Exercise 1.

Analyse and rank the following sources:

Neuron: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Drawing by Santiago Ramn y Cajal of neurons in the pigeon cerebellum. (A) Denotes
Purkinje cells, an example of a bipolar neuron. (B) Denotes granule cells which are
multipolar.
Neurons (IPA: /n(j)n/, N(Y)OO-ron, also known as neurones and nervous cells) are
responsive cells in the nervous system that process and transmit information by
electrochemical signalling. They are the core components of the brain, the vertebrate spinal
cord, the invertebrate ventral nerve cord, and the peripheral nerves. A number of
specialized types of neurons exist: sensory neurons respond to touch, sound, light and
numerous other stimuli affecting cells of the sensory organs that then send signals to the
spinal cord and brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and
cause muscle contractions and affect glands. Inter-neurons connect neurons to other
neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Neurons respond to stimuli, and communicate the
presence of stimuli to the central nervous system, which processes that information and
sends responses to other parts of the body for action. Neurons do not go through mitosis,
and usually cannot be replaced after being destroyed, although astrocytes have been
observed to turn into neurons as they are sometimes pluripotent.
Neuroscience For Kids: Types of Neurons (Nerve Cells) at
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/cells.html

The human body is made up of trillions of cells. Cells of the nervous system, called
nerve cells or neurons, are specialized to carry "messages" through an electrochemical

process. The human brain has approximately 100 billion neurons. To learn how neurons
carry messages, read about the action potential.
Neurons come in many different shapes and sizes. Some of the smallest neurons have cell
bodies that are only 4 microns wide. Some of the biggest neurons have cell bodies that are
100 microns wide. (Remember that 1 micron is equal to one thousandth of a millimeter!).
Neurons are similar to other cells in the body because:
1. Neurons are surrounded by a cell membrane.
2. Neurons have a nucleus that contains genes.
3. Neurons contain cytoplasm, mitochondria and other organelles.
4. Neurons carry out basic cellular processes such as protein synthesis and energy
production.
However, neurons differ from other cells in the body because:
1. Neurons have specialized extensions called dendrites and axons. Dendrites bring
information to the cell body and axons take information away from the cell body.
2. Neurons communicate with each other through an electrochemical process.
3. Neurons contain some specialized structures (for example, synapses) and chemicals
(for example, neurotransmitters).
The Neuron

One way to classify neurons is by the number of extensions that extend from the neuron's
cell body (soma).
Phosphorylation of SNAP-25 at Ser187 Mediates Enhancement of Exocytosis by a Phorbol
Ester in INS-1 Cells, by Yilong Shu,1,2 Xin Liu,2 Yan Yang,2 Masami Takahashi,4 and Kevin
D. Gillis1,2,3 at http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/28/1/21
Activation of diacylglycerol (DAG) signaling pathways with phorbol esters dramatically
enhances Ca2+-triggered exocytosis from both endocrine cells and neurons, however the
relevant targets of DAG are controversial. A possible effector mechanism for this signaling
pathway is phosphorylation of SNAP-25 (25 kDa synaptosome-associated protein) at
Ser187 by PKC. Here, we investigated the role of Ser187 in the enhancement of exocytosis
by the phorbol ester PMA (phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate). We used patch-clamp
measurements of membrane capacitance together with photorelease of caged-Ca2+ and
membrane depolarization to study exocytosis. Expression of the nonphosphorylatable
S187C SNAP-25 mutant did not attenuate the enhancement of exocytosis by PMA in either
bovine chromaffin cells or the INS-1 insulin-secreting cell line. To test the effects of
Ser187 mutations under conditions in which the endogenous SNAP-25 is disabled, we
expressed botulinum toxin serotype E to cleave SNAP-25 in INS-1 cells. Coexpression of a
toxin-resistant mutant (TR), but not wild-type SNAP-25, was able to rescue PMAmodulated exocytosis. Coexpression of the toxin with the TR-S187C SNAP-25 mutant was
able to completely block the enhancement of exocytosis by PMA in response to

photoelevation of [Ca2+]i to low M levels or to a depolarizing train. The phospho-mimetic

