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Conjugate Heat Transfer in AirtoRefrigerant Airfoil Heat Exchangers
Conjugate Heat Transfer in AirtoRefrigerant Airfoil Heat Exchangers
Naoya Inokura
Tokyo Institute of Technology,
4259-G3-33-402, Nagatsuta-cho,
Midori-ku, Yokohama,
Kanagawa 226-8502, Japan
Takao Nagasaki
Tokyo Institute of Technology,
4259-G3-33-402, Nagatsuta-cho,
Midori-ku, Yokohama,
Kanagawa 226-8502, Japan
e-mail: tnagasak@es.titech.ac.jp
Introduction
Intercooled, recuperated aviation gas turbines (IR gas turbines)
have the strong potential to reduce fuel consumption in aviation.
Intercoolers and recuperators enhance the gas turbine cycle efficiency from a thermodynamic point of view. Wilfert et al. constructed an IR gas turbine components demonstrator that had the
potential to achieve a 17% reduction in fuel consumption compared with a baseline gas turbine. However, they noted that adapting recuperators, in particular, for a practical aviation gas turbine
remained a future challenge [1]. Conventional IR gas turbines are
too heavy for use as aviation gas turbines because they use a type
of tube matrix air-to-air heat exchanger [2] or a type of primary
surface air-to-air heat exchanger [3]. Although both types have
high temperature effectiveness, they are heavy. Furthermore, hot
and cold air must be collected at the heat exchanger. Therefore,
long and heavy air connecting ducts are required.
To overcome these problems, a heat exchange system using a
heat transport liquid or supercritical refrigerant (abbreviated in
this paper to refrigerant) may be used, as shown in Fig. 1. In
this system, the refrigerant transports heat from the hot section to
the cold section. Therefore, the hot and cold sections can be installed at separate sites. In the intercooling system, heat exchanger
A works as an air cooler, and heat exchanger B works as a radiator. Conversely, in the recuperating system, heat exchanger A
works as a heat absorber, and heat exchanger B works as an air
heater. In addition, heat transport liquid and supercritical refrigerants have higher densities and greater specific heat values than air.
Therefore, the refrigerant connecting tubes require a much smaller
diameter than air connecting ducts. Although an additional recirculation pump is needed, it must only drive the refrigerant against
the pressure loss of the refrigerant loop. Ito proposed an IR aviation gas turbine that uses this heat exchange system in the form of
heat exchangers installed in already equipped components in a
baseline aviation gas turbine, to reduce its weight [4]. In the intercooling system of this design, fixed stators and vanes in the compressor are used as the air cooler, and vanes in the bypass duct are
used as the radiator. In the recuperating system, vanes in the combustor are used as the air heater, and vanes in the core nozzle are
used as the heat absorber. Here, the working airflow path can
Contributed by the Heat Transfer Division of ASME for publication in the
JOURNAL OF HEAT TRANSFER. Manuscript received October 28, 2013; final manuscript
received April 7, 2014; published online May 21, 2014. Assoc. Editor: Giulio
Lorenzini.
C 2014 by ASME
Copyright V
Experimental Setup
To experimentally estimate the heat transfer performance in a
high-speed compressible flow, the Reynolds, Mach, and Prandtl
numbers should match those of the real gas and refrigerant flows.
If scale-model experiments are conducted, all of the viscosity,
thermal conductivity, specific heat, and sound speed ratios of the
tested fluids should be the same as those of the real gas and refrigerant. However, rather than using such fluids in scale-model
experiments, it is easier to prepare a real gas, real refrigerant, and
real-size airfoil heat exchanger under real conditions.
Wind Tunnel. A closed-return wind tunnel at the Tokyo Institute of Technology was employed to produce a subsonic airflow. A
BE-H125 Roots blower (made by ANLET Co. Ltd.) was used as
the continuous air source. The nozzle outlet size was 60 30 mm.
