Refrigeration

Cooling uses refrigeration which is accomplished using substances

that have very low boiling points. For exampleAmmonia (NH4) at
standard atmospheric temperature (say between 60oF and 120oF
when cooling is required) and pressure (14.7 psia) is a gas. It is a
refrigerant because it has a boiling point of -28oF and freezing point
of -254oF at standard conditions.
So liquid ammonia at -28oF can give up it's heat (boil/evaporate into
gas) when pumped through the tubes of a cooling coil to cool air
and when pumped through a heat exchanger to cool water. Once it
has become a gas it has to be converted back to a liquid so that it
can be used again to cool again. All refrigerants are therefore gases
at standard temperature and pressure. Small amounts of ammonia
in its gaseous state will leak from the refrigerant piping system and
leave strong odors in the space and building. So it is not suitable for
air conditioning occupied buildings. It therefore has other uses in
factory processes since it is inexpensive.
Refrigerants such R-12 (di-chloro-di-flouro-methane, CCL2F2), are
odorless and were considered harmless until recently. These are
called halogenated compounds (CFC) and they were the main
refrigerants used for air conditioning and refrigeration until recently.
Because of their great stability these products continue to exist in
the atmosphere as gases for many years and eventually diffuse into
the stratosphere. Once in the upper atmosphere these compounds
(CFCs) break down releasing chlorine destroying ozone (ozone
depletion). In the lower atmosphere they absorb infrared radiation
which may contribute warming of the earth (global warming).
Substitution of a hydrogen atom for one or more of the halogens in a
CFC molecule greatly reduces its atmospheric lifetime and lessens
its environmental impact. Refrigerants such as R-22 (chloro-diflouro-methane, C3H8) are called HCFCs. By international
convention/protocol both CFCs and HCFCs have to be phased out
because of the harm that they might do. The production of CFCs (ex.
R-12) in developed countries has been stopped. The production of
HCFCs (ex. R-22) have to be phased out over the next few years and
banned in 2020.

The new refrigerants that are considered harmless today are called
hydro-flouro-carbons or HFCs. They include R-32 (di-flouromethane, CH2F2, methylene-fluoride), R-125 (penta-flouro-ethane,
CHF2CF3), R-134a (tetra-flouro-ethane, CH2FCF3) and R-143a (triflouro-ethane, CF3CH3). The mixtures of these refrigerants
include R-404A (R-125-44% ; R-143a-52% ; R-134a-4%), R-407C (R32-23% ; R-125-25% ; R-134a-52%) and R-410A (R-32-50% ; R-12550%).

The process of cooling is called refrigeration. Refrigeration or cooling

capacity is measured in tons. It was established on the basis of the
heat that must be added per hour to 1 ton (2000 lbs) of ice at 32oF
to melt it into water at 32oF in one day (24 hours). The heat required
to melt 1 lb of ice at 32oF to water at 32oF is 144 btu.
1 Ton Refrigeration = ( 2000 lbs * 144 btu/lb ) / 24 hrs/day =
12,000 btu/hr.
Enthalpy is the energy content of a substance. It is usually
expressed in heat units and in layman's terms it is referred to the
heat content. For example air consists of dry air and moisture
(water-vapor / steam). In English (IP) units the heat content of the
air is measured from 0oF and the heat content of the water vapor is
measured from 32oF which is the freezing point of water at standard
pressure. So the enthalpy of dry air below 0oF is a negative value.
The enthalpy of moisture below 32oF is also negative but not a factor
since most of it will have condensed and then frozen out as ice from
the air. There is actually no such thing as negative heat content and
it only exists theoretically because of the arbitrarily selected zero
point. If heat content was measured from absolute zero temperature
(0oR or -460oF) then all enthalpy values, or heat contents of