S187E mutation enhanced the small, fast burst of exocytosis evoked by photelevation of
Ca2+, but, like PMA, had smaller effects on exocytosis evoked by a depolarizing train. This
work supports the hypothesis that phosphorylation of Ser187 of SNAP-25 by PKC is a key
step in the enhancement of exocytosis by DAG.
HAPPYneuron brings you Brain Fitness through entertaining games that are fun and
scientifically developed and validated to challenge your brain and keep it in top gear at all
times. The comprehensive program stimulates your attention, language, memory, visualspatial and executive function skills. Get started with your Brain Fitness lifestyle. Try our
risk free seven day trial membership! Designed for people of any age, the HAPPYneuron
program minimizes the natural effects of brain aging by maximizing the brain's capacity to
learn and its ability to adapt to new information. The program effectiveness is optimized
through the availability of thousands of hours of fun and challenging brain games and
guided by a virtual personal coach.
At http://www.happy-neuron.com/
Quest to reverse motor neuron disease symptoms by Simon Midgley (The Times)
Mike Findley cannot lift a kettle to make a cup of tea, clap his hands or put his shirt
on without help. Three years ago he was diagnosed with motor neuron disease (MND).
The 63-year-old is suffering from a slow evolving form of progressive muscular atrophy
(PMA), one of several ways the disease manifests itself.
The illness has killed the nerves in his shoulders. This affects his ability to move
his arms, hands and fingers. Anything above the waist is very difficult, he says.
The retired union official and former postman, who lives with his wife Judith in
Redcar & Cleveland, is hoping that stem-cell research will lead to the development of
drugs to combat the disease, which afflicts about 5,000 people in the UK.
Christopher Shaw, professor of neurology and neurogenetics at Kings College
London, is hoping to use embryonic stem cells to make motor neuron cells in the
laboratory in order to identify the fundamental mechanisms of the disease and find drugs to
reverse those processes.
He can do this by injecting a known MND-causing gene mutant into embryonic
stem cells then turning them into motor neurons. Unfortunately, only two MND-causing
genes are known and they account for only 3 per cent of all cases.
An alternative is to use cloning techniques to convert MND patient skin cells (with
unknown gene defects) into embryonic stem cells then turn them into motor neurons.
Controversially, Shaw and other scientists believe that animal eggs, which have had
all their chromosomal DNA removed, should be used to make MND cells for research
because human eggs are rarely available.
The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Bill presently going through Parliament
will determine whether they will be allowed to mix human and animal material in this way.
Although the cells will be more than 99 per cent human, there is opposition on religious
and ethical grounds.
Shaw does not believe that another process called cellular therapy, which involves
making motor neuron cells in the lab then putting them back into the human body, is the
best way forward.

At
http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/specials/stemcell_research/article3904022.ec
e

Phentermine Diet Pill

Phentermine Diet Pill is the best weight loss medication. It is in the
Sympathomimetic family of appetite suppressants (used for the short-term
management of exogenous obesity.) When used in conjunction with diet, exercise, and
behavior therapy, Phentermine may help you to lose weight while you are learning
new ways to eat and to exercise.
Prevent overeating by reducing your appetite
Boost your metabolism so you become more active
Burn calories and fat 24 hours a day
Achieve rapid weight loss results
Mechanism of action
Phentermine, like many other prescription drugs, works with neurotransmitters in the
brain. It is a centrally-acting stimulant and is a constitutional isomer of
methamphetamine. It stimulates neuron bundles to release a particular group of
neurotransmitters known as catecholamines; these include dopamine, epinephrine (also
known as adrenalin), and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). The anorectic activity seen
with these compounds would thus seem likely due to this effect on the central nervous
system, which is consistent with current knowledge about central nervous system
systems and feeding behavior. This is the same mechanism of action as other stimulant
appetite suppressants such as diethylpropion, and phendimetrazine.
The neurotransmitters signal a fight-or-flight response in the body which, in turn, puts a
halt to the hunger signal. As a result, it causes a loss in appetite because the brain does
not receive the hunger message.
How to use Phentermine
Use Phentermine as directed by your doctor. Check the label on the medicine for
exact dosing instructions.
Take Phentermine about 30 minutes before a meal.
Take your last dose of Phentermine at least 4 to 6 hours before bedtime.
If you are taking Phentermine 1 time a day, take your dose in the morning.
If you miss a dose of Phentermine , take it as soon as possible. If it is after 12 pm
and you are taking Phentermine 1 time a day, or after 4 pm and you are taking it
more than 1 time a day, skip the missed dose and go back to your regular dosing
schedule. Do not take 2 doses at once.
At http://superdietpills.net/

