umaga (c.

1830 5 November 1871) was a Paiute leader during the Paiute War of 1860 that
centered on Pyramid Lake in what is now Nevada in the United States. The war was caused by an
influx of miners and ranchers after silver was discovered in theComstock Lode near to Carson City.
The newcomers assaulted the Paiutes and destroyed their foods supplies. When the Paiutes
responded, the U.S. Army used force to suppress them. Both before and after the war, Numaga was
a strong advocate of peace and did much to reduce the violence on both sides. He died of
tuberculosis, a "white man's disease", in 1871. [1]
Contents
[hide]

1Origins

2Causes of conflict

3War

4Peace negotiations

5Later years

6Notes

7Citations

8Sources

Origins[edit]

The Great Basin, traditional territory of the Paiute. Pyramid Lake is to the north of Carson City in Western
Nevada

The Paiute traditionally followed a hunting and gathering lifestyle in the Great Basin region that
covers most of modern-day Nevadaand western Utah, extending north into Oregon and bounded on
the west by the Sierra Nevada in California.[2] Temperatures range from extreme heat in the summer
to bitter cold in the winter. The land is semi-arid, with vegetation ranging from dense coniferous
forests on the mountains surrounding the basin, to thinner woodlands lower down, giving way to
grasslands and then to bunch grass, sage brush and scrub on the basin floor, with barren areas of
gravel or alkali flats.[3]
The Paiutes had no central government, but lived in bands of around a hundred people who would
occupy a territory of about 50 to 100 square miles (130 to 260 km2).[3] The Paiute migrated with the
seasons, living in temporary huts built of willow poles covered with brush and reeds. They lived on
shoots and roots, fruit, fish, ducks, lizards, grubs and insects. In fall, pine nuts from the pion trees in
the hills were an essential foodstuff. In winter the Paiute hunted game in the lowlands, particularly
rabbits.[2]
Numaga[a] was born sometime around 1830. He was said by some to be the son of Chief
Winnemucca (also called Po-i-to) and brother of Sarah Winnemucca.[5] Sarah Winnemucca wrote
that he was her cousin.[6] Another source says he was no relative of Poito, and the two were never
friendly. Numaga was called "Young Winnemucca" by the whites, or sometimes just "Winnemucca".
[4]

Numaga was at least six feet tall, a man of great physical strength with a quiet dignity which gave

him an air of superiority.[1] A soldier who saw him in August 1860 said, "In appearance he is all that
romance could desire, deep-chested and strong-limbed, with a watchful, earnest expression of
countenance, indicative of graver thought and study [than is] common to the aboriginal race." [7]
Early contacts between the Paiutes and white fur trappers and traders were friendly, but the
Northern Paiute became more hostile after the California gold rush began in 1848 and brought large
numbers of miners and immigrants into their lands.[2] Numaga picked up English while working for
several seasons as a field hand for the Mission Fathers in the Santa Clara Valley of California.
[8]

Through his evident sincerity, intellect, eloquence and courage Numaga gained considerable

stature among the Paiute, and was viewed by the whites as their leader, although he did not have
this official standing.[4]

Causes of conflict[edit]
In 1859, the news broke that silver had been found in the huge Comstock Lode in Washoe, a region
that was then in the western part of Utah Territory, and that would soon become the territory of
Nevada. Hordes of miners flooded to the mining center of Virginia City, near to Carson City.[9] They
cut down pinyon trees to make fuel for ore-processing, destroying the pine-nut "orchards" that were

essential to the Paiute food economy. Hunters and trappers took big game, fish and waterfowl to
feed the miners. Ranchers moved into the fertile valleys, cutting off access to places where nuts,
roots and seeds could be gathered.[10]
In the late fall of 1859, two miners were killed in the mountains and were found with arrows in their
bodies. Their money had been stolen but not their clothing or supplies, making it questionable
whether Indians were responsible since the indigenous people did not yet have a money economy.
[11]

Major William Ormsby asked for help in finding the culprits from Chief Winnemucca (Poito). He

was friendly with Poito, whose daughter Sarah[b] and her younger sister were staying in his house to
be educated in English and in reading and writing. Two days later, one hundred Paiute warriors
swathed in rabbit-skin clothing rode into Carson City, led by Chief Natchez and Chief Numaga.
[13]