substances, would be positive. In metric (SI) units the enthalpy of

both the dry air and water vapor is measured from 0oC.
Example-1: What is the enthalpy of 1 lb of steam at 312oF,
measured from 0oF, at standard pressure of 14.7 psia? See
Figure ?.
The heat required to melt 1 lb of Ice at 32oF to 1 lb of Water at 32oF
is 145 btu.
The heat required to boil water at 212oF to Steam at 212oF is 970
btu.
The specific heat of Ice is 0.47, of Water is 1.0, and Steam is 0.45.
H1 = Ice from 0oF to 32oF = 1 lb x 0.47 SpHt x (32oF - 0oF) = 1 x 0.47
x 32 = 15 btu.
H2 = Latent Heat to melt Ice at 32oF into Water at 32oF = 1 lb x 145
= 145 btu.
H3 = Water from 32oF to 212oF = 1lb x 1.0 x (212oF - 32oF) = 1 x 1.0
x 180 = 180 btu.
H4 = Latent Heat to boil Water at 212oF into Steam at 212oF = 1 lb x
970 = 970 btu.
H5 = Steam from 212oF to 312oF = 1 lb x 0.45 SpHt x (312oF 212oF) = 45 btu.
Enthalpy (H) = H1 + H2 + H3 + H4 + H5 = 1355 btu for 1 lb.
Example-1a: What is the enthalpy of 1 lb of steam at
312oF, measured from 32oF, at 14.7 psia?
Enthalpy (H) = H3 + H4 + H5 = 1195 btu. This is the official H of
steam at 312oF
Example-2: What is the enthalpy of 1 lb of air at 95oF DB temp and
60% relative humidity (RH)? The humidity ratio (W) at 95oF and 60%
RH (from psychrometric chart or tables) is 0.0218 lbs of moisture
per lb of dry air. The specific heat (SpHt) of dry air = 0.24, water =
1, steam = 0.45. H = M *SpHt* (T2 - T1). Latent heat evaporation
water to steam at 95oF (-14 psig) = 1040 btu/lb.
M (moisture) = 0.0218 lbs/lb M (dry air) = 1 - 0.0218 = 0.9782
H (dry air) = 0.9782 * 0.24 * (95 0) = 22.3.
H (water) = 0.0218 * 1 * (95 -32) = 1,37. H (water to steam) =
0.0218 * 1040 = 22.6.
H (moisture) = 1.37 + 22.6 = 23.97.
H (dry air and moisture) = 22.3 + 23.97 = 46.27 btu/lb of air.

Work
Work measurement was established arbitrarily and by tradition in
the same way as length, weight, time, heat, temperature and
pressure. In I-P units a unit of work is done when 1 lb mass is lifted
vertically against gravity through a distance of 1 foot. The unit is
called foot-pound (ft-lb). Similarly, when 1 kilogram mass is lifted
vertically against gravity through a distance of 1 meter then the
work done is 1 kilogram-meter.
1 lb weight resting on a surface area of 1 square foot exerts a
pressure or force of 1 lb per square foot. Supposing the surface area
of the soles of a persons two feet is 1 square foot (each foot being
12 inches by 6 inches) and the person weighs 100 lbs then the
person exerts a force of 100 lbs/ft2 on the ground. If you lift this
person off the ground by 1 foot then you have done 100 ft-lbs of
work. Work done is Force x Distance.
Force is pressure per unit area. In Figure ?? force, behind a piston, is
applied to a gas in a cylinder, moving the cylinder a certain distance
and compressing the gas. So work has been done. Figure ?? shows
that the work done is the area under the curve from pressurevolume condition 1 to pressure-volume condition 2. The process is
not usually a straight line.

Laws of Thermodynamics
The principal energy laws are derived from two famous laws of
thermodynamics. The two principal laws of thermodynamics apply
only to closed systems, that is, entities with which there can be no
exchange of energy, information, or material. The universe in its
totality might be considered a closed system of this type; this would
allow the two laws to be applied to it.
The first law of thermodynamics says that the total quantity of
energy in the universe remains constant. This is the principle of the
conservation of energy. The second law of thermodynamics states
that the quality of this energy is degraded irreversibly. This is the
principle of the degradation of energy. The first principle establishes
the equivalence of the different forms of energy (radiant, chemical,
physical, electrical, and thermal), the possibility of transformation
from one form to another. This first principle considers heat and
energy as of the same physical nature
In fact physical, chemical, and electrical energy can be completely
changed into heat. But the reverse (heat into physical energy, for
example) cannot be fully accomplished without outside help or
without an inevitable loss of energy in the form of irretrievable heat.
This does not mean that the energy is destroyed; it means that it
becomes unavailable for producing work. The irreversible increase
of this non disposable energy in the universe is measured by the
abstract dimension that Clausius in 1865 called entropy (from the
Greek entrope, change).

Entropy
The ASHRAE tables from which the information in Table ? and
Figure ? were extracted also shows the "entropy" of water and
steam under varying temperatures and pressures. The concept of
"entropy" is very useful in investigating and understanding heat
gained and lost during mechanical and combustion processes. It can
be used to compare and understand the performance of different
types of fuels and refrigerants in mechanical (engine) operations.
Entropy relates heat received and rejected with temperature
changes. The symbol for entropy is the letter 'S'. The area under the
process curve on a temperature - entropy chart represents the heat
received or rejected as shown in the figure below.