Its Mach number capabilities ranged from 0 to 0.8, and Mach numbers of 0.550.62 were chosen for testing the airfoil heat exchanger
in an aviation gas turbine. The inlet airflow was sufficiently turbulent because the inlet Reynolds number Reair,nozzle, whose representative length was the hydraulic diameter of the nozzle outlet,
ranged from 3.92 105 to 4.52 105. In addition, the roots blower
generated a turbulent airflow. Although this airflow condition
involved no wakes from the preceding airfoils, unlike in a practical
axial gas turbine, it was sufficient for the time-averaged airflow
condition to be applied to the design of airfoil heat exchangers.
Airfoil Heat Exchangers. NACA 65-(12A2I8b)10 airfoils with
inner refrigerant channels were employed as test models, as
shown in Fig. 2. The airfoils were made of SUS304 because its
thermal conductivity is 16 W/Km, which is almost the same as
the thermal conductivity of the materials used for practical compressors or vanes; for example, approximately 20 W/Km for
081703-2 / Vol. 136, AUGUST 2014
(1)
Here, the left-hand term means the heat conduction rate of the
solid part of the airfoil heat exchanger. The right-hand terms
indicate the heat transfer rates through the inner refrigerantcontact surfaces (along the five bigger circular regions in Fig. 5)
and outer air-contact surfaces (along the peripheral region in Fig.
5). As an example, we focus on control volume j whose neighbor
control volumes are p, q, r, and s. The discretized heat conduction
rate Qconduction,j is
uref;AB 3
(2)
qref;D Dref;DE 2
uref;DE ;
qref;A Dref;AB
DPloss;AB 0:1582
of course, the number of neighbor control volumes can be any
number instead of four. For example, the heat conduction rate
Qconduction,jp between control volume j and control volume p is
Qconduction;jp Ajp ksolid
(4)
uref;DE
D1:25
ref;DE
DPloss;DE
0:75 0:25 L
0:1582qref;D lref;D ref;DE
1
#1:75
(6)
0:25
1:75
q0:75
ref;A lref;A Lref;AB uref;AB
(8)
D1:25
ref;AB
dTsolid
T p T j
(3)
Ajp ksolid
djp
dz
(7)
uref;BC
qref;D Dref;DE 2
uref;DE ;
qref;B Dref;BC
DPloss;BC 0:1582
0:25
1:75
q0:75
ref;B lref;B Lref;BC uref;BC
(9)
D1:25
ref;BC
and similar considerations apply for sections CD, EF, FG, GH,
HI, and IJ.
Therefore, the total pressure at each point from A to J is as
follows:
1
Ptot;ref;A Pref;A qref;A u2ref;AB ;
2
Ptot;ref;B Ptot;ref;A DPloss;AB ; ; and
Ptot;ref;J Ptot;ref;I DPloss;IJ
(10)
Then, the measured Pref,A is known. Pref,B and Pref,J are found as
follows:
1
Pref;B Ptot;ref;B qref;B u2ref;AB ; and
2
(11)
1
Pref;J Ptot;ref;J qref;J u2ref;IJ
2
At point C, temperature Tref,C is measured and enthalpy Href,C
is defined as follows:
Tref;C TC and Href;C Href Tref;C ; Pref;C
(12)
At each point from A to E, each refrigerant tube is adiabatic.
Therefore, the total enthalpy Htot,ref at each point from A to E is
the same. Thus, the enthalpy Href at each point from A to E is
found as follows:
Href;A
u2ref;AB
u2ref;AB
u2ref;BC
Href;B
Href;C
2
2
2
u2ref;CD
u2ref;DE
Href;D
Href;E
2
2
(13)
Therefore, temperature Tref at each point from A to E can be calculated by using Href and Pref.
On the other hand, in each section from EF to IJ, heat inflows
from the airfoil heat exchangers. The steady state basic equation
in an integrated form for section EF, for example, is as follows:
Qconvection;EF Qref;EF
(14)
(15)
and the refrigerant heat gain rate Qref,EF in section EF from the
airfoil heat exchanger is
EF
EF
Qref;EF R Qref;j R Aref;j href;j Tref;E Tj
j
(16)
where Qref,j was described in Eq. (4), and the summation of Qref,j
at all of the control volumes j in contact with the refrigerant in
section EF is used. Similar procedures can be applied for sections
FG, GH, HI, and IJ.
