EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

Instructor: Dragica Vasileska

Department of Electrical Engineering
Arizona State University

Bipolar Junction Transistor

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.

Introduction
IV Characteristics of a BJT
Breakdown in BJT
Geometry Effects in BJT

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

1. Introduction

Original
point-contact
transistor
(1947)

Inventors of the transistor:

William Shockley, John Bardeen
and Walter Brattain

First grown transistor (1950)

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

(A) Terminology and symbols

PNP - transistor

NPN - transistor

E
+

p+

VEB

C
+

VCB
B

n+
VBE

p
+ +
B

VBC

Both, pnp and npn transistors can be thought as two very

closely spaced pn-junctions.
The base must be small to allow interaction between the two
pn-junctions.
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

 There are four regions of operation of a BJT transistor

(example for a pnp BJT):
VEB
Forward active region

Saturation region

(emitter-base FB, collector-base RB) (both junctions forward biased)

VCB
Inverted active region

Cutoff region

(both junctions reverse biased) (emitter-base RB, collector-base FB)

Since it has three leads, there are three possible amplifier

types:
C
B
E

p+

VEB
B

(a) Common-base

C
VCB

VEB

p
n
p+

B
VEC
VCB
E

(b) Common-emitter

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

p+
n
p

VEC

(c) Common-collector

(B) Qualitative description of transistor operation

p+

IEp {

ICp

IEn

ICn
IB1

IB3
IB2

Icn

IEn

EC

Emitter doping is much larger than

base doping
Base doping larger than collector
doping
Current components:
I E I Ep I En
I C I Cp I Cn
I B I E I C I B1 I B 2 I B 3

EF
EV

IEp

ICp

IB1 = current from electrons being

back injected into the forward-biased
emiter-base junction
IB2 = current due to electrons that
replace the recombined electrons in
the base
IB3 = collector current due to
thermally-generated electrons in the
collector that go in the base

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

(C) Circuit definitions

Base transport factor T:
T I Cp / I Ep

Ideally it would be equal to unity

(recombination in the base reduces its value)

Emitter injection efficiency :

I Ep
I Cp I Ep

I Ep
IE

Approaches unity if emitter doping is

much larger than base doping

Alpha-dc:
dc

I Cp
I C I Cp I Cn

T
I E I Ep I En I Ep I En

Beta-dc:
dc

IC
IC
dc

I B I E I C 1 dc

Current gain is large when dc

approaches unity

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

Collector-reverse saturation current:

I BC 0 I Cn I C I Cp I Cn dc I E I BC 0

Collector current in common-emitter configuration:

I C dc I C I B I BC 0

dc
I BC 0
IC
IB
1 dc
1 dc
I C dc I B I EC 0
I EC 0 1 dc I BC 0

Large current gain capability:

Small base current IB forces the E-B junction to be forward
biased and inject large number of holes which travel through
the base to the collector.

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

(D) Types of transistors

Discrete (double-diffused)
p+np transistor

Emitter Base

5 m
200 m

Integrated-circuit
n+pn transistor

6 m
200 m

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

Collector

2. IV-Characteristics of a BJT
(A) General Considerations
Approximations made for derivation of the ideal IV-characteristics of a
BJT:
(1) no recombination in the base quasi-neutral region
(2) no generation-recombination in the E-B and C-B
depletion regions
(3) one-dimensional current flow
(4) no external sources
Notation:

p+
NAE = NE
Ln = LE
Dn = DE
np0 = nE0
n = E

n
NDB = NB
Lp = LB
Dp = DB
pn0 = pB0
p = B

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

p
NAC = NC
Ln = LC
Dn = DC
np0 = nC0
n = C

 The carrier concentration variation for various regions of operation is

shown below:
E-B
C-B
pB(0)

saturation

nC(0)

nE(0)

pB(W)

Forward
active p

nE(x)

nC(x)

pB(x)

nC0

B0

nE0

pB(W)

x
0

Cut-off

Assuming long emitter and collector regions, the solutions of the

minority electrons continuity equation in the emitter and collector are
of the form:

