Limits

Formulae
Standard Formulae of Limits :xn an
na n 1, n R
xa x a
sin x
3) lim
1, x is in radians
x0 x

1) lim

tan x
1,x is in radians.
x0 x

5) lim

sin( x0 )
tan( x0 )

lim

x
x
180
x0
x0

7) lim

1 cos x 1

2
x0
x2

9) lim

1 cos(mx) m2

x 0 1 cos(nx) n2
sin1 x
tan1 x
13) lim
lim
1
x
x
x0
x0

11) lim

ax 1
loge a
x0 x

15) lim

ax bx
a
loge , a, b 0
x
b
x0

17) lim

xm am m m n
a
n
x a xn an

2) lim

lim cosx 1
x0
sin(kx)
tan(kx)
6) lim
lim
k
x
x0 x
x0

4)

sin(mx)
tan(mx) m
lim

x 0 sin(nx) x 0 tan(nx) n
1 cos(mx) m2
10) lim

2
x0
x2

8) lim

lim sin1 x lim tan1 x 0 (Q sin 0 tan 0 0 )

x0
x0
cos(mx) cos(nx) m2 n2
14) lim

x 0 cos( px) cos(qx) p 2 q 2

a mx 1
16) lim
m loge a
x
x0

12)

18) lim (1 x)1 / x e

x0

log(1 x)
1
x
x0

19) lim 1 e
x

20) lim

x
log(1 x)
21) lim
k
x
x0

CONTINUITY
DEFINITION: - CONTINUITY AT A POINT :- A function f (x) is said to be continuous at the point
x = a of its domain, if, lim f ( x) f (a) This definition implies, that limit of f (x) at x =a and value of
xa

lim f ( x) lim f ( x) f (a).

xa
xa
Alternatively, a function f (x) is said to be continuous at x = a if lim f (a h) f (a)
ha

f (x)= a i.e. f (a) both exist and are equal

If the function is not continuous at x =a, it is called discontinuous at x = a

1)REMOVABLE DISCONTINUITY :IF lim f ( x) f (a) then the discontinuity is removable. The discontinuity can be removed by redefining the
xa

function. It is explained in the following example.

2) IREMOVABLE DISCONTINUITY :- If lim f ( x) does not exist, then the discontinuity is

xa

irremovable.
3) CONTINUITY IN AN INTERVAL: A function f (x) is said to be continuous in an open interval (a,b)
if
it is continuous at each point of (a,b).
A function f(x) is said to be continuous in a closed interval [a,b],if :
i) f(x) is continuous at each point of (a,b) ii) f (x) is continuous at x = a from right and at x = b from
left i.e. lim f ( x) f (a)& lim f ( x) f (b).
xa

x b

4) ALGEBRA OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS: If the functions f(x) and g (x) are continuous at
x = a,
then :- (i) f (x) g (x) is continuous at x = a
ii) f (x) . g (x) is continuous at x = a.
(iii) c. f(x) / g(x) is continuous at x = a , where c R
iv) f (x) / g (x) is continuous at x = a, provided g(a) 0.
5) CONTINUITY OF SOME STANDARD FUNCTION :
(i) A constant function viz. f(x) = 2, f(x) =c etc. is continuous everywhere.
(ii) A polynomial function in x viz. f(x) = a0 +a1 x + a2 x2 +anxn, n N and a0 , a1,a2.an are
Constants , is continuous for all real values of x.
(iii) The rational function, f (x) = g(x)/h(x) where g (x) and h (x) are polynomials in x, is continuous
for all values of x except those for which h (x) = 0. For example f ( x)

x2 x 5
is continuous
( x 2)( x 3)

for all x except x = - 2 and x = 3 for which denominator vanishes i.e. becomes zero
(iv) Sine and cosine functions i.e sin and cos are continuous for all real values of
(v) Tan and sec are continuous everywhere except for equals to odd multiples of / 2 i. e.

