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Sensor - Week 05 - Strain Gauge and Piezoelectric PDF
Sensor - Week 05 - Strain Gauge and Piezoelectric PDF
Strain Gauges
Strain gauge - The main tool in sensing force.
Strain gauges, measure strain
R
L/A
dR = Ss
R
Ss is the sensitivity of the strain gauge
Also known as the gauge factor
Strain Gauge
For any given strain gauge the gauge factor is a
constant
= F = EdL = E
A
= stress [N/m2]
E = Youngs modulus of the material (modulus of
elasticity) [N/m2 ]
= dL/L = strain
Strain gauges
Strain gauges come in many forms and types.
Any material, combination of materials or
physical configuration that changes its
resistance due to strain constitutes a strain
gauge.
Will restrict our discussion to two types that
material
negligible temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR).
Constantan (Cu60Ni40)
Nichrome (Ni80Cr20)
Manganine
(Cu84Mn12 Ni4)
Nickel
Chromel (Ni65Fe25Cr10)
Platinum
Elinvar
(Fe55Ni36Cr8Mn0.5)
Platinum-Iridium
(Pt80Ir20)
Platinum Rhodium
(Pt90Rh10)
Bismuth
Expansion
coeff.
[10/K]
Maximum
temperatrure
[C]
12.5
18
17
400
1000
-12
2.5
5.1
3.8
0.11
0.9
0.1
0.84
6000
300
2450
300
12
15
8.9
9
800
1300
6.0
0.36
1700
8.9
1300
4.8
0.23
1500
8.9
22
1.19
300
13.4
45 degree rosette
membrane rosette
gauge:
gauges.
Semiconductor strain gauges
usually smaller than most resistive strain gauges
can be made with higher resistances.
their use is limited to low temperatures
can be much less expensive than metal strain gauges.
often part of another device
Additional errors
Due the bonding process
Thinning of materials due to cycling.
Most strain gauges are rated for:
given number of cycles (i.e. 106 or 107 cycles),
maximum strain (3% is typical for conducting strain
Bridge Circuits
Cantilever
gauge.
Force sensor
Force sensor
PIEZOELECTRIC
Acoustic waves
Sound waves are longitudinal elastic waves.
The pressure wave as it propagates, changes the
pressure along the direction of its propagation.
Example: acoustic waves, impinging on our
eardrums will push or pull on the eardrum to
affect hearing.
Any wave, including acoustic waves have three
fundamental properties:
Frequency, wavelength and speed of propagation
Acoustic waves
The frequency, f, of a wave is the number of
variations of the wave per second.
Normally defined for harmonic waves and is
understood to be the number of cycles of the
harmonic (sinusoidal for example) wave.
For example, if we were to count the number of
Acoustic waves
Wavelength, l is the distance a wave
propagates in one cycle.
In the example of the ocean wave the
wavelength is the distance between two crests
(or two valleys)
Velocity, c, of the wave is the speed with which
Concept of wavelength
Acoustic waves
Waves can be transverse waves, longitudinal
waves or a combination of the two.
Transverse waves are those waves which cause a
change in amplitude in directions transverse to
the direction of propagation of the wave.
Example: a tight string vibrates perpendicular to
Acoustic waves
Generation of longitudinal
waves:
Example: piston in a tube
Example: diaphragm in air
Effect: changes in volume
cause changes in pressure.
pV
V0
m/s
p0
0
m/s
Speed of sound
p = P0sin(kx t)
p is pressure in the medium,
P0 the pressure amplitude of the wave
k is a constant.
The wave propagates in the x direction
f is the angular frequency
P0 = k0c2ym
ym is the maximum displacement of a particle during
compression or expansion in the wave.
The constant k is called the wave number or the phase
constant and is given as:
k = 2 =
c
changes as follows
p = P0ex sin(kx t)
Attenuation causes loss of energy as the wave propagates
Dissipates energy of the wave
c
sint = c2 sini
1
Standing waves
Standing waves
Example of standing waves:
vibrating tight strings
reflections occur at the
P = d
d is the piezoelectric constant,
the stress in the material.
