Inductive methods

http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Inductive_methods (retrieved on 26 Jun 2011)

What is the Inductive Method?

The inductive method, also referred to as the scientific method, is a process of using observations to
develop general priciples about a specific subject. A group of similar specimens, events, or subjects are
first oberved and studied; finding from the observations are then used to make broad statements about
the subjects that were examined. These statements may then become laws of nature or theories.
An Example of the Inductive Method Is:
Extensive observations of many species of land-dwelling turtles reveals that the observed turtles have
shells, lay eggs, and eat a diet of plants as well as insects. From this, it could be induced that all land
turtles have shells, lay eggs and eat plants and insects. The data gathered from
observing some examples of land turtles is applied as a general rule about all land turtles.

How is the Inductive Method Used in the Classroom?

The inductive method is deeply entrenched in Science education. Traditionally science courses were
taught deductively, with the teacher teaching the students the facts and theory, then moving to textbook
exercises and finally application. Using the inductive method, the teacher presents the students with a
specific challenge or problem, such as an experiment that needs to be interpreted, or a real-world
problem that needs to be solved. The students must then use their base-knowledge to investigate, test,
analyze and come to their own conclusion or solution. The inductive method, which is commonly
interpreted in schools as the scientific method is widely used as a guide for observation and inquiry based
learning. School Science Fairs universally adhere to inductive methods as a guideline for student
investigation into Science. In Science classrooms, students are often guided through the process of
induction by the following steps:
The Inductive (Scientific) Method

State the Question: What information do you wish to obtain?

Make Observations: Gather information that will help answer your questions by researching,
making, and recording direct observations of the subject

Form a Hypothesis: After gathering an adequate amount of information, apply what you have
observed to form an educated guess or prediction of what the answer to your question is

Test: Test your hypothesis by performing an experiment that includes a variable

Analyze: Examine the results of your experiment to understand what they imply

Draw a Conclusion: Based on the interpretation of your results, develop a general principle as
an answer to your question.

Below is an Example of How the Above Steps of Inductive Reasoning Might be Applied in Science
Classroom:

State the Question: What type of artificial light will cause plants to grow the most: red, blue,
green, or normal white light?

Make Observations: Plants observed growing under normal white house lights often appear
green, leafy, sturdy and healthy. However, plants grown in indoor white light usually don't appear as
large or as healthy as plants that grow outdoors in natural sunlight. After reading about natural
sunlight, I have found that the sun contains high amounts of red light.

Form a Hypothesis: Based on my observations of plants already growing under two different
types of light, I predict that plants grown under red light will grow the most, because red light is
closest to natural sunlight.

Test: As a test, a few plants are grown from seed under entirely red, blue, green, or white light.
Plants are placed in the same amounts of soil, receive the same amount of water, and grow in
identical environments. The only difference between the growth conditions of the plants is the light.

Analyze: The plants grown under red light were the largest, leafiest, and sturdiest, followed by
plants grown under white light, blue light, and green light.

Draw a Conclusion: Based on the results from my tests and observations, I can conclude
that: Red light causes plants to undergo the most growth.

Types of Inductive Teaching and Learning

Inductive teaching methods come in many forms and with many names. We have already mentioned
inquiry-based and discovery learning. Besides those there are problem-based learning, project-based
learning, case-based learning and just-in-time learning.

Inquiry-based learning: Students are presented with a challenge which will require knowledge
that has not been completely covered. The challenge may come in a question that needs a solution,
an observation that needs to explained, a data set that must be analyzed or a hypothesis that must
be tested.

Discovery learning: Students are presented with a challenge and left to work out the solution on
their own. (Bruner 1961, French 2006) Students learn to use trial and error to analyze and resolve
their findings. The instructor may provide limited feedback. In these situations, this process is referred
to as "Guided Discovery."

Problem-based learning: As the name suggests, the students are presented with a real-world
problem that needs to be solved. Problem-based learning generally incorporates collaborative
learning by placing the students into teams. Collectively they formulate and evaluate their various
solutions, select the best choice and present their argument for that solution. In problem-based
learning students have not previously received the necessary background instruction and emphasis is
not on a correct answer but on the investigative process.

Project-based learning: Students are presented with an assignment that requires that they
design or produce a deliverable. The final product may be a formal written or oral presentation of their
processes and outcomes. Project-based learning can be assigned to individuals or teams. Unlike
problem-based learning, this style of inductive learning provides the student with the necessary
background knowledge and is focused more on the solution.

