Digital Basics Konica

Contents
Section 1
Analog Copier 7
Digital Copier 8
Analog vs Digital 9
Advantages 10
Advanced Features 10
Quality 11
Image Manipulation 11
Connectivity 12
Multi Function 13
Digital Images 14
Resolution 16
Halftones 17
Reading Process 18
CCD 19
A/D Conversion 20
Image Processing 21
Laser 22
Polygon Mirror 23
Air Bearing Mechanism 24
Writing the Image 25
Developing 26
Transfer 27
Separation 28
Image Fixing 29
Section 2
Memory 31
ERDH 33
Stackless ADU 34
Combination 35
Booklet 36
Reverse Image 37
Image Repeat 37
Independent Magnification 38
Proof Copy Function 39
Auto Image Layout 40
Rotation Function 41
Non-Image Area Erase 41
Reserve 42
Computer and Network 43
Tandem Function 44
Contents
Section 3
Image Reading 46
CCD 47
Area CCD 47
Linear CCD 47
CIS 48
Photosensitive Elements 49
Shift Register 50
Dual Channel Shift Register 50
CCD Output 51
AGC (Automatic Gain Correction) 51
AOC (Automatic Offset Correction) 52
A/D Conversion 53
Shading Correction 55
White Correction 55
Black Correction 57
Section 4
Image Processing 59
Brightness Density Conversion 60
AE Processing 61
Text Dot Pattern Judgement 62
Image Filtering 62
Moire Effect 63
Copy Gamma Correction 64
Magnification Change Processing 65
Enlargement 65
Reduction 66
Data Compression 67
Quantization 70
One Bit Data 70
Two Bit Data 70
Four Bit Data 70
Eight Bit Data 71
One Bit Quantization 71
Two Bit Quantization 71
Four Bit Quantization 72
Eight Bit Quantization 72
Error Diffusion 73
Dithering 75
Contents
Section 5
Outline 77
Laser 78
Polygon Mirror 79
Air Bearing 80
Index Sensor 81
Correcting Lenses 82
Cylindrical Lenses 82
fø Lens 83
Dual Laser Unit 84
Beam Combining Prism 85
Dual Beam Index Sensor 86
Main Scanning 86
Sub Scanning 87
Laser Driver 88
One Bit Mode 88
Two Bit Mode 89
Write Density Control 91
D-Max Correction 92
Gamma Correction 93
Analog Exposure 94
Digital Exposure 95
Non Reverse Developing 96
Reverse Developing 97
Transfer 98
Separation 99
Fixing 100
Drum Cleaning 101
PCL 102
Contents
Section 6
Sheet Through 104
1 to N, N to 1 105
Stackless ADU 107
ERDH 108
Network 110
Tandem Copying 111
Tandem Printing 112
Multi-Function Machines 113
General Data Flow 114
Standard Data Flow for Copier 114
Standard Data Flow for Printer 114
Standard Data Flow for Fax 115
Data Flow for Multi-functional Machine 116
Trouble Shooting 118
Test Patterns 118
Symptoms and Causes 120
7 Copying Process
10 Advantages
18 Image Reading
21 Image Processing
22 Image Writing
25 Image Formation
1 The Digital Copier
The Copying Process
Analog Copier
In an analog copier light is reflected off the original, through a

lens and a sequence of mirrors, onto a photo conductive drum.
This is where the image is formed before being transferred to
the copy paper.
7
The Copying Process
Digital Copier
A digital copier, however, converts the light information into a digital sig-
nal. This signal is then converted back into light again, in the form of a
laser, which then strikes the drum to form the image.
8
The Copying Process
Analog vs Digital
Examination of a regular analog photocopy will show that it is made up of

an infinite range of grey shades ranging from white to black. These shades
are called halftones.
The copy produced in a digital machine is made up of many tiny, indi-

vidual dots called pixels. The digital copier can reproduce half-tones in a
way that mimics the infinite range of the analog copier.
9
Advantages
Advantages
A digital copier has a great deal more control over the image. Electronic
information is much easier to change than a direct beam of light. Once an
original has been scanned into the copier, each pixel of image information
can be manipulated.
The main advantages of a digital Copier are:
⇒ Advanced features
⇒ Connectivity
⇒ Multi-Function
Advanced Features
The electronic information that makes up a digital image can be stored in

memory by the digital copier. An analog machine doesn’t have this capa-
bility.
When making a number of copies of the same document, the digital copier
doesn’t need to re-scan the original every time.
It scans once, at the start of the process and then simply prints from memory.
Once the originals have been scanned the user can remove them while the
copier is operating.
Having memory also means that the copier is much less restricted by the
number of sets of copies that can be made.
10
Advantages
Quality
When the original has been scanned the copier can analyse the image and
choose the best possible quality for the reproduction. This means that for
each copy made the machine can decide on the best quality for each indi-
vidual sheet.
Image Manipulation
An analog copier can enlarge or reduce an original, a digital copier can

also enlarge the vertical aspect and reduce the horizontal aspect at the same
time. It also has a larger range of enlargement and reduction as the image
is manipulated electronically.
There are many other special functions that a digital copier can perform
and we will be examining these more closely in Section 2.
11
Advantages
Connectivity
Most offices now require a printer as well as a photocopier. A copier based

on digital technology has the possibility of connecting to a computer or a
network of computers.
This allows the copier to be used as both printer and copier. An added
bonus is that the digital copier prints at a fraction of the cost of a conven-
tional printer.
12
Advantages
Multi Function
A number of different office machines use digital technology. There is

now, a new breed of machine that can perform more than one digital func-
tion.
The use of digital technology allows machines that can scan, fax, print
and copy. This cuts costs for offices allowing up to four machines to be
replaced by one.
13
Advantages
Digital Images
If a grid were placed over an image, we could create a very detailed and
exact map of every single character. We can then see that the original is
made up of tiny dots, called picture elements, or pixels. If we wish to
change any aspect of an image it is possible to do that by manipulating
the value of each pixel.
Scanning a document means breaking down the document into tiny frag-
ments and remembering how it goes together. The main scanning direc-
tion is equivalent to one line of pixels scanned from left to right as the
light passes over it.
This is the vertical aspect of the page. Each pixel is sampled in turn ac-
cording to a pixel clock.
The horizontal aspect or sub-scanning direction corresponds to the number