Air Source Heat Pump

In summer, an air-conditioning (refrigeration) system picks up heat

from a space where it is not needed and rejects it to the outdoors.
The space gives up its heat to a refrigerant such as R-22 (low boiling
point of -41oF at normal atmospheric conditions) which evaporates
from liquid to gas by absorbing the heat from the room air which is
passed over it. The gas is compressed to a pressure where it's
temperature is greater than the hot outside air temperature. The
outside air is then used to cool the gas back to liquid. So the
refrigerant transfers heat from the inside to the outside. Expansion
of the liquid refrigerant at high temperature and pressure converts it
back to low temperature and pressure which completes the cycle.

The principle of refrigeration is that the boiling point of liquids

increases with increasing pressure. So hot outside air can be used to
cool the refrigerant if the pressure is high enough. Work (using a
compressor driven by an electric motor) has to be done to compress
the gas and increase it's pressure. In winter the refrigeration cycle
can be reversed. Cold outside air is cooled (from say, 30oF to 10oF in
the condenser which now becomes the evaporator) and the rejected
heat is used to heat the inside air (from say 75oF to 95oF in the
evaporator which now becomes the condenser). The properties of R22 is suitable for "reverse cycle" heating provided the winter
temperatures are mild (above 20oF) and annual heating hours are
small. Electric resistance heating is more efficient than using
compressors driven by electric motors.

Chiller Plant

Ground Loop Heat Pump (GLHP)

Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP)

This is similar to the Ground Loop Heat Pump (GLHP) except that the
water from the ground is pumped out to cool the refrigerant in the
condenser. The ground water leaving the condenser is then rejected
into the ground (discarded). The GLHP is a closed loop circulating
the same water (some water is lost and has to be made up) through
the piping system and remains clean. The GSHP system water
exchanges heat with the ground through the piping surfaces. The
water does not come into contact with the ground. Ground water
has to be cleaned (strained and treated chemically and biologically)
before it can pass through the condenser and piping system. GSHP
is therefore more efficient than GLHP but the maintenance costs are
higher

Water Source Heat Pumps (WSHP)

The water source heat pump system is a heat recovery system. In
winter the heat rejected from interior space cooling loads of an
office building can be used to heat perimeter spaces that require
heating. In hotels and apartment buildings where some rooms
require heating and others require cooling, the heat rejected from
the cooling units provides heat for rooms requiring heating. The
WSHP system therefore provides simultaneous and flexible cooling
and heating to each room

Absorption Water Chillers (based on

Trane literature)

Both vapor-compression and absorption refrigeration cycles

accomplish cooling by absorbing heat from one fluid (chilled water
in the evaporator) and transferring it to another fluid (cooling tower
water in the condenser or directly to the ambient air). The fluid that
absorbs heat in the evaporator and discharges it in the condenser is
called the refrigerant. Both cycles also include devices to increase
and decrease the pressure of the refrigerant. Both cycles include an
evaporator, condenser and expansion device. The compressor in the
vapor-compression system is replaced by an absorber, generator
and pump in the absorption system and there is a secondary fluid
(besides the refrigerant) called the absorbent.

The refrigerant in the form of liquid (and some vapor) enters the
evaporator and absorbs heat from the chilled water (cools it say
from 54oF to 42oF) and boils or evaporates. The absorption action of
the absorber/absorbent sucks in the refrigerant vapor. The pump
sucks in the mixture of absorbent and refrigerant and pumps/pushes
(acts like a compressor increasing the pressure of the refrigerant) it
through the generator and generator. So the absorber intake is
equivalent to the suction side of the compressor and generator
discharge is equivalent to the compressor discharge.

The refrigerant vapor at higher pressure enters the condenser where

it is cooled to liquid by the condenser (the condenser water absorbs
the heat from the refrigerant increasing it's temperature from say,
85o to 95oF). The liquid refrigerant then flows through the expansion
valve reducing it's pressure and temperature and it can be used
again to chill the chilled water.
The refrigerant commonly used in the absorption cycle is distilled
water. Distilled water is stable, low in cost, readily available,
environmentally friendly and has a high heat of vaporization
(approximately 1000 btu per lb to convert it from water to steam).
For the water to operate as a refrigerant, the cycle must operate in
a vacuum, that is at a pressure below atmospheric pressure.

The absorption refrigeration cycle uses a second fluid called the

absorbent solution. An example of an absorbent is Lithium Bromide
(LiBr). LiBr is non-toxic, readily available and inexpensive. This
solution is confined to the absorber and generator sections of the
cycle. It is used to move the refrigerant (distilled water) from low
pressure to high pressure.
The absorbent (LiBr) should have a strong affinity to absorb the
refrigerant (H2O). The solution of absorbent and refrigerant should
have a boiling point that is much higher than the refrigerant (water)
alone. This makes it easy to separate the absorbent from the

