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8-1
8.1
Loss mechanisms in a single solar cell
In a photovoltaic solar cell a number of fundamental losses occur. Moreover, there are a number
of additional losses caused by the device structure used and caused by the fact that the materials
used arent perfect.
8.1.1
CdTe
30
CuInGaSe 2
CuInSe 2
a- Si :H:F
GaAs
a-Si :H
Si
Efficiency (%)
25
20
15
T = 300 K
CdS
Ge
10
5
0.5
1.0
1.5
Bandgap Eg (eV)
2.0
2.5
FIG 019_1
Figure 8.1: The theoretical efficiency of a single solar cell as a function of Eg, under Standard Test
Conditions (1000 W/m2, AM 1.5 spectrum and 25 C cell temperature).
This efficiency shows a maximum. This maximum arises because on one hand the open-circuit
voltage increases with increasing band gap Eg whereas on the other hand the photocurrent decreases. This photocurrent decreases because the number of absorbed photons decreases with increasing band gap Eg.
8.1.2
8-2
Additional losses
7-1
The most elementary equivalent circuit of a solar cell, consisting of a parallel circuit of a current
source and a diode, has already been presented in figure 6.1. In that case the current voltage
characteristic is described by
I = I ph
I s e
qV
kT
[7.1]
In practice, however, series resistance will occur in a solar cell together with a certain amount of
shunt. These are represented in the more extensive equivalent circuit (see figure 7.1) by R s en
R sh respectively.
Rs
I
+
I ph
R sh
V
-
Figure 7.1: Equivalent circuit of a solar cell, one-diode model with series and shunt resistance. Mind the
definitions of voltage and current.
The series resistance is caused by the resistance of the semiconductor material itself, the resistance of the metallization (fingers and busbar) and the contact resistance between the various
materials and especially between the semiconductor materials and the metallization. In general,
shunt resistances are relatively high and are caused by imperfections in the production process.
With series and shunt resistance the current-voltage characteristics is described by:
I = I ph
I s e
q (V + IRs )
kT
V + IRs
1
Rsh
[7.2]
In equation [7.2] a + is present in the term (V + IR s ), because the solar cell has been drawn as a
generator and the belonging definition of current direction and polarity of the voltage are as being depicted in figure 7.1.
A somewhat more detailed model is the two-diode model, see figure 7.2. The second diode represents the recombination occurring in the p-n junction and inhomogenities that might occur in
the solar cell as a whole.
7-2
Rs
I
+
I ph
D1
D2
R sh
V
-
s)
q (Vn +k IR
q (Vn +kTIRs ) V + IR
s
1 T
I s1 e
1 I s 2 e 2
1
R
sh
[7.3]
Here I s1 and I s2 are the saturation currents of the two diodes respectively and n 1 and n 2 are the
quality factors of the two diodes. In general, n 1 will not deviate much from 1. n 2 = 2 if only recombination occurs in the junction and no other imperfections occur.
Diode
4.1
Introduction
4-1
If two materials with different electrochemical potentials are put together, then exchange of
charge will occur until the electrochemical potentials on both sides of the interface are equal.
This implies that an equal though opposite space charge will arise on both sides of the interface.
The result of this is a potential barrier at the interface. This barrier prevents further exchange of
carriers, unless an external voltage is being applied.
The energy diagram of such a junction is given in figure 4.1.
N
FIG. 018.1
I3
I1
q1
Ec
Ev
I4
I2
4-2
I = -I 1 + I 2 + I 3 I 4
[4.1]
I1 = k1 n p
[4.2]
I 2 = k 2 p p e q1 / kT
[4.3]
I 3 = k 3 nn e q1 / kT
[4.4]
with
I4 = k4 pn
[4.5]
and
q1 = barrier height between n- and p-type region
np
pp
nn
pn
In the energy diagram of figure 4.1 the energy of the electrons is given along the vertical axis.
Electrons from the p-type region, having reached the junction by diffusion, can enter the n-type
region unhindered. Electrons from the n-type region have to get over the barrier with barrier q1 .
The chance that this will happen is given by the Boltzmann factor exp (-q 1 /kT). An analogue
argument holds for the holes. One has to keep in mind in this case that the energy of the holes is
plotted downwards along the vertical axis.