C
m2
e = gP
e is strain (dimensionless), g is called the constant
coefficient ( is permittivity)
g=d
dij
or: gij =
ij
k 2 = dgE
Crystals - piezoelectric
properties
Table 7.2. Piezoelectric coefficients and other propertiesin monocrystals
Crystal
Piezoelectric
Permittivity, ij
Coupling coefficient
Ceramics - piezoelectric
properties
d15=380, d31=119,
d33=282
d31=67, d33=167
d31=49, d33=160
0.47
0.28
0.45
Polymers - piezoelectric
properties
d31=23, d33=-33
d31=11, d33=-38
Coupling
coefficient
kmax
0.14
0.28
Piezoelectric devices
A piezoelectric device is built as a
Qx = d11Fx
Voltage developed across it is:
Qx d11Fx d11Fx d
V=
=
=
C
C
A
d = thickness
A = area
Piezoelectric devices
The thicker the device the larger the voltage.
A smaller area has the same effect.
Output is directly proportional to force (or pressure
which is force/area).
Most common piezoelectric materials for sensors
PZT (lead-zirconite-titanium-oxide)
Polymer films such as PVDF (PolyVinyliDeneFluoride).
Barium Titanate (BiTiO3) in crystal or ceramic form
Crystalline quartz are used for some applications.
Thin films of ZnO on semiconductors
Piezoelectric resonator
Equivalent circuit of a
piezoelectric material.
This circuit has two
resonances a parallel
resonance and a series
resonance (called
antiresonance)
Piezoelectric resonator
The resonant frequencies are given as:
fs =
1
2 LC
fp =
1
2 LC C0/ C + C0
Piezoelectric resonator
The relation between the two frequencies is:
fp = fs 1 + m
The larger the ratio m, the larger the separation
between frequencies.
The resistance R in the equivalent circuit acts as a
damping (loss) factor. This is associated with the
Quality factor of the piezoelectric material:
Q=1
R
L
C
Piezoelectric actuators
One of the first actuator has been in use in
analog clocks for decades.
Essentially a cantilever beam made of a
piezoelectric crystal (quartz is common) that
engages a geared wheel.
When a pulse is connected across the beam it
Piezoelectric actuators
Other actuators have been designed which can move
Linear piezoelectric
actuator
Stacked piezoelectric
actuators
Individual elements, each with its own electrodes can be
Stacked piezoelectric
actuator
Saw devices
Surface waves or Rayleigh waves.
Surface waves propagate on the surface of an
elastic medium with little effect on the bulk of
the medium
Have properties which are significantly different
than longitudinal waves
The most striking difference is their much slower
speed of propagation.
Propagation of surface waves is nondispersive
Saw devices
The exact definition of Rayleigh wave is a wave that
SAW devices
Generation of surface waves:
In a thick sample, one can set up a surface wave
by a process of wave conversion.
A longitudinal wave device is used and energy
coupled through a wedge at an angle to the
surface.
At the surface of the medium there will be both a
shear wave and a surface wave
This is an obvious solution but not necessarily
the optimal.
Saw devices
A more efficient method: apply metallic strips on the
SAW generator
SAW devices
For example, a SAW device has a frequency of 400 Mhz.
The speed of propagation in a piezoelectric is of the
SAW devices
The comblike structure generates sound
SAW Resonator
By far the most common use of surface acoustic
waves (SAW) is in SAW resonators, filters and
delay lines.
SAW Resonator
The input port establishes a surface wave
The wave is reflected by the grooves on each
side.
These reflection interfere with each other
establishing a resonance which depends on the
grating of groves separation.
Only those signals that interfere constructively
will establish a signal in the output port, the
others cancel.
SAW Resonator
This device is popular as the element that
defines the oscillator frequency in
communication
A very small device can easily operate at low
frequencies and can operate at frequencies
above the limit of conventional oscillators.
The device may also be viewed as a very narrow
band filter and
This is in fact another of its uses.
The basis of most sensors is a delay line
SAW Resonator
The device on the left generates a surface wave
This is detected after a delay in the device on the
right.
The delay depends on the distance between the
devices and, because the wavelength is usually
small, the delay can be long.
Adding an amplifier in the feedback makes this
an oscillator with frequency dependent on the
delay.
SAW Resonator
It is based on a delay line in which the delay is influenced
by the stimulus.
An essentially identical sensor is shown in Figure 7.46
which has two identical delay lines and the output is
differential.
One line is used as the proper sensor, the second as a
reference to cancel common-mode effects such as
temperature.