of lines of pixels that are scanned. Each horizontal line of pixels gener-
ates a line pulse.
14
Advantages
Digital Images (cont.)
Every pixel of an image can be identified by its main scanning clock pulse
and it’s sub-scanning line pulse.
The greater the number of pixels that are scanned and printed per page,
the closer the copy will be to the original image. This is called pixel den-
sity or resolution.
The pixel density for scanning is expressed as the number of pixels per
millimetre, whereas the print resolution indicates the number of dots per
inch, or dpi, that the copier can print.
15
Advantages
Resolution
A higher resolution means a greater number of dots on the page, this makes
the image seem more fluid. 500 dpi is just beyond the limit of the human
eye to recognise.
16
Advantages
Halftones
Another important factor is the shade/density of a pixel. The simplest

expression of shade is black and white. This is represented digitally by a 1
or a 0, just one “bit” of data. For finer image quality we need a greater
number of bits.
Two bits of information allow us to see four halftones. Black, white, light
grey and dark grey. Sixteen different shades are possible when using 4
bits.
The highest quality in use is Super Fine mode which uses 8 bits of data.
This allows up to 256 different grey halftones including black and white.
Using a greater range of shades means we can more accurately represent
the image.
17
Image Reading
Reading Process
A digital copier can be broken up into 2 separate sections. The “read sec-
tion” which scans the original document and the “write section” which
prints it.
The original documents are illuminated as in an analog copier. Instead of

the light being directed onto the drum, the light reflected from the original
is concentrated onto a semiconductor device called a CCD.
18
Image Reading
CCD
A CCD, or charged coupled device, is made up of many thousands of tiny

light sensitive elements. These are commonly referred to as pixels.
An electrical charge is created on each element, proportional to the amount

of light that shines on it. Each element of the CCD corresponds to a single
pixel of electrical information.
Different machines have different ranges of CCD output. We’ll take the
example of a CCD outputting a maximum of -5 volts. In this case light
reflecting from a white surface would give us -5 Volts and light reflecting
from a black surface would give 0 Volts.
19
Image Reading
A/D Conversion
The analog electrical signal is converted into a digital signal by an analog

to digital converter.
The digital signal then enters the Image Processing Board.
20
Image Processing
Image Processing
The circuits on this board process the image data to produce the best pos-
sible copy. For example, the edges of text can be sharpened in text mode
while tones of a photo are softened in photo mode.
Another example is booklet mode, here the originals are scanned into the
copier and grouped in fours in the image processing unit. The copier then
produces two sided copies, with two original sheets on each side, that fit
together as a book
Once the image processing is complete, the digital copy is ready to be

written.
21
Image Writing
Laser
The laser used in a digital copier is a small semiconductor that reacts to a

signal from the image processing board. The laser switches ON when the
scanner reads a black pixel, and remains OFF when the scanner reads a
white pixel as shown in the diagram below.
The digital copier has finer settings of up to 256 halftones. Which means
that the laser is not just on or off, but has up to 256 different strengths.
Some digital copiers use two lasers to write the image on to the drum.
These machines work in the same way, except that one laser writes just
above the other. The copier writes two lines at a time, increasing the over-
all speed of the machine.
22
Image Writing
Polygon Mirror
The laser beam strikes a polygon mirror, which rotates at more than 16,500
rpm. As the mirror turns, it reflects the beam right across the drum. Each
face of the mirror directs the beam across one scan line, corresponding to
the line of pixels scanned at the start of the process.
Using an 8 sided mirror means that each revolution of the mirror writes 8
lines of pixels on the drum. In a 2 laser machine this increases to 16.
23
Image Writing
Air Bearing Mechanism
The speed of rotation of the polygon mirror is limited by the friction of the
mirror on the bearings. This speed can be increased by using air-bearing
technology. In this case the mirror floats on a cushion of air, thus reducing
friction, and allowing the mirror to spin at speeds of more than 40,000rpm.
24
Image Formation
Writing the Image
The laser beam strikes the negatively charged drum and lowers the
surface potential,pixel by pixel, until it builds up the latent image.
25
Image Formation
Writing the Image (cont.)
The laser has different strengths depending on the image quality mode
selected. In this case the negative charge on the drum is not fully dis-
charged. We see here how this operates for four different levels.
Developing
Toner, which is negatively charged, is attracted to the neutral areas the

laser beam has exposed and adheres to the drum at those points.
26
Image Formation
Transfer
As the sheet of paper enters the machine it passes over a positively charged
Corona Unit, directly beneath the drum. The toner becomes more attracted
to the paper than the drum and is transferred to it.
27
Image Formation
Separation
The charged paper adheres to the drum due to static electricity. To make
sure it doesn’t stay there, the paper is neutralised by the AC charge of the
Separation Corona Unit once the toner has been transferred to it.
28
Image Formation
Image Fixing
The toner is now only resting on the surface of the paper and can be brushed
off. To fix the image it is passed between 2 rollers.
In most machines, one roller is at a high temperature and the second presses
the sheet against it. This combination of heat and pressure permanently
fixes the image to the sheet.
29
31 Copier Attributes
35 Image Manipulation
39 Easy Operation
43 Connectivity
2 Functions
Copier Attributes
Memory
When a document is scanned into a digital copier it is usually stored in the

ERDH memory. The memory is attached to a small board, the ERDH, which
we will be looking at in a moment.
Generally, memory can be added to the machine, to increase the number

of pages that it can store at any one time.
A machine usually houses about 16MB of memory, which is enough to

store approximately 70 pages. Memory can be added to the machine by
buying special Memory “Chips” that slot into the copier and allow a greater
number of pages to be scanned at any one time.
31
2 Functions
Copier Attributes
Memory (cont.)
Using standard quality mode, the Konica Test Chart 1 takes up approxi-
mately 3% on some digital machines, depending on the model and the
method of compression used. However recreating the image in more de-
tail means that more memory is needed to store the information.
The table below shows “mode” versus “memory” take-up.
When you set the copier to obtain a higher quality copy, you are asking
it to reproduce the original in more detail. This means that there is more
information for the machine to process. Therefore the higher the quality
of the finished copy the more memory it takes up.
Once a document is scanned it is saved into the copier’s memory. Any

special functions such as enlargement and image insertion can then be
performed. The memory is one reason that the digital copier can perform
so many tasks!
32
2 Functions
Copier Attributes
ERDH
An analog machine using a Recirculating Document Handler or RDH, scans

the originals for every set made. If we want to make 20 copies, the origi-
nals are scanned 20 times.
A digital copier scans a document into memory and then sends it to the
printing section. If a user is making a number of sets of the same docu-
ment, the copier only needs to scan once and then print from memory.
This is called an Electronic Recirculating Document Handler, or ERDH.
33
2 Functions
Copier Attributes
Stackless ADU
The Automatic Duplexing Unit, or ADU, is a device for making double