VEB / VT

n E ( x" ) n E 0 e
nC ( x ' ) nC 0

VCB / VT

1e

1 e

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

x" / LE

x ' / LC

 For the base region, the steady-state solution of the continuity equation
for minority holes, of the form:
2

d p B
dx

p B
2
LB

using the boundary conditions:

VEB / VT

p B (0) p B 0 e

VCB / VT

1 , p B (W ) p B 0 e

is given by:

sinh(W x ) / LB VEB / VT
p B ( x ) p B 0
e
1
sinhW / LB

sinh x / LB VCB / VT
pB0
e
1
sinhW / LB

Note: The presence of the sinh() terms means that recombination in

the base quasi-neutral region is allowed.
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

 Once we have the variation of nE(x), pB(x) and nC(x), we can

calculate the corresponding diffusion current components:
E-B
IE=InE(0)+IpB(0)

C-B
IC=InC(0)+IpB(W)

IpB(0)
IpB(W)

InE(x)

InE(0)

IpB(x)
InC(0)

InC(x)

IB2=IpB(0)-IpB(W)

x
0

W
0
Base recombination current

Expressions for various diffusion current components:

dnC
d n E
I nE (0" ) AqDE
, I nC (0' ) AqDC
dx" x"0"
dx '

d p B
I pB (0) AqDB
dx

dp B
, I pB (W ) AqDB
dx
x 0

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

x ' 0'

x W

 Final results for the emitter, base and collector currents:

IE

IC

IB

2
Aqni

VEB / VT
DE
DB

coth(W / LB ) e
1
LE N E LB N B

Aqni2

DB
1
V /V
e CB T 1
LB N B sinh(W / LB )

2
Aqni

DB
1
V /V
e EB T 1
LB N B sinh(W / LB )

2
Aqni

VCB / VT
DC
DB

coth(W / LB ) e
1
LC N C LB N B

2
Aqni

DE
DB

LE N E LB N B

VEB / VT
1
1
coth(W / LB ) sinh(W / L ) e

2
Aqni

DC
VCB / VT
DB
1

coth(W / LB )
1
e

sinh(W / LB )
LC N C LB N B

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

 For short-base diodes, for which W/LB<<1, we have:

x2
x
1

cosh( x ) 1 ; sinh( x ) x; coth( x )

2
sinh( x ) 2
Therefore, for short-base diodes, the base current simplifies to:
IB2
IB1

IB

2
Aqni

DE
DB
W VEB / VT

1
e
LE N E LB N B 2 LB

2
Aqni

DC
DB
W VCB / VT

1
e
LC N C LB N B 2 LB

-IB3

IB2

As W/LB0 (or B ), the recombination base current IB2 0 .

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

(B) Current expressions for different biasing regimes

Forward-active region:
E-B junction is forward biased, C-B junction is reversebiased:
IE

2
Aqni

IC

Aqni2

IB

2
Aqni

VEB / VT
DE
DB
coth(W / LB ) e

I En I Ep
LE N E LB N B

DB
1
VEB / VT
e
I Cp
LB N B sinh(W / LB )
DE
DB cosh(W / LB ) 1 VEB / VT

LE N E LB N B sinh(W / LB )

2
Aqni

DC
DB cosh(W / LB ) 1

LC N C LB N B sinh(W / LB )

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

These terms vanish if

there is no recombination in the base

 Graphical description of various current components:

p+
n
p

IE

IEp

}I

IEn

ICn
IB1

IB3

Cp

IC

Recombination in the base

is ignored in this diagram.

IB
The emitter injection efficiency is given by:

I Ep
I Ep I En

LE N E DB
LE N E DB
coth(W / LB )
LB N B DE
WN B DE

short
LE N E DB
LE N E DB
1
coth(W / LB ) base 1
LB N B DE
WN B DE

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

 The base transport factor is given by:

I Cp
I Ep

1
W

1 2
cosh(W / L B ) short
2 LB
base

Common-emitter current gain:

LE N E DB
coth(W / LB )
LB N B DE
LE N E DB
dc

short WN D
LE N E DB
2
B E
1 2
coth(W / LB ) sinh (W / 2LB ) base
LB N B DE
GB = WNB (Gummel number)
For a more general case of a non-uniform doping in the base, the
Gummel number is given by:
W