refrigerant at high temperatures. A pump is used to circulate the

absorbent-refrigerant solution between the absorber and generator.
The pump also increases the pressure.
Another common refrigerant-absorbent combination is ammonia as
the refrigerant and water as the absorbent. This combination is
sometimes used in small residential application. This discussion
assumes the refrigerant is Distilled Water (H2O) and the absorbent
is Lithium Bromide (LiBr).
The two fluids, refrigerant and absorbent, are mixed inside the
chiller in various concentrations. The term "dilute solution" refers to
a mixture that is high in refrigerant (H2)) and low in absorbent
(LiBr). "Concentrated solution" refers to a mixture that is low in H2O
and high in LiBr. "Intermediate solution" is somewhere in between.
The components of the absorption refrigeration cycle are the
evaporator-absorber on the low pressure side and the generatorcondenser on the high pressure side. The pressure on the high
pressure side is about ten times the low pressure side.

The Absorption Refrigeration Cycle

Generator: Starting on the high-pressure side of the cycle, the
purpose of the generator is to deliver the refrigerant vapor

(water/steam) through the rest of the system cycle. It accomplishes

this by separating the water/steam refrigerant from the lithiumbromide (LiBr) and water (H2O) solution. This is done by increasing
the temperature of the solution using a steam or hot-water coil. The
refrigerant vaporizes and separates from the LiBr which remains a
liquid at this higher temperature. The steam is at 120oF and 1.7 psia
(below atmospheric pressure of 14.67 psia). The concentrated LiBr is
returned to the absorber.
Condenser: The refrigerant (steam) at 120oF and 1.7 psia is
condensed to water (refrigerant) at 120oF and 1.7 psia using
condenser water that enters at 85oF and leaves at 95oF. The leaving
condenser water is cooled by an evaporative cooling tower. (Similar
to Compression Chillers).
Expansion Valve: The liquid refrigerant water at 120oF and 1.7 psia
is allowed to expand through an expansion device that lowers it's
pressure to 0.122 psia. At this pressure the temperature of the
water is 40oF. (Similar to Compression Chillers).
Evaporator: The refrigerant (water) at 40oF and 0.122 psia is
evaporated to steam (refrigerant) at 40oF and 0.122 psia by chilled
water that enters at 54oF, rejects it's heat to the refrigerant (absorbs
heat and boils) and leaves at 42oF. The chilled water at 42oF is
supplied to cooling coils that cools the space supply air down to 47oF
to 55oF. (Similar to Compression Chillers).
Absorber: Inside the absorber, the refrigerant vapor (steam, H2O)
at 40oF and 0.122 psia is absorbed by the concentrated lithium
bromide (LiBr). As the vapor (steam) is absorbed by the LiBr it
condenses from vapor to liquid (water) and forms a dilute solution of
LiBr and H2O. Absorption cools, just as in evaporative cooling where
warm air is cooled by absorbing moisture from a spray of water. So
some of the heat gained by the refrigerant from the chilled water in
the evaporator is rejected. Absorption of the refrigerant by LiBr
creates a low pressure within the absorber and this also induces a
continuous flow (suction) of refrigerant from the evaporator. The
dilute liquid solution of LiBr and H2O leaves the absorber at 40oF
and 0.122 psia.
Pump: The dilute LiBr and H2O liquid solution is pumped to the
generator. This increases the pressure from 0.122 psia to 1.7 psia
and the corresponding temperatures at these pressures are 40oF and
120oF.

Applications of Absorption Chillers

Where low cost fossil fuel is available. The fossil fuel used to create
steam that separates the lithium bromide and water at 1.7 psia and
120oF is natural gas or diesel fuel.
Where the electric rates are very high compared to the cost of
generating steam from fossil fuel. For example, the peak electric
demand and energy rates are 3 times more compared to off-peak
rates and the building is occupied mainly during the peak rate hours
(9 AM to 5 PM).
It is more cost effective to use the steam boiler for winter heating
for summer cooling also.
When waste heat in the form of steam from a cogeneration (CoGen)
plant is available. This waste heat can be up to 70% of the fossil fuel
used to generate electricity. This happens when a building (usually
several buildings as on a university campus) has it's own electricity
generating plant and the waste heat is used to create chilled water
at a central plant site and distributed to the buildings. If there is a
power plant near a city (New York, Boston, Minneapolis) then the
waste heat is distributed to the buildings in the form of chilled water
(CHW), steam and high temperature high pressure hot water
(HTHW) by the power company. If the power plant is far from the
city then the cost of bringing the steam, CHW and HTHW using
piping is prohibitive.
When there is a lack of electric facilities near the building site as in
rural areas. An absorption chiller only uses about 3% of the power
by compression chillers. This power can be generated by microgenerators similar to those used for back-up emergency power.
The absorption machine can be installed in practically any location
in the building. There are no heavy moving vibrating parts and the
noise generation is low compared to compression chillers