Adiabatic Air Temperature. Although the airfoil heat
exchanger surfaces are rigorously nonadiabatic, the air temperature in a boundary layer of a high-speed compressible airflow on a
solid surface is close to the adiabatic air temperature. Recently,
Pinilla et al. investigated the effects of the adiabatic temperature
on the heat load of the blades of a gas turbine [21]. They mentioned that the adiabatic temperature plays a role in determining
the heat flux through the air-contact surfaces.
On the outer air-contact surfaces, the adjacent local static air
pressure can be calculated using the adjacent local pressure coefficient Sj as follows:
1
Pair;j Ptot;air;in Sj qair;in u2air;in
2
(17)
Here, Tair,adiabatic,j was determined using only the airflow conditions, i.e., air Reynolds, Prandtl, and Mach numbers, and can be
substituted into Eq. (5).
(21)
where only Tref,E and Tair,adiabatic,j are known, and Tref(n), i.e.,
Tref(F)Tref(J), are unknown. Therefore, a large coefficient matrix
for all the airfoil temperatures for all the control volumes of the
solid and refrigerant sections was constructed. Then, this coefficient matrix was diagonalized. Finally, the distribution of the solid
temperatures T(j) in the airfoil heat exchanger and the refrigerant
sections temperatures Tref(F)Tref(J) were obtained for the
assumed href,j and hair,j.
Third, the heat removal rate from the hot air Qair,whole and the
input rate into the cold refrigerant Qref,whole were found as
follows:
Qair;whole
whole
X
Qair;j
(22)
Qref;whole mref;DE Htot;ref Tref;J ; Pref;J ; uref;IJ
Htot;ref Tref;E ; Pref;E ; uref;DE
(23)
the local adjacent refrigerant Reynolds number. However, the difference in the local refrigerant Reynolds numbers between the
inlet and outlet was negligible. Thus, the space-averaged href over
all of the refrigerant-contact surfaces in the airfoil heat exchanger
was considered.
In this study, the LevenbergMarquardt algorithm [23] was
used. It is one of the least square methods. In this algorithm, five
fitting functions [f(1) {T(i) Ti}/Ti, f(2) {T(ii) Tii}/Tii,
f(3) {T(iii) Tiii}/Tiii, f(4) {T(iv) Tiv}/Tiv, f(5) {Qair,whole
Qref,whole}/Qref,whole] were set. The best combination of five independent variables [hair,front, hair,middle,up, hair,middle,low, hair,rear,
href] was found to realize the minimum of [f(1)2 f(2)2 f(3)2
f(4)2 f(5)2]. In other words, we numerically found the calculation results that were the closest to the experimental results. This
numerical analysis was performed by a VisualBasic2010 code that
we developed using the LevenbergMarquardt algorithm package
provided by the ALGLIB Project [24].
p 2
kref
qref 4 Dref uref CPref Reref Prref Dref
(24)
(25)
hair LC
;
kair
Stair
hair LC W
Nuair
Fig. 7 Experimental air Mach, Prandtl, and Reynolds numbers versus airflow direction angle from airfoil chord
Fig. 8 Comparison of temperature distributions of airfoil heat exchangers for large and small
air modified Stanton numbers
temperature could be maintained at a convenient value. Additionally, to conduct intercooling experiments, the adiabatic air temperature Tair,adiabatic had to be higher than the refrigerant temperature
Tref,E. Therefore, the target inlet air total temperature Ttot,air,in was
set to approximately 360 K. Mair,in became smaller in regions far
from a 10.5 deg. The airfoil incidence n was 0 at a 9.47 deg.
Thus, the air pressure loss in a closed wind tunnel increased in
those regions far from n 0. The same thing was true for Reair,in.
All of the experimental data were obtained after reaching
dynamic steady states and thermal equilibrium. The following
experimental results represent the results of inverse heat transfer
analyses, in which the corresponding experimental results were
used as boundary conditions and fitting parameters.