Natchez, son of Chief Winnemucca, was the peace-chief at that time and Numaga was the war-

chief.[6] Numaga agreed to help. He sent five men to the camp of the Washoe leader Captain Jim to
ask him to give up the guilty men, since the arrows had been made by Washoes. [14] Eventually, under
protest, Captain Jim sent two men to stand trial in order to avoid reprisals on his people. They were
shot dead in Numaga's presence by a mob of angry whites.[15]

Chief Winnemucca (Poito), of the Northern Paiutes, dressed in army uniform

The indigenous people of the region, including the Paiutes and Washoes, were threatened by
starvation in the winter of 18591860. There were growing numbers of fights between whites and
Indians.[10] The Paiutes gathered at Pyramid Lake towards the end of April 1860 for a conference on
how to deal with the encroachments of the white men. Most of the leaders spoke out for war.

Winnemucca (Poito), the most senior leader at the assembly, appeared to be in favor of war but
refrained from taking a public position.[16]
Myron Angel, in his 1881 History of Nevada, said that Numaga was the only chief who spoke in favor
of peace. From his experience with the whites in California, Numaga was more aware of their
resources than most of his audience. He agreed that the white men had greatly wronged the Indians,
but pointed out that the whites would be bound to win any war. He argued that a peaceful course
would be wiser, letting the Indians keep their ancestral lands.[4][c] While Numaga was speaking, a
group of Indians arrived and brought news of an incident that had just happened at Williams Station.
After hearing what had taken place, Numaga said, "There is no longer any use for counsel; we must
prepare for war, for the soldiers will now come here to fight us."[4]

War[edit]
The tipping point came on 12 May 1860. Five employees of Williams Station, a Pony Express post
on the Carson River, captured and raped two Northern Paiute women. A band of Northern Paiutes
attacked the post, killed the men and freed the women. Major William Ormsby collected a force of
105 volunteers from Virginia city who went out to bury the dead white men, and then punish the
Paiutes at Pyramid Lake.[10] The Paiutes led by Numaga lured this force into a dangerous position.
The volunteers were poorly armed with handguns against the Indians' long-range rifles, and were
outmaneuvered in what turned from a confident advance into a desperate defense. [17] Most of the
whites were killed, including Ormsby, in what is now known as the Battle of Pyramid Lake.[10] In all,
seventy-six of Ormsby's volunteers died and most of the rest were wounded, saved only by the
coming of nightfall. The defeat by the despised Indians had a devastating effect on white morale. [18]
An army officer arriving in the region just after the battle found a scene of chaos and some panic,
with trains of people returning to California to avoid the Indians. Volunteers were armed and
mustered to counter the danger from an estimated 15,000 well-armed and well-mounted "Pah Utes,
Shishones and Pitt River Indians." Since the Indians had assembled at Pyramid Lake there had
been "daily news of massacres by the red villains." Colonel Jack Hays, a former Texas Ranger, was
given command of the United States forces.[19] Hays mustered a force of over 750 soldiers and
volunteers, who set out from California on 2 June 1860.[20]

Frederick W. Lander, who negotiated peace with Numaga

Hays fought the Paiutes in two skirmishes near Pyramid Lake. Neither was decisive, but the Indians
sustained sufficient injuries to destroy Numaga's loosely coordinated command structure. The bands
dispersed into the Black Rock and Smoke Creek deserts and the surrounding hills. Some travelled
further into Oregon, Idaho and Washington Territory.[21] The war petered out. U.S. troops built a
temporary fort near Pyramid Lake, then moved to the more permanent Fort Churchill, which guarded
the wagon trail from the east. One man was killed in a U.S. scouting expedition around Pyramid
Lake. There was a minor skirmish with a group of soldiers underFrederick W. Lander, an Army
engineer.[22] Lander was establishing watering holes and building a wagon road through the Black
Rock Desert.[7] To him, the Indian hostilities were a distraction from the job at hand, and he initiated a
truce with Numaga that turned into a lasting peace. [22]

Peace negotiations[edit]
Lander's assistant commissary agent captured five Northern Paiute near the Humboldt River. He
released two of them in exchange for a promise that they would return with their leader, Naanah.
[23]