Exercise 2: Analyse the two texts and create a domain diagram based on the
information provided.
The Court System
The lowest criminal courts are the Magistrates Courts, which deal with minor
offences. More serious cases, and ones appealed from the Magistrates Courts, are heard in
the Crown Court (Queens Bench Division). Cases are appealed to the Court of Appeal
(Criminal Division).
Civil cases at first instance are heard in the County Courts (for minor claims) or the
High Court, which is divided into three divisions: Queens Bench, Family and Chancery.
Cases may be appealed to the Court of Appeal (Civil Division). Cases may be appealed
from the County Court to the High Court.
The House of Lords is the supreme court of appeal. Its judicial functions are quite
separate from its legislative work, and cases are heard by up to 13 senior judges known as
Law Lords. The judicial work of the House of Lords is described on its web pages. The
Court Service web pages provide information on the other courts.
In addition to the courts there are specialised Tribunals, which hear appeals on decisions
made by various public bodies and Government departments, in areas such as employment,
immigration, social security, tax and land. The Court Service also contains information on
these.
There has been extensive reform of civil procedure in recent years. Following on
the publication of a major report on Access to Justice by Lord Woolf in 1996, a completely
new set of civil procedure rules were put into operation in 1999, as well as new legislation
for modernising the courts and legal services. A Criminal Courts Review is due to report on
reform of the criminal justice system at the end of 2000. The various reports, the new Civil
Procedure Rules and much else can be found on the Lord Chancellors Department
website.
At http://www.llrx.com/features/uk.htm
The Court System
Civil courts
Civil cases at first instance are heard in the County Courts (for minor claims) or the
High Court, which is divided into three divisions: Queen's Bench, Family and Chancery.
Cases may be appealed to the Court of Appeal (Civil Division). Cases may be appealed
from the County Court to the High Court.
The House of Lords is the supreme court of appeal. Its judicial functions are quite
separate from its legislative work, and cases are heard by up to 13 senior judges known as
the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, or Law Lords. It shares its function as the supreme
appellate court with. The judicial work of the House of Lords is described on its web
pages. The HMCS web pages provide information on the other courts. However the
Constitutional Reform Act 2005 (see Explanatory Notes) provides for the
establishment of a Supreme Court to replace the judicial function of the House of Lords
with an independent appointments system, thereby making a constitutional separation
between the legislature and the judiciary.
A further appellate court, sometimes omitted in a description of the system, is the
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which hears cases from the British overseas
territories and dependencies as well as some specialised domestic appeals. It also hears
cases concerning questions relating to the powers and functions of the devolved
legislatures. (See below). The 'devolution' function will be transferred to the new Supreme
Court.

In addition to the courts there are specialised Tribunals, which hear appeals on
decisions made by various public bodies and Government departments, in areas such as
employment, immigration, social security, tax and land. The Court Service also contains
information on these.
Her Majesty's Court Service (HMCS) is an agency of the DCA responsible for
administration of the court system, and was established in 2005 under the Courts Act 2003,
bringing together the separate agencies previously responsible for court administration.
There has been extensive reform of civil procedure in recent years. Following on the
publication of a major report on Access to Justice by Lord Woolf in 1996, a completely
new set of Civil Procedure Rules were put into operation in 1999, as well as new
legislation for modernising the courts and legal services. The Legal Services Commission
was created under the Access to Justice Act 1999 to provide a Community Legal Service
and Criminal Defence Service and administer legal aid.
Criminal courts
Criminal cases are heard at first instance in the Magistrates' Courts, with more
serious ones being hears in the Crown Court. Appeals are heard in the Court of Appeal
Criminal Division. The Review of the Criminal Courts by Sir Robin Auld was published
in 2001, as a result of which consolidated Criminal Procedure Rules were introduced in
2005. The Criminal Justice System website contains more information.
At http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/united_kingdom.htm#courts