Feature of Airfoil Heat Exchanger. Figure 8 shows the temperature distributions for large and small values of Stair under the
same airflow conditions: a 10.5 deg and Mair,in 0.60. The
left-hand figure in Fig. 9 shows the local air pressure coefficient S
distribution plotted from data taken from Ref. [13]. The others in
Fig. 9 show the corresponding local air Mach number and adiabatic
air temperature distributions on the air-contact surfaces plotted by
using Eqs. (17)(20) under the same conditions as those shown in
Fig. 8. In this case, an air turbulent boundary layer formed over
almost the entire lower surface. However, on the upper surface, the
air boundary layer transitioned from laminar to turbulent flow at
X 0.6, causing the adiabatic air temperature to increase discontinuously. This adiabatic air temperature was used to conduct the
inverse heat transfer analysis shown in Fig. 8. In Fig. 8, the black
indicates a high temperature, whereas the white indicates a low
temperature. The highest temperatures were found in those regions
near the leading and trailing edges. This was because the heat
entered with the hot air and flowed out into tubes IJ and EF. In the
part between them, however, the heat flowed in from the aircontact surfaces and flowed out into the nearest refrigerant tubes.
Figure 10 shows the air Nusselt number Nuair for each part versus the air modified Stanton number Stair. Each part has a front,
upper middle, lower middle, or rear corresponding to each hair in
Fig. 6. In each experiment, the largest was Nuair,middle,low, followed, in order, by Nuair,middle,up, Nuair,front, and Nuair,rear. On the
lower surface, the minimum pressure coefficient Smax was found
at the leading edge for a 0, and gradually shifted to X 0.2 for
a 25.5 deg. Thus, on the lower middle surface, there was an
adverse pressure gradient, and the air boundary layer switched to
a turbulent one near the leading edge. Therefore, Nuair,middle,low
was large. On the upper surface, Smax was located at X 0.50.6
for a 13.5 deg, and swiftly shifted at X 00.05 for
a 16.5 deg. Thus, on the upper middle surface at a 13.5 deg,
there was a favorable pressure gradient, the airflow accelerated,
and the air boundary layer became thin, although it remained laminar. On the upper middle surface at a 16.5 deg, a turbulent transition occurred. Therefore, Nuair,middle,up was almost equal to or
was slightly smaller than Nuair,middle,low. On the rear surfaces, the
air boundary layers were turbulent. However, the boundary layer
thickness became much larger, and Nuair,rear was the smallest air
Nusselt number.
Without cooling the airfoil heat exchanger, the temperature on
the middle air-contact surfaces would become the air adiabatic
temperature. Their temperature profiles would be smooth in the
airflow direction. Nuair would be determined by the airflow conditions. If the refrigerant cooled the airfoil heat exchanger only
slightly, in right-hand figure in Fig. 8, the temperature gradient
(which is indicated by the distance from the gray dotted line to the
gray solid and dashed lines) became small. The heat flow rate
(Stair) between the middle surfaces and the refrigerant tubes also
became small. Thus, the temperature profiles (which are the gray
solid and dashed lines for Stair 0.00198) remain smooth. Nuair
would be nearly the same as those when there is no refrigerant
cooling. If, on the other hand, the refrigerant cooled the airfoil
heat exchanger considerably, the temperature gradient (which is
indicated by the distance from the black dotted line to the black
solid and dashed lines in right-hand figure in Fig. 8) became large.
The heat flow rate (Stair) between the middle surfaces and the refrigerant tubes also became large. Then, the airfoil heat exchanger
temperature varied widely depending on the distance from each
refrigerant tube along each heat flow path. Therefore, there were
Fig. 9 Distributions of air pressure coefficient, air local Mach number, and adiabatic air temperature corresponding to experimental results shown in Fig. 8 (air pressure coefficient data were taken from Ref. [13])
many temperature fluctuations on the middle surfaces in the airflow direction, such as the black solid and dashed lines for
Stair 0.00348. Thus, strong thermal entrance effects may occur
in the air boundary layers on the middle surfaces, making Nuair
larger, and the temperature gradient larger. Namely, there may be
a positive feedback effect until the temperature on the middle
surfaces approaches the air adiabatic temperature. This is why
Nuair,middle,low and Nuair,middle,up increase with an increase in Stair,
as shown in Fig. 10. This conclusion will be confirmed if transient
experiments are performed in the future. However, the front and
rear parts of the airfoil heat exchanger resemble forcedconvection fins. Thus, a uniform temperature gradient forms, so
that there are no temperature fluctuations along the airflow direction. Therefore, Nuair,front and Nuair,rear are determined depending
on the airflow condition but independently of Stair.
