Deep-Sea Research II 48 (2001) 33433352

Chemical characteristics of Central Indian Basin waters

during the southern summer
S.N. de Sousa*, S.D. Sardessai, V. Ramesh Babu, V.S.N. Murty,
G.V.M. Gupta
National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India

Abstract
Chemical properties of the water column were examined at the Indian Deep-sea Environment
Experiment (INDEX) site in the Central Indian Basin (CIB), as a part of baseline studies prior to the
benthic disturbance experiment for the environmental impact assessment of mining of polymetallic nodules.
The study shows three equatorward moving water masses. (a) The Subsurface Salinity Maximum in the
depth range 125200 m, characterized by high salinity (34.7434.77 psu) and oxygen minimum associated
with weak maxima in nutrients. (b) The Deep Oxygen Maximum (234245 mM) in the depth range
250750 m, associated with minima in nutrients and relatively high pH. (c) The Salinity Minimum Water
(34.71434.718 psu) corresponding to the Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) at depths 8001200 m in
the density (sy ) range 27.227.5. Progressive changes in these characteristics are attributed to mixing with
waters above and below, and to oxidation of organic detritus en route. Among the three water masses, the
oxygen maximum water shows the lowest changes in its properties, which may suggest that this water mass
is moving the fastest. r 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
As a part of the environmental impact assessment of deep sea mining of polymetallic nodules, a
benthic disturbance and environmental impact assessment experiment was conducted in the
Central Indian Basin (CIB) during JulySeptember 1997. Prior to the disturbance, baseline data
on physical, chemical and biological properties of the water column were studied to characterize
the water masses. The present paper describes the chemical characteristics of the area prior to the
disturbance. The project was funded by the Department of Ocean Development, Government of
India, and implemented by the National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, India.
*Corresponding author. Fax: +91-0-832-229102.
E-mail address: sndsousa@csnio.ren.nic.in (S.N. de Sousa).
0967-0645/01/$ - see front matter r 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 6 7 - 0 6 4 5 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 4 4 - 3

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Fig. 1. Map showing location of stations for water column studiesFphysical, K;physical and chemical, ; physical
and biological, "; physical, chemical and biological, m.

2. Materials and methods

Water-column data were collected during the cruise no. 120 on the ORV Sagar Kanya
(December 27, 1996 to January 31, 1997). Fig. 1 shows the station locations. The temperature and
salinity data were obtained using the Sea Bird SBE 911 CTD system, while the water samples were
collected with 10/30-l General Oceanics samplers (Niskin/GO-FLO type) tted on a rosette along
with the CTD. Due to some technical problems with the winch, the CTD could not be operated
beyond a depth of 3500 m, except at the rst three stations. Dissolved oxygen was measured by the
Winkler titration, pH by the multiwavelength spectrophotometric method of Byrne and Breland
(1989), phosphate by the method of Murphy and Riley (1962), while nitrate, nitrite and silicate
were measured using an autoanalyser, Skalar 5100/l.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Near-surface waters
The surface mixed layer, which was about 40 m thick, showed a northward shallowing trend
(Figs. 2a, b) and was characterized by low salinity (o34.67 psu), high oxygen (223245 mM), high
pH (>8.2), and low nutrient contents (Figs. 3bd, 4ac). The concentration of nitrate was below
0.02 mM, almost over all the areas studied, except at a few stations where it varied between 0.3 and

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3345

Fig. 2. (a) Latitudinal prole of temperature (1C) along 791E longitude. (b) Latitudinal prole of salinity (psu) along
791E longitude.