Case-base learning: Students are presented with real-life scenarios, or cases, in which they
hypothetically assume various roles. The cases tend to be very well structured filled with elaborate
details to incorporate many of the variables real-life problems contain. Students learn to apply
material that has already been covered in class and is somewhat familiar (Lohman 2002) Case-based
learning can be assigned to individual students or to teams. Studies have shown that case-based
instruction significantly improves student retention, reasoning and problem-solving skills (Fasko
20030, and higher-order skills on Bloom's taxonomy. (Gabel 1999)

Just-in-Time Teaching (JiTT): Students are presented with conceptual questions at the
beginning of class. These questions are usually done in an electronic or web-based mode so they can
be accessed immediately. The teacher then uses the findings of that exam to adjust the lesson and
address misconceptions the students may have about the subject content. This method is classified
as inductive because the students are being asked questions about material they have not yet
studied. This method is used primarily in higher education.

Is the Inductive Method an Effective Tool?

The inductive method is an extremely effective process for obtaining general, observation-based
information about the world. In fact, the inductive method--whether guided in classrooms or occurring in
non-academic settings--is one of the most common and natural forms of making logical assumptions
about what we observe. Inductive reasoning allows us to gather ideas about an infinite number of events
or phenomena in real life. Use of the inductive method as a teaching tool to guide students through critical
thinking, awareness, evaluation of what they observe, and the drawing of logical conclusions and
explanations is almost universally accepted in science education.

What are the Criticisms of the Inductive Method?

The main criticism of the inductive method is that is is not a valid means of obtaining proof. Because
inductive reasoning encompasses broad statements based on smaller observations, the method can
never completely prove that what is observed from a small set of data applies to the whole group. (For
example, based on observation of mice, the inductive method can help us generalize that because
theobserved mice ate peanut butter that every mouse, everywhere must eat peanut butter. However, the
inductive method cannot provide absolute proof of this assumption.) Generalizations and principles
arrived by means of the inductive method may certainly be tested. However, because conclusions drawn
from inductive reasoning are based on observable data, if the data changes, the conclusion may change
as a result.

What Does Research On Inductive Reasoning Say?

A significant amount of research indicates that the inductive method is highly effective and appropriate for
some types of learning goals and a less accurate mode of thinking for others. Most research points to the
idea that the inductive method is an effective way to:

Understand how logical conclusions are drawn

Apply small, concrete ideas to larger, abstract concepts

Transfer conclusions and governing principles to newly encountered information

Develop problem-solving skills

However, research suggests that inductive reasoning is not an effective means for the learning,
development, or application of specific rules to small amounts of data or problems.
Instead, deductive methods [1] are more appropriate.

References and Further Reading

Mayer, Richard E. Learning and Instruction. Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: 1998.

Science Buddies.org [2]

Ed Helper.com [3]

Klauer, Karl Josef, and Gary D. Phye.Cognitive Training for Children: A Developmental Program
of Inductive Reasoning and Problem Solving. Hogrefe & Huber Publishers. Cambridge,
Massachusetts:1994

Fasko, D. 2003 Case Studies and Methods in Teaching and Learning Paper presented at Society
of Educators and Scholars, Louisville, KY.

Gabel, C. 1999 Using Case Studies to Teach Science National Association for Research in
Science Teaching, Boston.

Prince, Michael; Felder, Richard 2007 The Many Faces of Inductive Teaching and Learning [4]

Deductive methods
http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Deductive_methods (Retrieved on 26 Jun 2011)

Definition

Much like Sherlock Holmes, deductive methods involve beginning with a general concept or given rule
and moving on to a more specific conclusion. Solving a math problem or conducting a science experiment
is just like the mysteries presented by Sherlock Holmes. Clues are presented concerning the conclusion
and using the information given as well as previous knowledge, you can solve the mystery!
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion that is guaranteed to follow, if the evidence
provided is true and the reasoning used to reach the conclusion is correct. The conclusion also must be
based only on the evidence previously provided; it cannot contain new information about the subject
matter. Deductive reasoning was first described by the ancient Greek philosophers such asAristotle. (from
Wikipedia)
"drawing conclusions by applying rules or principles; logically moving from a general rule or principle to a
specific solution" (Woolfolk, 2001, p. 286)

Comparison of two Reasonings

(Retrieved May 03, 2005, from Deduction and Induction)
Deductive reasoning works from the "general" to the "specific". This is also called a "top-down"
approach. The deductive reasoning works as follows: think of a theory about topic and then narrow it
down to specific hypothesis (hypothesis that we test or can test). Narrow down further if we would like to
collect observations for hypothesis (note that we collect observations to accept or reject hypothesis and
the reason we do that is to confirm or refute our original theory). In a conclusion, when we use deduction
we reason from general principles to specific cases, as in applying a mathematical theorem to a particular
problem or in citing a law or physics to predict the outcome of an experiment.