sided copies.
For example, an analog machine with a 50 page ADU will make 50 cop-
ies of the first side of the sheet. These will be stacked inside the machine,
then reversed and fed through for the reverse side to be copied.
The digital copier scans both sides of the original first, then begins copy-
ing up to 5 sheets at a time. The Stackless ADU keeps the copies running
continuously through the machine.
This feature eliminates the need for the paper to be stacked and reduces
the likelihood of a paper jam. An entire document can be printed at a time,
rather than a full set of a single page. The digital machine doesn’t have to
stack the copies and isn’t limited to the analog machine ADU limit of 50
sheets.
34
2 Functions
Image Manipulation
Combination
Combination mode allows the user to copy a number of originals onto a

single sheet.
Let’s say we’re using 8-in-1 mode. Eight originals are scanned into the
copier, where they are stored in the memory. The machine then reduces
and combines the images onto a single sheet.
This function is useful when data needs to be compared, such as a number

of different graphs being used for a presentation.
35
2 Functions
Image Manipulation
Booklet
An original document can be made into an easy to read booklet using Book-
let mode.
The originals are scanned into the copier and grouped in fours in the Im-
age Processing Unit. The copier then produces two sided copies, with
two original sheets on each side, that fit together as a book.
36
2 Functions
Image Manipulation
Reverse Image
Reverse Image takes a scanned document and reverses the black and white
values.
Image Repeat
A section of the original is selected and can be printed a number of times

onto a sheet. This, “Image Repeat”, feature is useful in producing office
materials like company logos or office memos.
37
2 Functions
Image Manipulation
Independent Magnification
An analog copier magnifies an original proportionally by repositioning

the lens and changing the scanning speed. A digital copier also changes
the scanning speed but the rest of the document is magnified using Image
Processing.
The horizontal magnification is independent of the vertical magnification.

This allows both to be adjusted independently of each other giving the
effect of stretching, or squeezing, the image.
38
2 Functions
Easy Operation
Proof Copy Function
During a multi-copy job, the Proof Copy function lets the user output a
single copy of the document before allowing the rest of the documents to
be printed. This lets the user make setting changes before finishing the
copy job.
39
2 Functions
Easy Operation
Auto Image Layout
Occasionally it can be difficult to place the original squarely against the

scale plate on the glass, especially if dealing with a book or a stapled docu-
ment.
Auto Image layout can detect the centre of the original and ensures that
the finished document is correctly lined up regardless of where the origi-
nal was placed.
40
2 Functions
Easy Operation
Rotation Function
It can be necessary to scan sheets into the copier orientated against the
normal and faster copying direction.
Analog copiers can carry, for example, an A4R tray to deal with this.
The digital copier doesn’t need to do this. It can detect the orientation of
the paper and rotate the image 90 degrees so that it will print out cor-
rectly. This function can also tell if the original is too large to fit onto
the copy paper.
Non-Image Area Erase
When copying a large book it might be impossible to close the RADF.

The Non-Image Area Erase feature will allow you to delete the black
edge that would normally appear.
41
2 Functions
Easy Operation
Reserve
Reserve mode allows a number of users to scan their document and queue
it, while the machine is operating. Once the scan is finished, the originals
can be removed and the user can return later, when the copy is finally
output.
The queue can be viewed and different jobs given a higher, or lower, pri-
ority. This means that the documents are queuing in the copier, rather than
the users queuing at the copier.
42
2 Functions
Connectivity
Computer and Network
A digital machine can be connected to a computer or computer network.

The copier is connected to a PC based print controller called an Image
Processor, which is then connected to the computer network.
This feature of the copier doubles its efficiency. Many offices go from
printer to copier in order to make multiple copies. The digital copiers print-
ing function means that it acts as 2 machines in one. This reduces cost and
increases productivity
Another bonus of the digital copier is that it is actually cheaper to run than
a conventional printer.
43
2 Functions
Connectivity
Tandem Function
With some digital copiers, 2 machines can be connected together and act
as a single copier, doubling the copy speed. One copier scans and prints
sending the digital information to the other copier which simply prints.
The advantage of this feature is that if one copier needs more paper or has
a paper jam the other copier can take up the workload. Tandem function
can route a single job to both copiers or balance the workload so that a
large run doesn’t tie up both machines thus lessening the copy queue.
44
46 Reading Devices
49 CCD Operation
51 Amplification
53 A/D Conversion
55 Shading Correction
3 Image Reading
Reading Devices
Image Reading
Image reading in a digital copier begins much like that in an analog ma-
chine. The analog copier illuminates the original with reflected light which
is collected by a lens. An analog machine differs, in that the reflected light
from the original directly illuminates the drum.
The digital machine, however, directs the light onto an electronic device
called a CCD.
46
3 Image Reading
Reading Devices
CCD
CCD stands for Charged Coupled Device. It is a semiconductor element

that generates a voltage when light is shone onto it, in other words, it is
photosensitive.
There are two different types of CCD:- Area and Linear.
Area CCD
An area CCD is the type used in video cameras, and has length and breadth.
Linear CCD
A linear CCD has a single row of elements and is the type that is used in
some fax machines and in digital copiers.
47
3 Image Reading
Reading Devices
CIS
Another type of electronic reader is a CIS, or Contact Image Sensor. This

device typically consists of a row of LED’s which illuminate the original.
Instead of the illuminated light being reflected onto the electronic reader,
the CIS houses both the illumination and the reader. The image resolution
can exceed 400 dpi.
48
3 Image Reading
CCD Operation
Photosensitive Elements
The CCD is made up of thousands of tiny light sensitive elements or pixels.
When a copy is in progress light reflected from the original generates a

voltage on each pixel. Light from white areas of the original will generate
the highest voltage as these areas reflect the most light.
49
3 Image Reading
CCD Operation
Shift Register
A certain time after the CCD starts to receive light, a switch closes be-
tween each pixel and a device called a shift register. The charge that has
been generated on the pixels is transferred to the shift register.
This discharges the pixels ready to receive the next line of light informa-
tion from the original.
Dual Channel Shift Register
In practise a shift register would use more than one “channel”. A dual
channel shift register is divided into 2 parts. One part receives data from
the even numbered while the other part receives data from the odd num-
bered CCD pixels. This cuts the time taken for data transfer in half.
50
3 Image Reading
Amplification
CCD Output
The voltage that is generated on the pixels is very small. This voltage
needs to be amplified in order to be in the right range for analog to digital
conversion.
Two processes are used.

⇒ Automatic Gain Correction, AGC
⇒ Automatic Offset Correction, AOC
AGC (Automatic Gain Correction)
Automatic Gain correction boosts the signal to be in the right range for an
analog to digital conversion.
51
3 Image Reading
Amplification
AOC (Automatic Offset Correction)
Automatic Offset Correction finds the lowest level voltage generated on

the pixels and drops it down into the lower limit for a digital signal to
recognise.
After the reflected light from the original has been amplified, it is con-
verted into a digital signal.
52
3 Image Reading
A/D Conversion
A/D Conversion
The electrical charge generated on the CCD now has to be analysed.