In most cases, the delay time is not measured but rather,
a feedback amplifier is connected (positive feedback)
which causes the device to resonate at a frequency
established by the time delay
SAW sensor
SAW sensor
SAW Resonator
The stimuli that can be measured are many.
First, the speed of sound is temperature dependent.
Temperature changes both the physical length of
c = c0 1 + T T0
SAW Resonator
These two terms are contradicting in that both
increase and hence the delay and oscillator
frequency are a function of the difference between
them.
The change in frequency with temperature is:
f = T
f
SAW Resonator
In sensing pressure, the delay in propagation is
due to stress in the piezoelectric as indicated
above.
Measurement of displacement, force and
acceleration are done by measuring the strain
(pressure) produced in the sensor.
Many other stimuli can be measured including
radiation (through the temperature rise), voltage
(through the stress it produces through the
electric field) and so on.
QCM Sensor
Sauerbrey
-C 0
C1
C 0'
f 2
m
q q A
f q2
R1
Kanazawa - Gordon
L1
fl f q 3/ 2
ll
q q
Frequency Response
Impedance
1000000
100000
Impedance
10000
1000
100
10
1
9950000
9960000
9970000
9980000
9990000
10000000
10010000
Freqeuncy
Impedance
Impedance
10020000
10030000
10040000
10050000
f in Hz
-50
-100
50
100
Time in s
150
200
TSM-Sensor
Quartz Loading
Cq
Rq
C0
ImZ L
f f 0
Z q
R 2f 0 L1
Lq
fl f 3 / 2
Liquid
Zl
ReZ L
Z q
Gl Zl 1 j
ll
2
ll
q q
0
Rl
8K 2C0
ll
f 0 q q
500
-1k
400
-2k
300
-3k
200
-4k
100
-5k
R/
f / Hz
f & R
10
20
Zeit / s
30
range ends,
Therefore ultrasonic sensor (i.e. microphone) or
actuator for the near ultrasound range should be
quite similar to an acoustic sensor or actuator.
40 kHz ultrasonic
transmitter/receiver for
ranging
Ultrasonic sensors
Scope of ultrasonic sensing is very wide.
Ultrasound is much better suited for use in solids
and liquids (higher velocities, lower attenuation)
Support waves other than longitudinal which
allow additional flexibility ultrasonics
shear waves,
surface waves
Ultrasonic sensors
Most ultrasonic sensors and actuators are based on
piezoelectric materials
Some are based on magnetostrictive materials
A particularly important property of piezoelectric
materials that makes them indispensable in ultrasound is
their ability to oscillate at a fixed, sharply defined
frequency called the resonant frequency.
The resonant frequency of a piezoelectric crystal (or
ceramic element) depends on the material itself, its
effective mass, strain and physical dimensions and is also
influenced by temperature, pressure and the like.
Ultrasonic resonator
Resonance is important is two ways.
At resonance the amplitude of mechanical
distortion is highest
In receive mode, the signal generated is largest
Means the sensor is most efficient at resonance.
Ultrasonic sensor
The piezoelectric element is rigidly attached to the front of the
Specification sheet
Pulse-echo operation
All ultrasonic sensors are dual they can
transmit or receive.
In many applications, like the example of range
Pulse-echo operation
This reflection is an indication of the existence of the discontinuity
Amplitude of the reflection is a function of the size of the
discontinuity.
The exact location of the discontinuity can be found from the time it
takes the waves to propagate to and from the discontinuity.
Figure 7.32 shows an example of finding the location/size of a defect
in a piece of metal.
The front and back surfaces are seen, usually as large reflections
while the defect is usually smaller.
Its location can be easily detected.
The same idea can be used to create an image of a baby in the womb
and for position sensing in industry.
case, the distance and angle of the sensors is known and the
transmit time, say downstream is:
T=
D
c + vf cos
c speed of sound
vf fluid speed
Magnetostrictive sensors
In air or in fluids, piezoelectric sensors are best.
In solids there is an alternative magnetostriction.
These sensors are collectively called
magnetostrictive ultrasonic sensors
Used at lower frequencies (about 100 kHz) to
generate higher intensity waves.
All that is necessary is to attach a coil to the
material and drive it at the required frequency.
The field generated in the material generates
stress which generates an ultrasonic wave
EMATs
An even simpler method is to generate an ac
Structure of EMATs