Lander and Neenah met on 12 August, and they agreed that Naanah would bring Numaga to a

meeting at a place called Deep Hole Springs, Nevada.[7] On 21 August 1860 Numaga met with
Lander at the agreed location, and after eating food prepared by Lander's men the two men smoked
for a while. Lander opened the negotiation by saying he could relay Numaga's grievances to the
"Great Father" in Washington, but could make no promises.[24]
Numaga said he was pleased to hear no promises, because the whites had never kept any promises
they had made in the past. He said he could not guarantee being able to prevent attacks by roaming

bands of Paiutes, any more than the "Great Father" had shown he was able to prevent whites from
killing Indians.[24] He said that the violence was due to the hostile attitude of whites, who had ravaged
Paiute women and killed their men without cause. He disclaimed responsibility for the Williams
Station incident, which he blamed on a group of Bannocks over whom he had no authority. However,
he said that if the whites had come to him afterwards to discuss the problem, as had been agreed by
treaty, there would have been no need for fighting. [25]
Lander asked Numaga to try to restrain the Paiutes from hostilities for a year, and he would try to
arrange a treaty under which they would retain possession of the lands they held and regain
possession or be paid for lands that had been seized from them. Numaga accepted this. He said he
would try to bring Poito to meet with Frederick Dodge, the Indian agent, to arrange a formal truce. [24]

Later years[edit]

James W. Nye. first Governor of Nevada

Numaga in the 1860s

The informal treaty between Numaga and Lander was effective. In 1862, Winnemucca (Poito) and
four hundred warriors in full regalia gave a ceremonial welcome at Pyramid Lake to James W. Nye,
the first Governor of the newly created Nevada Territory.[26] Although intermittent fighting continued in
later years, Numaga and Poito did not participate.[20]
In 1863 Numaga came to the town of Como, near Virginia City, to issue a formal complaint against
the destruction of pine-nut trees. He explained that the "pine-nut groves were the Indian's orchards",
and they depended on them for food. The whites could collect fallen timber, but must not cut down
the trees. Numaga was ignored.[27] Later in the day, some unknown Indians arrived in town, causing
rumors that hostiles were gathering and preparing to attack. With mounting tension, two citizens met
at dusk,
both forgot the password, and 'turned loose' in the most approved style with their revolvers, each
supposing he was having a struggle for life with, possibly, Numaga himself. The alarm was general
and fearful to contemplate. A butcher, in his hurry to rush to the general defense from midnight
massacre of the town, in his haste to get hold of it, accidentally fired off his gun, and then, as the
aforesaid Alf. Doten, without the fear of God before his eyes, remarked, "Hell did pop." The next
morning the Indians came into town to see what all the row was about [28]
In March 1865 two white men were killed on Walker River by Indians whom they had mistreated, and
later two more white men were killed in separate incidents.[29] Settlers were alarmed. The Gold Hill
News recommended a "final solution of the great Indian problem: by exterminating the whole race, or
driving them forever beyond our frontier." A contingent of troops under a young and inexperienced

leader was dispatched from Fort Churchill. They heard of an encampment of cattle thieves beside
Mud Lake, also called Winnemucca Lake, near to Pyramid Lake. Before dawn on 14 March 1865,
the contingent opened fire on the Paiute camp. Twenty-nine Paiutes were killed, with the troops
suffering one minor injury. At first, the Battle of Mud Lake was applauded in the press, although
doubts were later raised about the lack of army injuries.[30]
In an effort to prevent escalating violence, Governor Henry G. Blasdel requested a conference at
Fort Churchill with the Paiute chiefs.[31] Numaga reported what had actually happened. There had
been cattle thieves in the camp, but they had left before the soldiers arrived. Apart from three or four
men, there had only been women and children in the camp, including Poito's wives, who had been
killed. Some women had jumped in the water to escape. Those who had not drowned had been
shot. Numaga said the violence could easily have been avoided. If the whites had asked him, he
would have delivered the cattle thieves to them.[32]
The Virginia City Daily Union reported on the council. Captain Wells, the army leader, had said his
men had killed Smoke Creek Indians in a "stubborn and sanguinary" fight between equal forces. He
had then destroyed the Indians' arms. He made no mention of any women being killed. There were
many discrepancies between this report and the testimony of Numaga, who was highly respected by
the whites.[33] The reporter questioned why Wells had destroyed the arms, which would have made
valuable trophies of the battle, but said "his command did bring in some trophies of that battle". He
quoted from an article in the Territorial Enterprise:
INDIAN SCALPS,Notwithstanding orders to the contrary, it is said that Capt. Wells' men (Company
D), who were in the fight at Mud Lake, took fourteen or fifteen scalps. One of the men claims to have
the scalp of the Notorious Smoke Creek Sam...[34]