In case that there is no external voltage applied, on finds by substitution of [4.2], [4.3], [4.4] and
[4.5] in [4.1]
I = -(k 1 n p + k 4 p n ) + (k 2 p p + k 3 n n ) e q1 / kT
[4.6]
If a forward voltage V is applied then the potential barrier for the majorities is reduced, however,
the diffusion current doesnt change. Therefore [4.6] transforms into
4-3
I = - (k 1 n p + k 4 p n ) + (k 2 p p + k 3 n n ) e q(1-V)/kT
[4.7]
In case of external voltage V=0, I=0 holds. This gives with [4.7]
k 1 n p + k 4 p n = (k 2 p p + k 3 n n ) e -q1/kT
[4.8]
Defining
Is = k1 np + k4 pn
[4.9]
I = I s e
qV
kT
[4.10]
With increasing forward voltage (see figure 4.2), the current increases rapidly. With increasing
reverse voltage the reverse current approaches I s and the current is determined by the diffusion
of minorities in the p- and the n-region respectively.
0
Is
FIG 031.1
4.3
A specific case
4.3.1 Introduction
For a classical p-n junction, as in a crystalline silicon diode, an explicit expression will be
derived for the relation between the current and the applied voltage. This will be done for the
case the diode is in the dark.
The region around the p-n junction is depicted in figure 4.3. Because of difference in
electrochemical potential between the p-type and the n-type region, exchange of charge took
place. Through that in small regions along the interface all acceptors in the p-type region and all
donors in the n-type region were ionized. In this way a space-charge double-layer was formed,
also called depletion layer. In figure 4.3 the formed charge distribution is depicted, together with
the resulting electrical field strength and electrical potential as a function of the position x.
4-4
P-type
+
+
+
N-type
r
(a)
qN D
lp
ln
-qN A
(b)
r
dE
= e
dx
E max
dV
=-E
dx
(c)
Figure 4.3: The space charge , the electrical field strength E and the electrical potential V for
a classical p-n junction.
First an expression will be derived for the so-called diffusion potential, giving the difference
between the (electrochemical) potential in the p- and the n-type region (also see the lowest figure
in figure 4.3). Next the influence is determined of an externally applied voltage across the p-n
junction on the concentration of the minority carriers at the boundaries of the space-charge
double-layer (the depletion region). After that the concentrations of the minority carriers is
determined as a function of the position x in the n- and the p-type region, respectively. Finally,
by means of this, the relation between the current density and the voltage across the p-n junction
is derived.
4.3.2 The diffusion voltage
The hole current density in the depletion layer is given by
J p = -qD p
dp
+ q p pE
dx
[4.11]
In this expression the first term is the diffusion term and the second term the electrical field term.
Under equilibrium conditions J p = 0 and [4.11] transforms into
1 dp p
=
E
p dx D p
[4.12]
kT
[4.13]
4-5
[4.12] becomes
dp qE
=
dx
p kT
[4.14]
Both terms are being integrated now and an integration route is chosen from a point in the p-type
region to a point in the n-type region. Both points need to be located outside the space-charge
double layer. One obtains
p
n dp
p
n qE
kT
[4.15]
dx
[4.16]
P-area
N-area
pp
nn
n
pn
np
FIG 032_1
x1
x2
Figure 4.4: Concentration of majorities and minorities as a function of x both in the p- and ntype region.
In the same way we find for the electrons.
np
ln 0
nn
o
q
=
(V -V )
kT p n
[4.17]
n p0
nn0
q
( V p - Vn )
= exp
kT
[4.18]
4-6
kT n p0
ln
q nn0
[4.19]
This diffusion potential gives the shift of the electrochemical potential of the p-type region with
respect to the n-type region because of the exchange of charge.