3.8 mM in the depth range 2550 m. This low-salinity layer is caused by local excess of
precipitation (Warren, 1981a), and/or by the inux of low-salinity Pacic water, as Indonesian
Throughow (Warren, 1981a; Fieux et al. 1996; Anon., 1998). The isolines in this layer shoaled
towards the north (Figs. 2a, b) consistent with the northward shallowing of the mixed layer. The
thermocline region was bounded by the 131C and 281C isotherms, with its bottom located
between 200 and 250 m. Between 101S and 111S, a sharp salinity front, at 50 m depth (Fig. 2b),
separated the lower salinity waters (o34.67 psu), marking the inuence of the Indonesian
Throughow, from the higher salinity waters (>34.70 psu). The top of the thermocline was
marked by a rapid fall in oxygen concentration from 225 to 100125 mM (Fig. 3b) and was
associated with rapid increase in nutrient concentrations and decreased pH (Fig. 3cd).
A subsurface salinity maximum (34.7434.77 psu) associated with a shallow oxygen minimum
(67112 mM) and weak maxima in nutrients (nitrate : 1822 mM, phosphate : 1.41.8 mM and
silicate : 1824 mM) and a relatively low pH (7.77.9) was observed in the depth range 125200 m
(Figs. 2b, 3ad, 4ac). It was best developed on the eastern side of the Basin (Fig. 4ac). The
salinity and dissolved oxygen concentration of this water decreased northwards (Figs. 2b, 3b),
while the concentrations of nutrients increased in the same direction (Fig. 3cd). This is the

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S.N. de Sousa et al. / Deep-Sea Research II 48 (2001) 33433352

Fig. 3. (a) Watermass structure in the CIB along 791E longitude and between latitudes 91 and 141S. STWFsubtropical
water; AAIWFAntarctic Intermediate Water; NIDWFNorth Indian Deep Water. (b) Depth proles of oxygen (mM)
along 791E longitude, Sta.#1 (d), Sta.#3 (+), Sta.#5 (m). (c) Depth proles of nitrate (mM) along 791E longitude,
Sta.#1 (d), Sta.#3 (+), Sta.#5 (m). (d) Depth proles of silicate (mM) along 791E longitude, Sta.#1 (d), Sta.#3(+),
Sta.#5 (m).

S.N. de Sousa et al. / Deep-Sea Research II 48 (2001) 33433352

3347

Fig. 4. (a) Longitudinal proles of oxygen (mM) along 131S. (b) Longitudinal proles of nitrate (mM) along 131S. (c)
Longitudinal proles of phosphate (mM) along 131S.

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S.N. de Sousa et al. / Deep-Sea Research II 48 (2001) 33433352

eroded core of the Subtropical Surface Water (STW), which is formed in latitudes 25351S by
excess of evaporation over precipitation (Warren, 1981a; Toole and Warren, 1993). The
above authors had observed water with high salinity (>35.5 psu) associated with high
oxygen (245257 mM) at sea surface at 321S. Interior circulation carries this water northwards
to tropical latitudes (10151S) where it is capped by the warm, low-salinity Tropical Surface
Water (TSW) formed by excess of precipitation (Toole and Warren, 1993). However, its
characteristic properties undergo gradual erosion during its transit, caused by vertical mixing
with the low-salinity TSW. Between 91 and 131S it can be identied by its residual salinity of
34.7434.77 psu (Figs. 2b, 3a).
A shallow oxygen minimum was associated with the subsurface salinity maximum. It was
strongest in the north and attenuated towards the south (Fig. 3b). In this layer, the average
concentration of oxygen at 131S was around 112 mM. This minimum is caused by the in situ
consumption of oxygen by sinking detritus (Warren, 1981a,b). The progressive equatorward
decrease of oxygen indicates the progressively increasing transit time of this water from the
overturning zone (Lat. 25351S).
If the high salinity water observed by Toole and Warren (1993) at sea surface at 321S latitude is
considered as the source water for the subsurface salinity maximum, then the associated oxygen
minimum and the weak maxima in nutrients observed in this water at 131S can be explained by
regeneration (Redeld et al., 1963) as follows. The average oxygen concentration of the highsalinity near-surface water was 251 mM at 321S between longitudes 701E and 801E (Toole and
Warren, 1993), whereas at 131S the average oxygen concentration of shallow oxygen minimum
was 112 mM. This means a loss of 139 mM of oxygen. An atomic ratio of 106 : 16 : 1 for carbon,
nitrogen and phosphorus during the regenerative decomposition of organic matter in seawater is
based on their concentrations in plankton (Redeld et al., 1963). Similarly, the above authors
obtained a relationship of 276 : 106 by atoms between oxygen utilization and carbon dioxide
production. Stef!ansson and Richards (1963) demonstrated that in seawater, silicon and
phosphorus are released during decomposition of organic detritus and assimilated during growth
by phytoplankton in an atomic ratio of 23 : 1. Combining these ratios, we obtain a relationship
DAOU : DC : DSi: DN : DP=276 : 106 : 23 : 16 : 1 by atoms.
If it is assumed that the loss of oxygen in the shallow oxygen minimum layer was entirely
due to decomposition of organic detritus, then a loss of 139 mM (278 mg-at/l) oxygen
should have resulted in the release of 1.01 mM phosphate, 16.1 mM nitrate and 23.2 mM
silicate. A comparison of these values with the observed values (phosphate : 1.41.8 mM;
nitrate : 1822 mM and silicate : 1822 mM) indicates that only the silicate values are consistent,
whereas the observed values of both nitrate and phosphate are higher than expected.
This is because the low-salinity TSW is comparatively richer in oxygen than the high-salinity
STW. Mixing of the two raises the oxygen levels of the latter. Also, the STW gains oxygen
through diusion, from oxygen-rich waters above and below it. Consequently, the loss
of oxygen, which is used in computing the nutrients, is only the apparent loss, and the actual
loss could be much higher, which would account for the observed higher nutrient values.
As the water moves northward, increasing amounts of oxygen are consumed during the
decomposition of sinking detritus, which results in the regeneration of increasing amounts of
nutrients, as seen from the northward increase in nutrient concentrations associated with
decreasing oxygen (Fig. 3bd).