= (2n1) / 2 , n I i. e. tan and sec are discontinuous for ,

2

3
5
,
..... etc.
2
2

(vi) cot and cosec are continuous everywhere except for equals to even multiples of / 2 i.e.
= n , n I i. e. cot and cosec are discontinuous for = , 2 , 3, etc.
(vii) The functions sin-1x, cos-1x, tan-1x, cot-1x, sec-1 x, cosec-1 x are continuous in their domains
(in which they are defined).
(viii) The exponential functions ex x R , ax (a>0, x R ) are continuous for all real values of x.
(ix) The logarithmic function loga x (a>0,x>0,a 1) is continuous for all values of x,
(x) The greatest integer function or step function [x] where [x] denotes the greatest integer not greater
Than x, is discontinuous at integer values of x, i. e. it is discontinuous at 0, 1, 2,.. Etc.
(xi) If f (x) is continuous at x = a, then f ( x) is also continuous at x = a

1) If f : A B, A and B are sub sets of R, then f is called a real function.

2) The function f : R R; R x R / x 0 , f ( x) loge x
( or in x) is called the natural logarithmic function.

3) f : R R , f ( x) e x , is called the exponential function.

4) f : R R, f (x) = [x] ( the greatest integer not exceeding x), is called the
greatest integer function.
5) Let f and g be two real functions with domain D and k, l, p are real
numbers. Then

Lt kf ( x) k Lt

x a

6)
7)
8)
9)

f ( x)

x a

Lt ( kf ( x) lg( x) ) k Lt

x a

Lt f ( x) g ( x) Lt

x a

x a

12)

g ( x)

g ( x)

f ( x) Lt

x a

g ( x)

Lt f ( x)
f ( x) x a
Lt

provided Lt g ( x) 0
x a g ( x)
xa
Lt g ( x)

Lt log f ( x) log

x a

Lt

x a

Lt f ( x )

11)

x a

Lt f ( x) g ( x) Lt

x a

x a

f ( x) Lt

x a

xa

10)

f ( x) l Lt

x a

Lt p f ( x ) p x a

x a

Lt

x a

f ( x) Lt

x a

f ( x) provided Lt f ( x) 0
x a

( p R )

f ( x)

13) If f (x) g ( x) for every x in a deleted nbd of a then Lt f ( x) Lt g ( x)

x a

14) If f (x) g ( x) h ( x) for every x in a deleted nbd of a and

Lt f ( x) l Lt h( x) then Lt g ( x) l

x a

15)

x a

Lt ( fog ) ( x) f

x a

x a

Lt

x a

g ( x)

16) If Lt f ( x) or - , then Lt
x a

x a

1
0
f ( x)

x a

xn an
xn an
n nm
n 1
17) Lt
18)
na
Lt

a
x a
x a xm am
xa
m
sin x
sin x
19) Lt
1 (x is in radians) 20) Lt
a (x is in radians)
x 0
x 0
x
x
tan x
tan ax
21) Lt
21) Lt
1 (x is in radians)
a (x is in radians)
x 0
x 0
x
x
22)

Lt

x 0

1 x

1
x

23)

1
24) Lt 1 e
x
x
ax 1
26) Lt
log e a
x 0
x

28)
29)

Lt

f ( x)

Lt

x n 0 if

x a
n

g ( x)

Lt g ( x )[ f ( x ) 1]

e x a

Lt

x 0

1 px

q
x

e pq

qx

25) Lt 1 e pq
x
x
ex 1
27) Lt
1
x 0
x
where g(x) and f (x) 1 as x a

x 1

30) If f (x) and g (x) are two polynomials such that deg f(x) = m and deg g (x) = n then

Lt

31)
32)

Lt

Lt

33) Lt

x a

f ( x)
0 for m < n
g ( x)
f ( x)
for m > n
g ( x)

f ( x) cofficient of x n in f (x)

for m = n
g ( x) cofficient of x n in g (x)
f ( x) 0 Lt g ( x)
x a

34) f (x) and g(x) are continuous at the point x = a, then

Lt

x a

f ( x)
f '( x)
Lt
x a g '( x)
g ( x)

If in addition f (a) = 0 and g (a) = 0, applying the rule again we get

Lt

x a

f ( x)
f '( x)
f ''( x)
Lt
Lt
g ( x) x a g '( x) x a g ''( x)

35) Sometimes it may be necessary to repeat this process a number of times till our
goal is achieved.

36) This rule is also applicable if Lt

x a

37) In this case also Lt

x a

f ( x) and Lt g ( x) .
x a

f ( x)
f '( x)
Lt
........
g ( x) x a g '( x)