The A/D converter is a device that converts an analog electrical sig-
nal into a digital signal.
Different models use different ranges but here we’ll assume that the
voltage range produced is between 0V and -5V. A totally white pixel
will give an output of -5V and a totally black pixel a value of 0V.
To give a brief idea of A/D conversion, we will use a data conversion

to 1bit digital data as an example.
We can draw a line between the two values 0V and -5V. We will call
everything below this line 0 and everything above it, 1.
Take for example these pixels which have a charge of -3 Volts and -2
Volts.
53
3 Image Reading
A/D Conversion
A/D Conversion (cont.)
The A/D Converter would approximate -3 Volts as a digital zero and -2

Volts as a digital One.
Actually, a much more precise data conversion is performed in order to

increase reading accuracy of originals.
54
3 Image Reading
Shading Correction
Shading Correction
If a copy was made of a blank original it would not be completely white

as it should be. There are a number of reasons for this.
⇒ Uneven Light distribution
⇒ Lens Inconsistency
⇒ Dirt on the Mirrors
The process used to rectify this is called White Correction.
White Correction
A white reference plate is installed beneath the scale plate of a digital copier.
Depending on the model the reference plate is scanned at the start of each
copy, when the machine is switched on or when the front door is opened
and closed. The copier should be seeing a perfect white output, but what
is actually seen is a darkening at the edges of the data.
55
3 Image Reading
Shading Correction
White Correction (cont.)
If we continued using -5V as white then the edges of the copy would be
darker at the centre. If we decided to call -2.6V “white”, then everything
from -2.6V to -5V would be white adjusting for both the edges and the
centre.
We are now dealing with roughly half the voltage range. Assuming that
we’re using the 1 bit setting, this new range, 0V to -2.6V, is the area that
we divide into 2 sections for black and white.
White correction adds correction data to the randomly varying output char-
acteristics of the CCD when a completely white image is input to the CCD,
in order to obtain the ideal output characteristics shown here.
Black Correction
56
3 Image Reading
Shading Correction
There is no light reflected from a perfectly black area of an original. To

test the black level of the pixels, the CCD is read when the exposure lamp
is switched off.
Each pixel on the CCD will have a slightly different charge on it. The
image processor analyses the output voltage from each pixel. This gives
the processor the minimum value, or “black” reading, for each pixel.
The copier has now compensated for outside errors due to the limitations
of the lens, lamp and CCD. The image is now ready to be processed.
57
59 Brightness / Density
61 AE Processing
62 Filtering
67 Data Compression
70 Data Reading
73 Error Diffusion
4 Image Processing
Brightness / Density
Image Processing
The Image Processing Unit is the brain of the digital copier and is unique
to digital machines. The Digital copier has a far greater capacity for en-
hancing images once they have been scanned, and even for correcting the
natural flaws that occur in any machine.
This is also where any special functions that the user asks for are per-
formed. The following Processes then occur:
⇒ Brightness Density Conversion

⇒ A/E Processing
⇒ Text/Photo/Dot Pattern Judgement
⇒ Filtering
⇒ Copy Gamma Correction
First , the IPU, converts the scanned brightness signal into a density signal
that will be printed.
The copier decides on an exposure which makes sure that the copy is the
correct darkness or lightness.
The copier decides if the original is text, a photo or a dot pattern and ap-
plies filters to improve the copy for each of the different types.
Finally the density of toner is calculated, depending on the setting that the
user chooses.
59
4 Image Processing
Brightness / Density
Brightness Density Conversion
The data from the A/D converter is called a brightness signal because it
has been produced by the illumination of the original.
Regardless of what mode the copier is in the A/D converter actually out-
puts 10 bit data, a higher quality than the copier can print and higher,
even, than the human eye can detect! This allows the machine a margin of
error.
The brightness signal has to be converted from 10 bit data into a quantity
that the rest of the copier can process. This conversion of the original
high quality signal into a signal that will be written on the drum, is called
Brightness / Density Conversion. The density signal will determine the
density of toner that is written on the drum.
So, for example, the signal may be converted from 1024 steps, 10 bit qual-
ity, into 4 steps, which is 2 bit quality.
60
4 Image Processing
AE Processing
AE Processing
When copying anything that hasn’t a perfectly white background, the back-
ground of the copy turns out grey.
Auto Exposure, or AE Processing, is the method by which the copier de-

cides how light, or dark, the copy should be.
The processor examines the shade of the background and text. It then
increases the difference between these shades until it chooses the appro-
priate shade to represent the background.
The copier takes a sample area and looks at the pixels within that area. A
page of text would have very definite differences between the text image
and the background.
61
4 Image Processing
Filtering
Text Dot Pattern Judgement
The control panel on the copier allows you to select photo mode or text
mode. If neither of these options are selected, the copier automatically
examines the scanned data to see if it is text, a photograph or a dot pattern.
Pixels that form a photo would contain very gradual changes in tone. In
other words the difference between the shade of adjacent pixels would be
very small.
A picture that has been printed from a digital copier or printer is normally
in a dot pattern. This pattern has black and white pixels beside each other
like a text document but because the pixels are in a regular sequence the
copier can recognise a dot pattern.
Image Filtering
In order to produce a copy of the best possible quality, the copier applies
filters to the scanned image data.
A text filter sharpens the difference between pixels. This has the effect of
heightening the contrast and producing a cleaner edge, making text easier
to read
The image processor averages the tones of adjacent pixels wherever it rec-
ognises a photograph. This process smooths the difference between the
halftones giving a truer reproduction of the image.
62
4 Image Processing
Filtering
Moire Effect
If a dot pattern were output without a filter you would see a regular grid
pattern across the image, this is called the Moire effect.
The effect is the result of a dot pattern, such as the CCD pixels, trying to
read another dot pattern. To compensate for this the copier averages tones
across the pixels as it would for a photograph.
63
4 Image Processing
Filtering
Copy Gamma Correction
Copy Gamma Correction is the application of a density curve when the

user chooses to darken or lighten the image manually.
There are three different curves that can be used and each one has a number
of density settings, corresponding to the number of selectable densities on
the Operation panel. The three curves correspond to Text Mode, Photo
Mode and Text/Photo Mode. The different levels on each graph correspond
to the different density settings on the control panel of the machine.
The horizontal scale is the signal that has been scanned into the CCD. The
vertical scale is the density that the copier outputs.
64
4 Image Processing
Filtering
Magnification Change Processing
Enlargement
Magnification processing is performed in the Image Processing Unit of a

