity. We would like to have at least enough storage to take care of 2
consecutive cloudy days.

Commercial panels are quite expensive but can be built. The heart of the panel is a sheet
of copper connected to copper tubing running vertically over its surface. ( See Figure 2,
p.8). Above and below the tubing arrangement are copper manifolds (1 inch copper
tubing). Once you have soldered the tubing arrangement to the copper panel, clean the
surfaces with some dilute Sulfuric Acid. Rinse and allow to dry. Next prepare a hot
concentrated solution of Potassium Chlorate.
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Brush this solution over the entire front of the panel to turn the copper surface into an
oxidized (black) patina. This serves as a selective absorber. Or, in other words, a
material that does not readily re-emit infrared energy back out of the panel. This works
amazingly well, so much so that uncirculated water will come to a boil inside the panel.
The panel is well insulated. It is housed in a wood frame, fitted with an iron-free
window. For this, look for discarded sliding glass patio doors. Glass shops often have
these on hand for very little cost. Since this tempered glass cannot be cut, design your
panel to match the available size.

If you wish, an iron panel can also be used. You can research this on the net.
Incidentally, you can also choose to buy the bare panel and finish it yourself. Instead of
the unwieldy glass cover, a plastic sheet of insulated (twin-wall) polycarbonate may be
used. This polycarbonate sheet is typically used in greenhouse construction.

The circulating pump installed in this system and recommended is a stainless steel Taco
007 circulation pump. The distribution system, if you have multiple loops, is a manifold
with individual faucets that control the flow to each loop. As previously stated, you can
use “heat tape” and avoid antifreeze. This would be ideal for adding a hot tub heating
loop. By circulating hot water directly from the panel, you can avoid a less efficient
higher temperature heat-exchange system.

Important points:

1. Insulate all tubing. Good insulation is the key to efficiency. The same principle is
important for your home insulation, during winter or summer.
2. Use a drain-back system.
3. Remember to use sloping on the plumbing system. To purge air, use 1/8 inch/foot
sloping on panel headers.
4. The panel rack must be rigorously constructed to withstand high winds. Use tie-
downs.
5. After doing basic calculations, overbuild your system. Be flexible and always
have a back-up system, preferably connected to, but operating independently of
your solar system.
6. Solar Heating is not cheap, but on the brighter side, the costs can usually be
recaptured in terms of energy savings. It also depends on how much of the system
you will build or install yourself. Also, many states currently allow for tax credits.

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References:

An excellent article on Solar Heating can be found in Mother Earth News, Issue No.
225, December 2007/January 2008, p. 36. This article presents important details on the
construction of a sizable system, together with some practical measurements of
performance. The Control Diagram found online is great for an overview of the whole
system.

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