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3.2. Intermediate and deep waters

Below the subsurface salinity maximum there was a layer of deep oxygen maximum in the depth
range 250750 m, where oxygen concentrations reached up to 180 mM (Figs. 3b, 4a). The
maximum was intense in the western side of the basin (Fig. 4a) and was associated with weak
minima in nutrients (nitrate : 1422 mM, phosphate : 0.62.2 mM and silicate : 1222 mM and
relatively high pH, >7.8 (Figs. 3c, d, 4b, c). This is Sverdrups Indian Ocean Central Water
(Sverdrup et al., 1942), which Warren (1981a) termed as Sub-Antarctic Mode Water (SAMW). It
forms at 40501S by deep convection during late winter (McCartney, 1977). Toole and Warren
(1993) observed this water at 400600 m depths on the Darwin section at 321S with high oxygen
concentrations of 234245 mM. It was also observed on the Atlantis II section at 181S in the depth
range 400500 m with similar concentrations of oxygen (Warren, 1981a). On close examination of
Fig .4a it appears that this water enters the Basin from the southwest. Between 321S and 131S, this
water lost little oxygen (B5060 mM). This suggests that this water, as observed at 131S, is
relatively new, having spent short transit time from the zone of its formation, which means that
this water moves faster than the water above it. The relatively low concentrations of nutrients and
higher pH associated with this water also support the above ndings.
The salinity minimum corresponding to the Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) was seen as
a 400 m thick band in the depth range 8001200 m and between 27.2 and 27.5 density (sy ) levels
(Figs. 2b, 3a). Salinity of this water varied within a narrow range of 34.714 and 34.718 psu. Table
1 gives a comparison of the properties of AAIW at dierent latitudes between 701E and 801E
longitude. Similarly, Table 2 shows a comparison of the properties of the AAIW observed
between 321S and 131S. In column 4, we show the changes in the above properties between the
two latitudes, while in column 5 we show the expected changes in nitrate, phosphate and silicate
corresponding to the observed changes in oxygen, computed using the Redeld relationship
(Redeld et al., 1963). Here, we have assumed that, although there was a 10 yr gap between the
two data sets, the properties of deep waters in this region have not undergone any signicant
change during this period. It is clear from column 4 that during its transit from 321S to 131S the
AAIW has lost 87 mM of oxygen while gaining salinity (0.2140.317 psu), nitrate (1.12.1 mM),
phosphate (0.190.39 mM), and silicate (30.640.6 mM). However, a comparison between columns
4 and 5 indicates that the observed gains in nitrate, phosphate and silicate do not wholly account
for the amount of oxygen lost, if it is assumed that the oxygen loss is only due to respiration

Table 1
Comparison of properties of the Antarctic Intermediate Water at dierent latitudes between 701E and 801E longitude
Property

321Sa

181Sb

131S

Salinity (psu)
Dissolved oxygen (mM)
Nitrate-N (mM)
Phosphate-P (mM)
Silicate-Si (mM)

34.434.5
184
3435
2.22.4
4050

34.6
138.9178.6
F
2.02.2
4060

34.71434.71870.001
97.578.9
36.170.2
2.5970.24
80.6713

a
b

From Toole & Warren (1993).

