ECNG2013

LECTURE
Proof Techniques
Indirect Proofs
Contradiction and Contraposition
In direct proof, you start with the hypothesis of a statement and make one
deduction about another until you reach a conclusion. Indirect proofs are more
roundabout.
For example Suppose you can show that the assumption that a given statement is
true leads logically to a contradiction or impossibility. Then the assumption must be
false.
Example
Prove that there is no greatest integer.
Proof
Assume that there is a greatest integer N. Then N n for every integer N.
Let M = N + 1. Now M must be an integer since it is the sum of two integers. Also M
> N. This leads to a contradiction ; N is the greatest integer and N is not the
greatest integer.
Hence the assumption or supposition must be false, and it must be concluded that
there is no greatest integer.
Method of proof by contradiction
1. Suppose that the statement to be proved is false.
2. Show that this supposition leads logically to a contradiction.
3. Conclude that the statement to be proved is true.
Example 2.
Prove the theorem that the sum of any rational umber and any irrational number is
irrational.
Proof
Suppose that there is a rational number r and an irrational number s such that r
+ s is rational.

a
b

and r s
s
a
b

c
d

c
d

for some int egers a, b, c, d with b 0 and d 0

c
d

ab

bc ad
bd

m
n

where m and n are integers and n 0 since products and differences

of integers are integers and b.d 0.

Thus by the definition of a rational number, s is rational which contradicts the

supposition that s is irrational. Hence the supposition is false and the theorem is
true.

Contraposition.
Note. The Contrapositive of a conditional statement ,if p then q is if not q then
not p. A statement and its contrapositive are logically equivalent.
Examples
Statement: If today is Easter, then tomorrow is Monday
Contrapositive : If tomorrow is not Monday then today is not Easter.
te
Statement : If I am a man then I could drive
Contrapositive: If I cannot drive then I am not a man
Method of proof by contraposition
1. Express the statement to be proved in the form if P(x) then Q(x)
2. Rewrite the statement in contrapositive form i.e If Q(x) is false, then P(x) is
false.
3. Prove contrapositive by direct proof.
4. Conclude that statement is true .

Example: Prove that for all integers n, if n 2 is even then n is even.

Proof
The contrapositive of the statement is : If n is not even (n is odd) then n 2 is not
even ( n 2 is odd).
Suppose n is an odd integer
n 2k 1 for some in k
n 2 (2k 1) 2
n 2 4k 2 4k 1
n 2 2(2k 2 2k ) 1 2 p 1 where p 2k 2 2k is an int eger

Since k is an integer and the sums and products of integers are integers.
It follows that n 2 is odd by the definition . Hence statement is true
Note
The proof by contraposition and the proof by contradiction are very similar. In a
proof by contraposition, the statement , for all x in D , if P(x) then Q(x) is proved by
giving a direct proof of the equivalent statement , for all x in D, if not Q(x) then not
P(x)..

Exactly the same sequence of steps can be used as the heart of a proof by
contradiction of a given statement.
The only difference is the context in which steps are written down. Using
contradiction, you suppose that there is an x in D such that P(x) and not Q(x). You
follow the steps to deduce that not P(x).
Example2
Prove by contradiction that

2 is irrational

Proof
Suppose that 2 is rational.

2m

2m

n where m and n are integers and where m and n have no common factors.

n2

m 2 2n 2

(1)

Therefore m is even by the definition of even and m is also even as shown in

earlier proof.
Hence m = 2k
2

m 2 ( 2k ) 2 4k 2
2 n 4k
2

n 2k
2

( 2)

from (1) and ( 2)

n 2 is therefore even and consequently n is even

Therefore both m and n have a common factor of 2. But this contradicts the
supposition that m and n have no common factors. Hence the supposition is false
and the theorem is true.

Which proof should you use?

In many instances both types are possible. Try direct first. If that does not succeed
look for a counterexample. If search for a counterexample is unsuccessful, look for
an indirect method (contradiction or contraposition).