G B N B ( x )dx

Typical values of GB:

0
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

Saturation region:
E-B and C-B junctions are both forward biased:
IE

VEB / VT
DE
DB

coth(W / LB ) e
LE N E LB N B

2
Aqni

IC

2
Aqni

DB
V /V
coth(W / LB )e CB T I En I Ep - I Ep'
LB N B

2
Aqni

DB
1
V /V
e EB T
LB N B sinh(W / LB )

2
Aqni

VCB / VT
DC
DB

coth(W / LB ) e
I Cp I Cn I Cp '
LC N C LB N B

I B I E IC

Base current much larger

than in forward-active regime

I Cn I B 3
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

 Graphical description of various current components:

p+
n
p

IE

IEp

}I

} ICp

IEp {
IEn

Cp

IC

ICn

{
IB3

IB1

Recombination in the base

is ignored in this diagram.

IB
Important note:
As VCB becomes more positive, the number of holes injected from
the collector into the base and afterwards in the emitter increases.
The collector hole flux is opposite to the flux of holes arriving from
the emitter, and the two currents subtract, which leads to a reduction of
the emitter as well as the collector currents.
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

Cutoff region:
E-B and C-B junctions are both reverse biased. For shortbase diode with no recombination in the base, this leads to:
IE

Aqni2

DE
2 DC
I En , I C Aqni
I Cn
LE N E
LC N C

I B I E IC

2
Aqni

DC
DE
2 DC

Aqni

LC N C
LE N E LC N C

p+

IE

IC

IEn

ICn
IB1

IB

IB3

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

Recombination in the base

is ignored in this diagram.

(C) Form of the input and output characteristics

Common-base configuration:
IE

IC

Forward active

saturation

VCB<-3VT

IE0
VCB=0
IBC0

VEB

cutoff

IE=0
VBC

Common-emitter configuration:
IC

IB

VCB= 0

Forward active

saturation

VEC= 0

IB0

VEC > 3VT

VEB

IEC0
cutoff

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

IB=0
VEC

 Note on the collector-base reverse saturation current:

C

E
ICn

VBC>0
B
IB=IBC0

VBC

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

Minority electrons in
the collector that are
within LC from the C-B
junction are collected
by the high electric
field into the base.

 Why is IEC0 much larger than IBC0?

E

IEn

ICn

IEp

ICp

C
VEC > 0

B IB=0
IE = IEC0

I EC 0 I Cn I Cp I BC 0 I Ep dc 1I BC 0 , dc

I Ep
I Cn

The electrons injected from the collector into the base and
then into the emitter forward bias the E-B junction .
This leads to large hole injection from the emitter into the base and
then into the collector.
In summary, relatively small number of electrons into the emitter
forces injection of large number of holes into the base (transistor
action) which gives IEC0 >> IBC0 .
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

(D) Ebers-Moll equations

The simplest large-signal equivalent circuit of an ideal (intrinsic) BJT
consists of two diodes and two current-controlled current sources:
IF

IR

IE
RIR

VEB / VT

IC I F I F 0 e

I R I R0

FIF

VCB / VT

1
1

IB
Using the results for IE and IC, we can calculate various coefficient:

VEB / VT

IE IF0 e

1 R I R0 e

VEB / VT

IC F I F 0 e

VCB / VT

1 I R0

VCB / VT

The reciprocity relation for a two-port network requires that:

F I F 0 R I R0
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

(E) Early effect

In deriving the IV-characteristics of a BJT, we have assumed that dc,
dc, IBC0 and IEC0 to be constant and independent of the applied voltage.
If we consider a BJT in the forward active mode, when the reverse bias
of the C-B junction increases, the width of the C-B depletion region
increases, which makes the width of the base quasi-neutral region Weff
to decrease:

Weff W (metallurgical) xdeb xdcb

The common-emitter current gain, taking into account the effective
width of the base quasi-neutral region (assuming =1) is then given by:

dc

1
T 1 Weff LB
2

The common-emitter current gain can be approximated with:

dc

LB
dc

2
W
1 dc
eff

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

 Graphical illustration of the Early (base-width modulation) effect:

Weff
Weff

B
If we approximate the collector current with the hole current:

I C I Cp

2
Aqni W
B

DB

VEB / VT

2
Aqni

N B ( x )dx

DB
VEB / VT
e
GB (WB )

we find:

I C
IC
n(WB ) WB
IC

VBC
G B VBC V A

Early voltage

Since WB/ VBC <0, we have that IC/ VBC > 0, i.e. IC increases.
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

 Empirically, it is found that a linear interpolation of the collector

current dependence on VEC is adequate in most cases:

I C dc I B I EC 0 1 VEC / V A dc I B I EC 0 1 VEC / V A
qGBWB
where the Early voltage is given by: V A k A
k s 0
Graphical illustration of the Early effect:
IC

VEC
-|VA|

Another effect contributing

to the slope is due to generation
currents in the C-B junction:
Generated holes drift to the
collector.
Generated electrons drift into
the base and then the emitter,
thus forcing much larger hole
injection (transistor action).

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

(F) Deviations from the ideal model:

There are several factors that lead to deviation from the ideal
model predictions:
Breakdown effects
Geometry effects
Generation-recombination in the depletion regions
3. Breakdown in BJTs
There are two important mechanisms for breakdown in
BJTs:
(1) punch-through breakdown
(2) avalanche breakdown (similar to the one in pnjunctions)
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

 The punch-through breakdown occurs when the reverse-bias

C-B voltage is so large that the C-B and the E-B depletion
regions merge.
The emitter-base barrier height for holes is affected by VBC ,
i.e. small increase in VBC is needed for large increase in IC .
VBC increasing

p+

Note: Punch-through voltage is

usually much larger than the
avalanche breakdown voltage.

The mechanism of avalanche breakdown in BJTs depend

on the circuit configuration (common-emitter or commonbase configuration).
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

 For a common-base configuration, the avalanche breakdown

in the C-B junction (open emitter) BVBC is obtained via the
maximum (breakdown) electric field FBR (~300 kV/cm for
Si and 400 kV/cm for GaAs):
BVBC

2
k s 0 FBR

2q

2
k s 0 FBR

1
1

2 qN C
N B NC

The increase in current for voltages higher than BVBC is

reflected via the multiplication factor in the current expression. It equals one under normal operating conditions, and
exceeds unity when avalanche breakdown occurs.
When the emitter is open, the multiplication factor for the
C-B junction is:
1
M CB

mb
V

BC

1
BVBC

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

 For a common-emitter configuration, the collector-emitter

breakdown voltage BVEC is related to BVBC :
I E IC

Open base configuration

M BC I BC 0
I C M BC dc I E I BC 0 I C
M EC I EC 0
1 dc M BC

Multiplication factor

M EC
50
40

M BC (1 dc )

BVEC BVBC 1 dc 1 / mb
1 dc M BC
MEC

MBC

Much smaller than BVBC

due to transistor action.

30
20
10
20

40

Reverse voltage

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

IC

IC

VEC
BVBC0
Common-base output
characteristics

VBC

BVEC0
Common-emitter output
characteristics

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

4. Geometry effects
The geometry effects include:
(1) Bulk and contact resistance effects
(2) Current crowding effect
B

E
p+
p

n+

Base contacts

p+

n
n+
collector

Emitter contacts

Base current flows in the direction parallel to the E-B

junction, which gives rise to base spreading resistance.
When VBB is much larger than VT, most of the emitter
current is concentrated near the edges of the E-B junction.
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

Generation-recombination in the depletion region

Current crowding, high-level
injection series resistence

ln(IC)
ln(IB)
IC

dc

IB

Reverse-biased C-B junction

adds a generation current to IC.

Forward-biased E-B junction

has recombination current. IC is
g-r current
not affected by the recombinaVEB tion in the E-B junction.
dc
Current
dc modification:
crowding or rC
Low-current levels
recombination current
large current levels
g-r
high-level injection and
series resistance
ln(IC)
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I