4.3.3
If an external voltage V a is applied, then new charge carrier profiles will be formed (also see
figure 4.5). For the steps described in the next paragraphs it is important to know the
concentrations of the minorities at the boundary between the space-charge double-layer and the
neutral regions. After integration from a point in the p-type region to a point in the n-type region,
the points being outside the double-layer, one finds for the minority charge carrier concentration
p 2 at x = x 2 (see figure 4.5)
P-area
N-area
p
pp0
n
nn0
p2
p
n1
pn0
n
np0
FIG 033_1
x1
x2
Figure 4.5: The concentration of the concentrations of the majorities and the minorities, in both the ptype and the n-type region.
qV
p2
= e kT
pp
[4.20]
With V = Vd + Va
[4.21]
[4.22]
Because changes in the majority concentrations are relatively small, p p p p0 , implying that
[4.22] changes into
p 2 = p n0 e
4-7
qVa
kT
[4.23]
From [4.23] it can be seen that the concentration of the minorities at the boundary of the spacecharge double-layer and the neutral region in the n-type region is strongly dependent on the
applied voltage.
In the same way one finds
n1 = n p0 e
4.3.4
qVa
kT
[4.24]
The hole concentration as a function of the position x will be determined now. This
concentration is described by the diffusion equation (also see paragraph 3.5).
p n - p n0
d 2 pn
Dp
=
dx 2
[4.25]
(p
) (
- p n0 = p 2 - p n0 e
- ( x - x2 ) /L p
[4.26]
[4.27]
with
Lp = Dp
[4.28]
[4.29]
In the same way one finds for < x 1 (minorities in the p-type region)
qVa
n p = n p0 + n p0 e kT - 1 e ( x - x1 ) /Ln
4.3.5
[4.30]
Because the currents start as majority charge carrier currents and it is assumed that no
recombination takes place in the depletion region, the majority current of electrons in the n-type
region has to be equal to the minority current of electrons in the n-type region. Likewise, the
majority current of holes in the p-type region has to be equal to the minority current of holes in
the n-type region.
The total current in the p-region is equal to the sum of the currents of the majorities and the
minority carriers in the p-region and according to the above-mentioned equal to the sum of the
4-8
two minority currents at the boundaries of the depletion region. The current density is now given
by
J = J n p + J p p = J n p + J pn
[4.31]
with
J p n = qD p
dn
dx
dp
dx
[4.32]
x = x1
[4.33]
x = x2
qVa
e kT - 1
[4.34]
qD p p n0
Lp
qDe n p0
Ln
a
qV
J = J 0 e kT - 1
[4.35]
[4.36]
By multiplying with the area A of the diode one finds the diode current I
a
qV
I = I 0 e kT - 1
[4.37]
[4.35] shows that the saturation current density J 0 is small if the minority carrier diffusion length
is large.
04/01/2016
CONTENTS
Set-up of course
Introduction to solar photovoltaic energy
Environmental issues
Some economic considerations
<Break>
Solar irradiation
Assignment 1
To do for next week
04/01/2016
SET-UP OF COURSE
OBJECTIVES:
After this course you
Have acquired detailed knowledge of irradiance, photovoltaic (PV) solar
systems and their basic elements - solar cells - at the level of technology
experts.
Are able to understand the functioning of PV solar systems and PV cells
in the context of applications.
Are able to apply the knowledge acquired in the evaluation of new
developments in research of solar systems and PV cells.
04/01/2016
SET-UP OF COURSE
COURSE COORDINATOR
Angle Reinders
Experience: PV system monitoring and simulation, PV module design and
product development based on sustainable energy technologies
Associate Professor at Department of Design, Production and Management
Professor Energy-Efficient Design at Delft University of Technology (10 15)
Ph.D. in PV system monitoring and simulation, 1993-1999, Utrecht University
Experimental Physics, Surface Science, OPV, 1993, Utrecht University
You can reach me at a.h.m.e.reinders@utwente.nl
Or in my office in De Horstring: N222, on appointment
Solar Energy - Lecture 1
04/01/2016
SET-UP OF COURSE
IMPORTANCE OF BLACKBOARD
04/01/2016
04/01/2016
SET-UP OF COURSE
GRADING
The final mark for the course is based on 3 out of 4 assignments and the
examination according to the following format:
Final mark = 0.3 * (Assignments) + 0.7 * (Mark Exam)
Where Mark assignments =
0.5 * Mark Mini-project + 0.25 * Mark Assignment X + 0.25 * Mark Assignment Y
04/01/2016
SET-UP OF COURSE
BOOK
04/01/2016
04/01/2016
10
04/01/2016
11
Energy problems
04/01/2016
12
Source: NASA/JPL
363
386
Solar Energy - Lecture 1
04/01/2016
13
Source: NASA/JPL
363
386
Solar Energy - Lecture 1
04/01/2016
14
04/01/2016
15
Silicon PV modules
~29 g CO2-eq./kWh
+ 5 g for system
04/01/2016
16
Material
processing
Emissions to air
Product
manufacture
Energy resources
Distribution
and storage
Emissions to water
Use
Disposal/
Recycling
Solid waste
An LCA covers a compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental
impacts of a product system throughout its lifecycle.