Figure 11 shows the average air Nusselt number versus air
Reynolds number at the outlet. The solid lines are from Ref. [12],
summarizing the correlations of the air-cooled airfoil data
obtained by Ainley [25], Fray and Barnes [26], Hodge [27], Wilson and Pope [28], Bammert and Hahnemann, and Andrews and
Bradley [29], as well as data obtained by Turner himself. In addition, the dashed line is the correlation of the liquid-cooled airfoil
data obtained by Freche and Diaguila [30]. Experiments were conducted in which the average airfoil temperature was held constant
at 220 F (378 K). The symbols in the figures indicate the results of
our study, indicating a wide range of air Nusselt numbers even for
the same air Reynolds number. In the air-cooled gas turbine, the
cooling airflow rate was almost proportional to the main airflow
rate. This was because the cooling air was bled from the compressor, such that the ratio of the airflow rates was almost constant.
Thus, the temperature effectiveness and airfoil temperature did
not vary significantly. However, in the airfoil heat exchangers, the
cooling refrigerant flow rate could be set independent of the main
Nuref
0:3
0:128Re0:8
ref;wall Prref;wall
CPref;bulk
CPref;wall
0:411
for
Grref
Re2ref;bulk
!0:205
!0:437
CO2
(27)
Fig. 11 Average air Nusselt number versus air Reynolds number at outlet at various angles-of-attack a
qref;bulk
qref;wall
for
CO2
(28)
Fig. 12 Comparison of experimental refrigerant Nusselt number with DittusBoelter, LiaoZhao, and our proposed correlations for carbon dioxide turbulent flows
0:300
Nuref;turbulent 0:0230Re0:808
ref Prref
for
H2 O
(29)
by the same method as that used for carbon dioxide. Our correlation is within 10% and 50% compared with the experimental
results. The values estimated by the DittusBoelter correlation
were also underestimated for the previously given reason. However, the DittusBoelter correlation was acceptable, although
there were also slight differences in the constants compared with
our correlation.
Design Method for Airfoil Heat Exchanger (Thermal
Resistance). The air Nusselt number Nuair for the refrigerantcooled airfoil heat exchanger had a wide range, so it was difficult
to predict Nuair by a correlation using only Reair and Prair. Instead,
the relationships between the heat transfer rate Qwhole, a logarithmic mean temperature difference DTlm,whole, and the refrigerant
Nusselt number Nuref were used to estimate Nuair.
Temperature changes in the air and refrigerant through the airfoil heat exchanger were evaluated by the temperature effectiveness /air and /ref as follows:
/air
Tair;adiabatic;in Tair;adiabatic;out
Tref;J Tref;E
; /ref
Tair;adiabatic;in Tref;E
Tair;adiabatic;in Tref;E
(30)
Based on the heat balance of the airfoil heat exchanger, the relationships of /air and /ref are found as follows by using the ratio of
the refrigerant heat capacity rate to air heat capacity rate eRA:
/air eRA /ref ; eRA
mref CPref
mair CPair
(31)
(33)
for
eRA 6 1
ref
href
hair Aair
if the heat exchanger is an ideal counter-flow heat exchanger without thermal resistance in the airfoil heat exchangers solid material. Furthermore, the correction factor w is the ratio of the
practical heat transfer rate Qwhole to the ideal heat transfer rate,
which includes thermal resistance of the airfoil heat exchangers
solid material, as follows:
Qwhole wgAref DTlm;whole
(35)
Generally, the overall heat transfer coefficient includes thermal resistance by using the term d/k in its denominator, where d is the
thickness of the solid material, and k is the thermal conductivity.