digital copier.
In the Vertical direction, the image processing board spaces out the pixels.
However, because the scanned pixel and the pixel written by the laser are
the same size, data sometimes doesn’t exist! This causes gaps in the im-
age.
The Image Processing Board looks at the value of the pixels and calcu-
lates a dummy pixel value for each “gap” in the data.
65
4 Image Processing
Filtering
Reduction
Similarly, when Reducing the image the pixels overlap.
To compensate for this, the shade of the overlapping pixels are averaged
out and the new reduced pixels are written by the laser.
66
4 Image Processing
Data Compression
Data Compression
The amount of memory available to store documents is a restriction on the

digital copier. Adding more memory to the copier is one way around this,
another is to try and squeeze more information into the memory that’s avail-
able. This process is called Data Compression.
A digital copy is made up of pixels and in normal mode, each pixel can
only be one of 2 colours, black or white.
In most documents there are areas of the original where entire rows of
pixels are just white. In this case the memory will be storing a row of
5,000 zeros for each entire scanned line!
67
4 Image Processing
Data Compression
Data Compression (cont.)
Another way of doing this would be if we could save the entire line as a
digital code that said Line=zero. Then instead of storing 5000 individual
zeros we are storing a much shorter number. This is the basis of compres-
sion.
The copier looks at the data, finds the areas that repeat and uses a code that
takes up less memory.
A black line, two pixels wide, running across an A3 page would scan as,
2499 zeros, 2 ones, then another 2499 zeros. If this scan line is the same
for the entire page the copier would use a code for this scan line, let’s call
it X, and store it in memory.
An A3 sheet has 6614 scan lines so our page can be stored as 6614 x X,
which represents the entire page.
68
4 Image Processing
Data Compression
Data Compression (cont.)
Compression works best when there is a lot of repetition, so an entirely

white page and an entirely black page would use the same amount of
memory. The more variation there is in an image, the more memory it
takes up, as the compression cannot find the similarities and therefore can’t
make short-cuts.
69
4 Image Processing
Data Reading
Quantization
When a pixel is read it appears as a voltage. The Voltage is proportional to

the amount of light that was reflected onto the CCD from the original.
One Bit Data
Earlier we talked about 1 bit mode where we split the voltage in half and
said that the upper half was Black, or a digital 1, and the lower half was
white, which is a digital 0.
Expressing this voltage as a one digit number, or bit, is called 1 bit

quantization. In other words we are looking at the picture and asking
whether it is 1 or 0, black or white.
Two Bit Data
Two bit quantization is when we split this up further. Now each pixel is
being expressed as 2 digits. 00, 01, 10 and 11.
Four Bit Data
Using Four bits of data to represent the pixel allows us to use 16 different
halftones.
70
4 Image Processing
Data Reading
Eight Bit Data
The highest quality image that can be printed uses 8 bits of data. This
corresponds to 256 different halftones, including black and white.
One Bit Quantization
Take for example two pixels which have a voltage of -3V and -2V. Using
1 bit mode they would appear as white and black.
Two Bit Quantization
Using 2 bit mode they appear as light grey and dark grey, a more accurate
representation of the original.
71
4 Image Processing
Data Reading
Four Bit Quantization
Four bit mode allows the copy to be printed using 16 different shades of
grey. Our pixels now become step ten and step six. Already much closer
to the true colour of the original.
The finest mode on a digital copier uses 8 Bit quantization. In this mode
the pixel can be expressed as any of 256 different halftones including
black and white.
Eight Bit Quantization
Using 8 bit mode, the greys would be so accurate that the human eye would
not be able to detect the difference between each step.
This mode can be called real-halftone as there are 256 different tones.
Using 8 bits of data to represent every pixel is too great to store in the
ERDH Memory. When using 8 bit mode the copier prints directly from
the platen glass.
72
4 Image Processing
Error Diffusion
Error Diffusion
Eight bit data gives a very accurate representation of the halftones in the
original. When using lower qualities we encounter a problem. What would
happen if we attempted to copy a completely grey original using only
black and white as in 1 bit mode?
You might expect the copier output to be completely black or completely

white. Error diffusion is a method by which the copier artificially creates
grey. For example if we take a selection of pixels, from a single scan, none
of them are completely black or white.
Using error diffusion, the copier examines the first pixel and decides that
it is white, but has to remove some of the voltage from it. To compensate,
the copier adds this voltage to the next pixel.
73
4 Image Processing
Error Diffusion
Error Diffusion (cont.)
This second pixel remains white, but now a greater voltage again must be
added to the next pixel in line.
The third pixel would normally have been white but now becomes black
and the total that it was brought up by is taken from the next pixel and so
on.
Over a huge range of pixels error diffusion has the effect of fooling our
eyes into believing that what we see is grey, even though close examina-
tion would reveal, that the copy is made up of only black and white dots.
In operation the copier actually looks at all the surrounding pixels to cal-
culate the error diffusion.
74
4 Image Processing
Error Diffusion
Dithering
Close examination of a photograph in a newspaper would reveal that it’s

made up of black and white dots. Newspapers and laser printers use a similar
system to the copier process of error diffusion. This process is called Dith-
ering.
Newspapers use a method which works on lines per inch. The greater the
number of lines per inch, of course, the higher quality the image will be.
You may notice that the dots are arranged at a 45 degree angle. The shape
of the printed dot can also be changed.
Another type of dither converts the grey parts of an image into geometric
shapes of black and white dots. This is called Pattern Dither.
75
77 Laser Unit
91 Laser Control
94 Exposure
96 Developing
100 Iamge Fixing
101 Drum Cleaning