It often covers the following items:
Resource extraction, manufacturing, product use (installation & operation)
Determination primary energy use and GHG emissions
End-of-Life Phase
Critical materials, scarcity and recyclability as reported by a study by Anctil and Fhtenakis
(Progress in Photovoltaics, 2013)
04/01/2016
17
Energy Pay Back Time, EPBT, indicates how long it takes before energy
investments are compensated by energy yields by a PV module or system.
EPBT = Ein / Eout
Ein = primary energy requirement
Eout = annual energy yield by a PV module / system
04/01/2016
18
EPBT of silicon PV
04/01/2016
19
Global share ~ 81 %
Fossil fuel comprises coal, oil, petroleum, and natural gas products.
IEA Statistics OECD/IEA 2014 (http://www.iea.org/stats/index.asp)
04/01/2016
20
before 1900
2000
04/01/2016
21
04/01/2016
22
04/01/2016
23
04/01/2016
24
P
Solar Energy - Lecture 1
04/01/2016
25
04/01/2016
26
04/01/2016
27
04/01/2016
28
04/01/2016
29
04/01/2016
30
PV system prices:
4 USD/Wp
3 USD/Wp
2 USD/Wp
1 USD/Wp
04/01/2016
31
FOR PV SYSTEMS
04/01/2016
32
BREAK
04/01/2016
33
SOLAR IRRADIATION
SOLAR IRRADIATION
04/01/2016
35
04/01/2016
36
04/01/2016
37
IRRADIATION
Irradiation is the cumulated irradiance
over a period of time:
Irradiance (W/m2)
(Power)
04/01/2016
38
04/01/2016
39
04/01/2016
40
PHOTON ENERGY
E =
Planck-Einstein relation
c
is the wavelength [m], notice that =
8
c is the speed of light (2.99810 m/s)
E =
a commonly used unit of energy is the electron-volt (eV) rather than the joule (J).
An electron volt is the energy required to raise an electron through 1 volt, thus a
photon with an energy of 1 eV = 1.602 10-19 J,
(using q which is the elementary charge of an electron: 1.602 10-19 C)
E =
1,24
()
04/01/2016
41
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Photon flux density ()
number of photons per unit area, per unit time
(# of photons/sec. m2)
() = ()
04/01/2016
42
SPECTRAL IRRADIANCE
G() is the spectral irradiance, which is P() per unit of wavelength (W/m2/nm)
2,00
ASTM / E-490
ASTM / G173-03
Measured spectrum
G (W/m2/nm)
1,50
1,00
Solar spectra:
ASTM E-490
representing AM0 (black line)
ASTM G173-03
representing AM1.5 (red line)
and a measured spectrum (green line)
Data from
ASTM and University of Twente
(Courtesy of A.Reinders, UT)
0,50
0,00
200
700
1200
(nm)
1700
04/01/2016
43
BLACKBODY RADIATION
The spectral irradiance from a blackbody is given by Planck's radiation law, shown in the
following equation:
where:
is the wavelength of light;
2 2
2900
04/01/2016
44
1
2
04/01/2016
45
10000
Mercury
9000
8000
7000
6000
(W/m2)
5000
4000
3000
Venus
2000
Earth
1000
Mars
Jupiter Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
04/01/2016
46
SOLAR RADIATION
Just outside the atmosphere solar irradiation is approx. 1,36 kW/m2
Due to the elliptical orbit of the earth around the sun, the distance between
earth and sun varies, leading to power variations in the order of 3.4%
Depending on the day of the year, n, the extraterrestrial irradiance, H, can be
determined using a formula with the solar constant Hconstant 1.353 kW/m2
= 1 0.033 cos (
360 (2)
)
365
04/01/2016
47
04/01/2016
48
04/01/2016
49
IRRADIANCE
AT GROUND LEVEL
Global irradiance
04/01/2016
50
AIR MASS: AM
Air Mass represents the path length, L, which irradiance takes through the atmosphere normalized
to the shortest possible path length, L0, which is the zenith path length
1
=
0 cos
04/01/2016
51
SPECTRAL IRRADIANCE
2,00
ASTM / E-490
ASTM / G173-03
Measured spectrum
G (W/m2/nm)
1,50
1,00
Solar spectra:
ASTM E-490
representing AM0 (black line)
ASTM G173-03
representing AM1.5 (red line)
and a measured spectrum (green line)
Data from
ASTM and University of Twente
(Courtesy of A.Reinders, UT)
0,50
0,00
200
700
1200
(nm)
1700
04/01/2016
52
04/01/2016
53
The angle between the sun and a fixed location on Earth depends on
the particular location (in particular the latitude of the location),
the time of year and the time of day.