However, it is difficult to define the value of d because there is no
constant thickness in the airfoil heat exchanger. Therefore, the
correction factor w is introduced instead of d/k. Equations (32)
and (33) were substituted into Eq. (35). Thus, the practical overall
heat transfer coefficient wg is as follows:
wg
(36)
Therefore, from Eqs. (34) and (36), the air heat transfer coefficient is obtained by using the refrigerant heat transfer coefficient
href derived from Eqs. (24), (28), and (29) as follows:
hair
Aref
1
Aair mArefCw /U h1
ref Pref
ref
(37)
ref
0:12360:02093jnj 1
1 for
/ref exp0:5eRA
(38)
AUGUST 2014, Vol. 136 / 081703-9
Fig. 13 Example of correction factor for heat transfer with refrigerant temperature effectiveness /ref and the ratio of refrigerant heat capacity rate to that of air eRA at a 5 10.5 deg, i.e.,
n 5 1.03 deg
Acknowledgment
Conclusions
The heat transfer performance of two air-to-refrigerant airfoil
heat exchangers and a recirculated heat transport refrigerant was
081703-10 / Vol. 136, AUGUST 2014
The authors gratefully thank Professor Emeritus Toshio Nagashima, Professor Takehiro Himeno, and Professor Koji Okamoto
at the University of Tokyo, who gave us useful advice. This work
was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant No. 22760622.
Nomenclature
A
c
CP
d
D
Gr
h
H
k
L
LC, LG
m
M
Nu
P
Pr
Q
r
Reair
Reair,channel
Reair,nozzle
Reref
area
constant number
isobaric specific heat
distance between control volume centers
refrigerant tube inner diameter
Grashof number
heat transfer coefficient
enthalpy
thermal conductivity
refrigerant tube length
airfoil chord length, tangential spacing between airfoils leading edges
mass flow rate
Mach number
Nusselt number
pressure
Prandtl number
heat flow rate
recovery coefficient
air Reynolds number whose representative length is
airfoil chord length
air Reynolds number whose representative length is
air inlet height handled by the unit airfoil
air Reynolds number whose representative length is
nozzle hydraulic diameter
refrigerant Reynolds number whose representative
length is circular tube diameter
Transactions of the ASME
S pressure coefficient, S Ptot;air;in Pair;local =
h
i
qair;in u2air;in =2
St
T
u
W, Wfringe
x, y, z
X
Parentheses
(j) variable to be calculated at jth control volume of
solid
(n) variable to be calculated at nth refrigerant section
next to jth control volume (n is either E or I)
(T, P, u) function of T, P, and u
Greek Symbols
a angle-of-attack in degrees, flow direction angle
from airfoil chord
b inlet angle in degrees, flow direction angle from
perpendicular to airfoil row
c specific heat ratio
DPloss pressure loss
DT, DTlm temperature difference, logarithmic mean temperature difference
eRA ratio of refrigerant heat capacity flow rate to air
heat capacity flow rate
g ideal overall heat transfer coefficient
h turning angle in degree
l viscosity
n incidence in degrees, flow direction angle from airfoil camber line at its leading edge
q
r
R
/air
density
solidity LC/LG
summation
air temperature
effectiveness,
/air Tair;adiabatic;in
Tair;adiabatic;out =
Tair;adiabatic;in Tref;E
/ref refrigerant
temperature
effectiveness,
/ref Tref;J Tref;E = Tair;adiabatic;in Tref;E
U variable, U 1 for eRA 1, U /ref /air =
lnf1 /air g=f1 /ref g for eRA 6 1
w correction factor of practical overall heat transfer
coefficient compared with g
Subscripts
A to J points in refrigerant flow tube in Fig. 4
adiabatic adiabatic temperature on air-contact surface in
high-speed airflow
air air or outer air-contact surface
C critical point
CO2 carbon dioxide
front front part of airfoil surface
H2O water
in inlet
i, ii, iii, iv thermocouple number
j jth control volume of solid
low lower (concave) surface
max maximum
middle middle part of airfoil surface
n nth refrigerant section next to jth control volume (n
is either E or I)
p, q, r, s neighbor control-volumes index
Journal of Heat Transfer
rear
ref
Smax
solid
tot
transition
up
whole
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