From Warren (1981a).

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Table 2
Changes in the properties of Antarctic Intermediate Water between 321S and 131S
Property

Salinity (psu)
Dissolved oxygen (mM)
Nitrate-N (mM)
Phosphate-P (mM)
Silicate-Si (mM)

321Sa

34.434.5
184
3435
2.22.4
4050

131S

34.71434.71870.001
97.578.9
36.172
2.5970.24
80.6713

Change (D)
Observed change

Expected changeb

+0.2140.317
( )87
+1.12.1
+0.190.39
+30.640.6

F
F
+10.1
+0.63
+14.5

From Toole and Warren (1993).

Expected changes in nitrate, phosphate and silicate are computed from the molar ratios (oxidative) between oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon (Redeld et al., 1963; Stefansson and Richards, 1963).

processes. The observed gains in nitrate and phosphate are less than those expected, suggesting
some loss in these properties. The observed gains in silicate are higher than those expected,
implying an addition of silicate through some other source. A plausible explanation for this
behaviour appears to be the mixing of the AAIW with some other water having relatively higher
salinity and silicate contents and lower oxygen and perhaps lower nitrate contents.
This would imply that the observed loss in oxygen is partly due to the oxidation of organic
matter en route, and partly due to mixing with lower oxygen water. In other words, the actual loss
of oxygen due to oxidation processes is lower than that shown in column 4, thereby implying that
the values for the expected changes in NO3 ; PO34 and SiO44 should be lower than those shown in
column 5. This would reduce the dierence between the expected and observed changes in NO3
and PO34 ; while the dierence in SiO44 will be increased, indicating that the gain in silicate is
much more than expected. Mixing with water having relatively higher silicate could result in such
a scenario. The only poleward moving water at these depths is the silicate-rich high-salinity North
Indian Deep Water (NIDW) formed in the North Indian Ocean due to mixing of high-salinity
water from Red Sea overow with the North Indian bottom water (Toole and Warren, 1993,
Anon., 1998). In the present study (Figs. 2b, 3a), it is seen as a high-salinity band (34.719
34.721 psu) in the density (sy ) range 27.627.8 at depths 15002200 m. The salinity of this water is
highest in the north and attenuates to the south. The intermediate waters of North Indian Ocean
are depleted in oxygen and nitrate (Naqvi, 1987), but have higher silicate concentrations. Thus, it
appears that the observed changes in the properties of the AAIW between 321S and 131S are partly
due to oxidation of organic matter en route and partly due to mixing with Arabian Sea water.
As seen in Figs. 2a, b and 5, the properties of deep waters in this region remained almost
constant below 3000 m depth, except phosphate, which showed a gradual decrease from 2.4 to
1.95 mM. The salinity varied within a very narrow range of 34.71934.720 psu, while the ranges of
variation in nitrate and silicate were 34.434.6 and 110120 mM, respectively. The deep waters in
this region are believed to be of Antarctic origin carried northwards by circumpolar currents. It
appears that no major changes have occurred in the properties of this water during its northward
transit, as can be seen from the comparison of its properties at 321S (Toole and Warren, 1993),
181S (Warren, 1981a, b), and 121S (Warren, 1982 and present study), indicating that at these levels
interactions between dierent water masses are limited.

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3351

Fig. 5. Proles of water properties at Sta.#3, pH (J), oxygen mM (+), nitrate mM (K), phosphate mM (E).

In future, the information obtained through this study and the conclusions drawn can be used
as important inputs for development of models for the behaviour of sediment when the sediment
water slurry is discharged in the water column during mining. The data can also be used to
evaluate and suggest a suitable depth for discharge of debris and bottom water, which may be
lifted along with polymetallic nodules during deep sea mining.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director of NIO for the constant encouragement, support, and guidance
throughout the programme. The study was undertaken as a part of the Environmental impact

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S.N. de Sousa et al. / Deep-Sea Research II 48 (2001) 33433352

assessment of nodule mining in the Central Indian Basin, funded by the Department of Ocean
Development (Government of India). This paper is NIO contribution no. 3654.
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