5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Outline
Once the Image Processing Unit has arranged the data, the copy is ready
to be written.
A signal corresponding to the original image travels through to the laser

driver which tells the laser what to do.
The beam strikes a rotating polygon mirror that directs the laser, through
a series of correcting lenses onto the drum, where the image is formed.
77
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Laser
A laser is a concentrated beam of light, that can be focused finely enough

to write a single pixel of an image at a time. The laser used in digital
copiers, is a small semiconductor and is housed in a collimator unit that
focuses the beam.
The laser beam produced can’t actually be seen by the human eye and
great care must be taken when dealing with the laser unit.
The laser emits a beam of the correct strength, to expose the drum accord-
ing to the darkness, or lightness, of the original pixel.
78
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Polygon Mirror
The laser has a fixed beam which is directed onto a rotating polygon mir-
ror. Each face of the mirror writes one scanned line of data to the drum.
So a mirror with 8 faces, writes 8 lines of data per revolution.
As one face catches the beam, the laser is reflected onto the drum and
travels along it in a pattern which matches up with the pixels scanned
from the original.
79
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Air Bearing
Originally, the polygon mirror was supported by ball-bearings, which lim-

ited the speed of rotation to 16,500 rpm. Air bearing technology allows
the mirror to float on an air cushion which means the mirror can reach
speeds of up to 42,000 rpm.
80
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Index Sensor
When the laser strikes the mirror it is first reflected off a sensor before
striking the drum. The index sensor detects the write start position for each
scan of the laser beam to ensure the image is correctly positioned on the
drum.
The beam strikes the sensor at the start of each scan making sure that there
are no differences between what was scanned originally and what is being
written to the drum.
81
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Correcting Lenses
Cylindrical Lenses
As the Polygon mirror rotates it can, sometimes, tilt slightly. This small
fluctuation at the mirror can turn into a large error as the beam travels
through the machine.
To correct this error, two cylindrical shaped lenses are added to the laser
unit. The first is cylindrical lens1 which is in front of the laser unit and
focuses the laser beam onto the face of the polygon mirror. If the mirror
tilts it sends the laser beam off course, the second lens catches the beam
and makes sure that it strikes the drum along the scanning line.
82
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
fø Lens
When the laser beam is reflected from the mirror it strikes the drum at a
different angle from the edges of the scan to the centre.
By dividing the scan up into sections it can be seen that the scan distance
is not the same at all points along the drum. The image will not be consist-
ent from the edges of the drum to the middle and the copy will be dis-
torted.
This is corrected with an fø lens unit. This lens adjusts the angle with
which the laser strikes the drum ensuring that the copy is true to the origi-
nal. After putting the lens in, the distance between the sections becomes
equal.
83
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Dual Laser Unit
To increase the speed and efficiency of the copier some machines now
have write units containing 2 lasers. These lasers write two separate, ad-
jacent lines of data at the same time.
84
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Beam Combining Prism
The laser beams are set up at right angles to one another and are directed
at a prism. The Beam Combining Prism allows one of the lasers to pass
straight through but reflects the other laser 90 degrees.
This has the effect of aligning the beams in the same direction, so that one
is just above the other.
85
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Dual Beam Index Sensor
In a dual laser machine the index sensor contains four different sensors,
two vertical sensors and two at an angle.
Main Scanning
The vertical sensors investigate the laser’s timing in the main scanning
direction. The sensors make sure that both lasers start writing the data at
the same time.
86
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Sub Scanning
The beams need to write two lines of data at a time with no gap between
the lines.
The angled sensors ensure that the beams are close enough together in the
auxiliary scanning direction.
87
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Laser Driver
For lower intensities of laser, the beam actually gets thinner. When print-
ing at 600 dpi, the laser prints more dots per inch and to do this it lowers
the laser intensity to make the dot smaller.
One Bit Mode
The laser driver reverses the action taken by the CCD and analog to digital
converter. It receives the digital signals and converts them into laser light.
Using normal quality, where each pixel can only be black or white, the
laser need only be on or off.
88
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Two Bit Mode
When using anything other than 1 bit mode the laser changes intensity
depending on the darkness, or lightness of the pixel it is writing. The laser
diode board takes the digital data and decides how strong the laser beam
should be.
In 2 bit mode the laser has 4 different intensities which matches up with
the break down of our digital signal into 4 different digital steps.
89
5 Image Writing
Laser Unit
Two Bit Mode (cont.)
As the intensity of the laser is reduced, for printing lighter shades, the dot
produced actually gets smaller too.
90
5 Image Writing
Laser Control
Write Density Control
There are many outside factors that affect a copier’s performance and al-
though all machines are made to an ideal, every machine will have its own
characteristics. In fact every machine will perform slightly differently de-
pending on a number of different factors. Write density control tries to
compensate for this.
The ideal curve of copy density versus laser intensity is a straight line. In
actual fact, what really occurs is an S-shaped curve.
Two different tests are used to correct this curve.
⇒ D-Max Correction
⇒ Gamma Correction
91
5 Image Writing
Laser Control
D-Max Correction
During D-Max correction the laser is set on full power and several latent
patches are created on the photo conductive drum.
The Developer sleeve begins to rotate. The faster the sleeve rotates the
more toner is transferred to the drum. A sensor reads the density of the
toner on the drum and when this density reaches a certain predetermined
level, the developer sleeve is set at that speed.
The resulting correction brings the upper level of the curve into line with
the ideal.
Although we have brought the upper limit into line we are still quite far
away from ideal operation.
92
5 Image Writing
Laser Control
Gamma Correction
Using Gamma Correction, the laser intensity starts at a low level and this
intensity is raised in stages.
A sensor reads the density of the toner on the drum and compares the den-
sity of every step to the ideal density at that point.
In this way it creates a new curve. When this new curve is applied to the
laser density curve they cancel each other out. This brings the overall curve
into line with the ideal.
93
5 Image Writing
Exposure
Analog Exposure
In an analog machine the drum is given a negative charge. Light from the
white parts of the original is reflected down onto the drum and discharges
the areas it strikes.
94
5 Image Writing
Exposure
Digital Exposure
The process involved in a digital copier is called reverse developing.
The laser beam strikes the negative drum and discharges the surface po-
tential, pixel by pixel, until it builds up the latent image. The drum is turned
as each separate line of image is written.
The laser beam is switched on for every black pixel and switched off for
every white pixel.
Remember that an analog copier discharges the areas that reflect white,
the digital copier discharges the areas that represent black.
95
5 Image Writing
Developing
Non Reverse Developing
An analog machine needs the toner to stick to the negative charges left
over on the drum.
The positively charged toner is attracted to the negatively charged areas

on the drum.
96
5 Image Writing
Developing
Reverse Developing
The digital copier requires the toner to stick to the places where there is a
lower charge. The negative toner is repelled from the negative charge on
the drum and attracted to the lower potential areas that the laser beam has
exposed.
It is possible, in a digital machine, to use non reverse developing, the same