Inductive reasoning works the other way, it works from observation (or observations) works toward
generalizations and theories. This is also called a bottom-up? approach. Inductive reason starts from
specific observations (or measurement if you are mathematician or more precisely statistician), look for
patterns (or no patterns), regularities (or irregularities), formulate hypothesis that we could work with and
finally ended up developing general theories or drawing conclusion. In a conclusion, when we use
Induction we observe a number of specific instances and from them infer a general principle or law.
Inductive reasoning is open-ended and exploratory especially at the beginning. On the other hand,
deductive reasoning is narrow in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypothesis.

Properties of Deduction
In a valid deductive argument, all of the content of the conclusion is present, at least implicitly, in the
premises. Deduction is nonampliative. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Valid
deduction is necessarily truth preserving. If new premises are added to a valid deductive argument (and
none of its premises are changed or deleted) the argument remains valid. Deductive validity is an all-ornothing matter; validity does not come in degrees. An argument is totally valid, or it is invalid.

Properties of Induction
Induction is ampliative. The conclusion of an inductive argument has content that goes beyond the
content of its premises. A correct inductive argument may have true premises and a false conclusion.
Induction is not necessarily truth preserving. New premises may completely undermine a strong inductive
argument. Inductive arguments come in different degrees of strength. In some inductions the premises
support the conclusions more strongly than in others.
Intuitive Reasoning A third type of reasoning, intuitive reasoning, is what many young children use, as
well as older children/adults in highly unfamiliar situations. Intuitive reasoning has to do with the way
something appears to be, how something "seems" or "looks", and is based on unverified guesses. While it
may seem to be very rudimentary, it is very useful in giving a starting point from which induction or
deduction can proceed. It is the chief type of reasoning used by early elementary students, and students
must be shown the flaws in it by the use of cognitive conflict in order to learn to move past intuition
towards induction and deduction.

Applications
In most subject areas, both deductive and inductive methods are taught as ways to reach a solution. In
mathematic and science related subjects, the method of reasoning is most apparent. However, in all

subjects of education, a method of reasoning is in place. The following are some resources to see how
specific methods influence a variety of subject areas.
The deductive method in subjects of education
Mathematics.
Language Arts
Science
Psychology
The opposite of deductive methods is: Inductive methods
Cultural Variations in Approaches to Learning
"Teachers may use inquiry methods that emphasize deductive approaches to learning, analytical
examinations of details or parts, or the solving or the problems by examining the relationship of one part
to another. This linear model, moving sequentially from the specific to the general and examining
objects/concepts without a context may not be the preferred approach to learning for some children from
groups of color. Students of color often use a more inductive problem solving and reasoning process.
They may use observed instances in context to generate an idea or a concept. They move from whole to
part from the general to the specific"( Sheets, 2005, p. 160).

Research
Thesis involving deductive versus inductive methods in English Grammar
Deductive Reasoning Ability

External Links
Wikipedia's Deductive Reasoning
Wikipedia's Natural Deduction
The Inductive(Scientific) Method
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
The Scientific Method

References
Sheets, R. H.. Diversity pedagogy : examining the role of culture in the teaching-learning process.
Boston : Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2005.

Woolfolk, Anita. 8th ed. Educational Psychology.Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2001.

Testimonials
In its most simple state, deductive reasoning is a logical thought process. It is a series of ideas where one
thought leads to the next thought. For the more analytic minds in our society, this process seems simple.
For the less analytic people, however, this process can be almost traumatic. Take for example writing a
proof in a geometry class. We start with a given and chain together a series of theorems or postulates, etc
until we reach the desired conclusion. For some of my students this process is harrowing. Certain
students see each theorem as an if-then statement. If I know "a," then I know "b". They then look for
another theorem that begins with "If I know "b," and use this process until they reach the end. Other
students don't see things in this way. Sometimes it is due to not knowing the theorems, etc to the best of
their ability. Other times it is due to a lack of interest in doing the problem at all. And in some cases the
problem lies in the fact that thinking in this way is not what they're used to in math class. For this reason I
believe that these skills must begin before the student reaches high school. State testing requirements
almost always require students to be able to express their ideas in writing. As is the case in our state, the
students are allowed to use a t-chart to express their thought processes - the steps on one side of the
chart and their justifications on the opposite side. Using this method relieves the students of the stress of
writing complete sentences, using correct grammar, etc but also teaches the student how to begin using
logical though processes in what will eventually become proof-writing. MFoshee
Categories: EPSY400 ClassroomLearning | EPSY490 ClassroomLearningAndManagement(CTER)