developing process used in an analog machine. This means that the laser
would expose areas that reflect white onto the CCD. Taking the standard
page coverage of 6% this then means that the laser would strike the drum
over 94% of its surface for every copy made.
Any exposure of the drum damages the surface to a certain extent. The
reverse developing process is preferable as it reduces the area of the drum
that is exposed and therefore increases the working life of the drum.
97
5 Image Writing
Developing
Transfer
A blank sheet of paper enters the machine and passes over a positive
charge directly beneath the drum. The negatively charged toner becomes
more attracted to the paper than the drum and is transferred across.
98
5 Image Writing
Developing
Separation
The paper adheres to the drum during this process. When the transfer is
finished, the paper is neutralised and its own weight detaches it from the
drum.
99
5 Image Writing
Image Fixing
Fixing
The toner is now only resting on the surface of the paper and can be brushed
off. To fix the image it is passed between 2 rollers. One roller, at a high
temperature and a second roller, which presses the sheet against it.
This combination of heat and pressure permanently fixes the image to the
sheet. The copy is now complete and the sheet is output to the finishing
unit, with the rest of the copied document.
100
5 Image Writing
Drum Cleaning
Drum Cleaning
Once the Image has been transferred to the paper the drum needs to be
cleared of any residual toner.
A urethane rubber blade is pressed against the drum scraping any excess
toner off.
The toner is collected by a collecting blade, or a collection roller, to stop

the toner from dropping into the machine.
101
5 Image Writing
Drum Cleaning
PCL
Before the drum is recharged for the next copy any charge remaining on it
is removed by exposing it to a line of light emitting diodes (LEDs) which
are collectively called the Pre-Charging Exposure Lamp (PCL).
102
104 Features
110 Connectivity
111 Tandem Function
113 Multi-Function Machine
114 Information Flow
118 Trouble Shooting

6 Mechanism
Features
Sheet Through
Using an Automatic Document Feeder, or ADF, most copiers will feed

the originals onto the platen glass. The original pauses there while the
exposure lamp scans the document and the original is then fed out.
The ADF on some digital machines now has a function called “sheet
through”.
Using this method the lamp moves to a new section of glass, called a Slit
Glass, which is positioned to the left of the scale plate. The original is
fed through the ADF and passes over the Slit Glass where it is scanned as
it passes.
This function is faster than a normal document feeder and also elimi-
nates the build up of static on the glass, which is a major cause of mis-
feeding.
There is less stopping and starting of the copier which reduces wear and
tear on both the copier and on the originals
104
6 Mechanism
Features
1 to N, N to 1
Traditionally copiers feed the document through the RADF from the last
page to the first page. We will call this process, N to 1. This ensures that
the pages are in the correct order when output.
In a standard digital copier the originals are scanned into memory and
then printed. The copier must wait until all the data is scanned and then
print, particularly as it may need to perform special functions on the pages.
105
6 Mechanism
Features
1 to N, N to 1 (cont.)
However if the copier were to scan from the first page to the last, 1 to N,
then it could start printing immediately.
Take the example of Duplexing. The digital machine scanning N to 1

needs to know whether there are an even or odd number of pages. If there
are an odd number, the copier needs to produce a blank reverse side for the
last page.
Therefore, the copier has to scan in all the pages first before it begins
printing and then prints the last page first.
In this case, using 1 to N, the printing can begin straight away. The
copier reads the first page, prints the face side, reads the second page and
prints on the reverse of the first. In large documents this feature saves a
lot of time.
106
6 Mechanism
Features
Stackless ADU
The Automatic Duplexing Unit or ADU is a device for making double

sided copies. In an analog machine the first side of the sheet is stacked
inside the machine and then flipped over and fed through to have the re-
verse side copied.
The Digital Copier scans both sides of the original first then begins copy-
ing 5 sheets at a time, depending on the machine. The Stackless ADU
keeps the copies running continuously through the machine. 5 face sides
are copied and as the last face side runs through the machine the first is
returning to have the reverse-side copied.
This feature eliminates the need for the paper to be stacked and reduces
the likelihood of a paper jam.
107
6 Mechanism
Features
ERDH
In an Analog machine fitted with a Recirculating Document Handler the

originals are fed through the machine over and over until the required
number of copy sets have been made.
A digital copier scans a document into memory and then sends it to the
printing section. The copier only needs to scan once and then print from
memory. This is called an Electronic RDH or ERDH.
The advantage of this feature is that the originals are not constantly being
fed through the feeder for every set required.
108
6 Mechanism
Features
ERDH (cont.)
This feature also saves time for the customer, who can take the original
away while the copy is printing. The originals only pass through the feeder
once so it is much less likely that there will be a paper jam and wear and
tear is reduced for both the document and the machine.
109
6 Mechanism
Connectivity
Network
Digital copiers and printers because of their digital technology, have the
capability of connecting to other digital machines.
To connect a copier to a computer it must first

be connected to an Image Processor which has
special hardware and software.
The Image Processor, or IP, is an Intel based

computer, fitted with a Copier Interface Card.
The IP is specifically tailored to the job of
network interface for the digital copier.
The software installed on the IP interprets the

signals from the computer and translates it
into a form that the digital copier can under-
stand. The IP can operate with a number of
different printer languages eg:
⇒ PCL
⇒ postscript
The translated data is stored on the copier in the ERDH memory until it’s
ready to print.
110
6 Mechanism
Tandem Function
Tandem Copying
The Tandem function of some digital copiers allows two machines to be

connected together. This allows the production of twice as many copies.
There are two very different ways of using tandem function, tandem copy-
ing and tandem printing.
In tandem copying, the two machines are directly connected to each other
and act as a high capacity copier.
When the machines are copying in tandem they are connected to each
other via the ERDH memory . The processing is done as normal on one
machine, stored in its memory and then sent to the memory of the second
machine.
111
6 Mechanism
Tandem Function
Tandem Printing
Tandem printing is achieved by connecting two digital copiers to a net-

work via an IP unit.
When the machines are printing in Tandem, the data flows from computer
network to the IP. The IP processes the data and divides the work between
the two machines. As in the Tandem copying process, the data to be printed
is sent to the ERDH of each machine.
The tandem function can either print one big job between the two copiers
or use one copier for a bulk print and allow the second machine to deal
with the rest of the workload. A fault on one machine will cause the other
copier to take up the workload.
112
6 Mechanism
Multi-Function Machines
Multi-Function Machines
Scanners, printers, fax machines and digital copiers all utilise the same
principles.
The similarity of many of the functions has made it possible to produce

this new breed of machine which can perform all of them.
113
6 Mechanism
Information Flow
General Data Flow
Standard Data Flow for Copier
We have already examined in detail the process involved in a digital copier,

the original is scanned, the data from the original is processed and the data
is written.
Standard Data Flow for Printer
Printers receive image information from a computer in Printer language

which is called PDL, or Page Description Language. This information is
interpreted by the printer and then output.
114
6 Mechanism
Information Flow
Standard Data Flow for Fax
The flow of information in a fax is a little more complicated. A fax ma-

chine has to send the data along a phone line. Therefore it needs to be very
compressed in order to send the data at an acceptable speed.
Faxes must also be able to receive information and restore it to its original
form. The restored data is then written.
Faxes do have a copy function, but it is slow and the quality is not as good
as on a regular copier.
115
6 Mechanism
Information Flow
Data Flow for Multi-functional Machine
The processes involved in faxes, printers and copiers are very similar. The
multi function machine most resembles a fax, as this uses all the functions
of a printer and copier.
116
6 Mechanism
Information Flow
Data Flow for Multi-functional Machine (cont.)
The fax scans as a copier normally would. The printer, copier and fax sec-
tions of the multi-function machines all use the image processing unit and
store data in memory. During fax sending the printer section is not used at
all, except to print a delivery notice or an error message.
When fax data is received, however, it enters the image processor and is
printed.
There is a big difference in standard image quality between copiers, faxes

and printers. Copiers and printers require a much higher quality than is
usual for a fax machine.
To increase the speed of sending data, a fax machine reduces the image
quality, and therefore the amount of data.
117
6 Mechanism
Trouble Shooting
Trouble Shooting
In this trouble shooting section we take a look at some methods of diag-

nosing some common problems.
Test Patterns
Konica’s digital copiers allow many internal test patterns to be printed

from memory to allow for faster pin pointing of the problem areas.
Two examples are:
⇒ Overall halftone
⇒ Linearity Pattern
The Overall Halftone test pattern is ideal to use when image defects such
as lines appear on the copies. This pattern is generated in the print engine
and if the pattern appears normal, the fault lies in the scanner section of
the copier.
118
6 Mechanism
Trouble Shooting
Test Patterns (cont.)
Also generated in the print section is the linearity pattern which is used to
check for errors or misadjustment on the scanner section.
Some digital machines also allow test patterns to be generated from the
various circuit boards such as ERDH, or Image Processor to further pin-
point the problem area.
119
6 Mechanism
Trouble Shooting
Symptoms and Causes
Some defects that can occur may have a number of different sources.
If having determined that the printing section of the machine is at fault,

using the test patterns, we can narrow our search down.
The drum charging corona unit of the machine is one place to start. Drum
charging means applying a charge to the drum which can be discharged in
the correct way by the laser.
Black Output Page
If the drum isn’t charged, toner adheres to the entire drum, giving a com-
pletely black output. This means that the drum charge grid is not function-
ing at all.
120
6 Mechanism
Trouble Shooting
Fogged Output
If the Image is fogged then this would imply that either the drum corona
unit is not in the correct place or the drum charging current is less than the
required value.
121
6 Mechanism
Trouble Shooting
Low Density Image
A higher than normal drum charging output would mean that the density
of the final image would be low. This is because the laser output would be
insufficient to correctly discharge the charged areas.
122
6 Mechanism
Trouble Shooting
Line of Lower Density
A line of lower density running across the copy might imply that the charg-
ing grid is dirty at that point.
123
6 Mechanism
Trouble Shooting
Blank Sheet
Another place that the problem may occur is in the laser write section of
the digital copier.
No laser output would cause a completely blank copy as the charge on the
drum would not be neutralised by the laser.
124
6 Mechanism
Trouble Shooting
Completely Black Output
If the laser is permanently on in full power, then the copy output from the
machine, would be completely black.
125
6 Mechanism
Trouble Shooting
Thin/Broken Characters
The characters on your copy may appear thin or broken and the reproduc-
tion of lower density parts of the original is poor. This would imply that
the laser intensity might be too low.
126
6 Mechanism
Trouble Shooting
Very Thick Characters etc.
When characters appear thick and the lower density parts of the original
come out very dark this would imply that the laser intensity is too high.
127
6 Mechanism
Trouble Shooting
Dirt On White Reference Plate
The White Reference plate is of course the standard by which the digital
copier interprets what “white” is.
If the white reference plate has dirt on it or if it is cracked then the density
of the copy at that point will be less than in the rest of the copy.
128

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Contents

In an analog copier light is reflected off the original, through a

Examination of a regular analog photocopy will show that it is made up of

The copy produced in a digital machine is made up of many tiny, indi-

The main advantages of a digital Copier are:

The electronic information that makes up a digital image can be stored in

An analog copier can enlarge or reduce an original, a digital copier can

Most offices now require a printer as well as a photocopier. A copier based

A number of different office machines use digital technology. There is

The horizontal aspect or sub-scanning direction corresponds to the number

Digital Images (cont.)

Another important factor is the shade/density of a pixel. The simplest

The original documents are illuminated as in an analog copier. Instead of

A CCD, or charged coupled device, is made up of many thousands of tiny

An electrical charge is created on each element, proportional to the amount

The analog electrical signal is converted into a digital signal by an analog

The digital signal then enters the Image Processing Board.

Once the image processing is complete, the digital copy is ready to be

The laser used in a digital copier is a small semiconductor that reacts to a

Air Bearing Mechanism

Writing the Image

Writing the Image (cont.)

Toner, which is negatively charged, is attracted to the neutral areas the

When a document is scanned into a digital copier it is usually stored in the

Generally, memory can be added to the machine, to increase the number

A machine usually houses about 16MB of memory, which is enough to

The table below shows “mode” versus “memory” take-up.

Once a document is scanned it is saved into the copier’s memory. Any

An analog machine using a Recirculating Document Handler or RDH, scans

The Automatic Duplexing Unit, or ADU, is a device for making double

Combination mode allows the user to copy a number of originals onto a

This function is useful when data needs to be compared, such as a number

A section of the original is selected and can be printed a number of times

An analog copier magnifies an original proportionally by repositioning

The horizontal magnification is independent of the vertical magnification.

Proof Copy Function

Auto Image Layout

Occasionally it can be difficult to place the original squarely against the

Non-Image Area Erase

When copying a large book it might be impossible to close the RADF.

Computer and Network

A digital machine can be connected to a computer or computer network.

CCD stands for Charged Coupled Device. It is a semiconductor element

There are two different types of CCD:- Area and Linear.

Another type of electronic reader is a CIS, or Contact Image Sensor. This

The CCD is made up of thousands of tiny light sensitive elements or pixels.

When a copy is in progress light reflected from the original generates a

Dual Channel Shift Register

Two processes are used.

AGC (Automatic Gain Correction)

AOC (Automatic Offset Correction)

Automatic Offset Correction finds the lowest level voltage generated on

The electrical charge generated on the CCD now has to be analysed.

To give a brief idea of A/D conversion, we will use a data conversion

A/D Conversion (cont.)

The A/D Converter would approximate -3 Volts as a digital zero and -2

Actually, a much more precise data conversion is performed in order to

If a copy was made of a blank original it would not be completely white

White Correction (cont.)

There is no light reflected from a perfectly black area of an original. To

⇒ Brightness Density Conversion

Brightness Density Conversion

Auto Exposure, or AE Processing, is the method by which the copier de-