in addition, the time at which the sun rises and sets depends on the
longitude of the location.
Therefore, complete modeling of the sun's angle to a fixed position on Earth
requires the latitude, longitude, day of the year, and time of day.
04/01/2016
54
DECLINATION ANGLE
The declination angle, denoted by
, is the angle between the
equator and a line drawn from the
centre of the Earth to the centre of
the sun.
It varies seasonally due to the tilt
of the Earth on its axis of rotation
and the rotation of the Earth
around the sun. See also:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pgq0LThW7QA
04/01/2016
55
04/01/2016
56
04/01/2016
58
SEASONAL VARIATIONS
DAYLENGTH
04/01/2016
59
SEASONAL VARIATIONS
IRRADIANCE
04/01/2016
60
04/01/2016
61
MEASUREMENTS
Weather stations in NL
Global horizontal irradiance
04/01/2016
62
CLOUDS
Cloud cover
Oktas
Type of clouds
04/01/2016
63
MEASUREMENTS
Irradiance Enschede, June 2011
1000
9
8
800
7
6
600
5
4
400
3
2
200
1
0
Irradiance
cloud cover
04/01/2016
64
MEASUREMENTS at UT
AT PV TEST BENCH AT CITADEL
AND AT
PV SYSTEM AT OOST HORST
04/01/2016
65
MEASUREMENTS
250
200
De Bilt Netherlands
150
100
Yaounde Cameroon
50
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Average
0
Solar Energy - Lecture 1
04/01/2016
66
A result of modeling:
An irradiation diagram for tilted
surfaces the Netherlands
04/01/2016
67
IRRADIANCE MODELING
04/01/2016
69
CLEARNESS INDEX
Kt = Gh / Goh
Orgill & Hollands correlation
Gh = horizontal global irradiance
Goh = extraterrestrial global irradiance
04/01/2016
70
= 1.557 1.84 ,
0.177,
0 0.35
0.35 < 0.75
> 0.75
04/01/2016
71
IRRADIANCE MODELING
LIU & JORDAN MODEL
direct
diffuse
ground-reflected
04/01/2016
72
IRRADIANCE PREDICTION
Complex combination of
Geographic data
Ground measurements radiation
Satellite data (radiation, clouds)
Interpolation + modeling
04/01/2016
73
Subscribe at Blackboard!
Create teams of 2 students for assignment 1 about solar irradiance and
simulation of PV systems
Read:
Powerpoint presentation of this lecture (see Blackboard)
PVCDROM at http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/
Chapter 2: Properties of Sunlight
Submit: Assignment 1 together with other student before Feb 18, 23:59h
Think: yet about a topic for assignment 2, the mini-project in duos
04/01/2016
75
CONTENTS
2/7/2016
A result of modeling:
An irradiation diagram for tilted
surfaces the Netherlands
2/7/2016
Gh=
Gbh + Gdh + Grh
?
Gt =
Gbt + Gdt + Grt
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
2/7/2016
CLEARNESS INDEX
Clearness index Kt is used to determine
The diffuse part of the global horizontal
Irradiance:
Kt = Gh / Goh
Gh = horizontal global irradiance
Goh = extraterrestrial global irradiance
2/7/2016
= 1.557 1.84 ,
0.177,
0 0.35
0.35 < 0.75
> 0.75
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
Gt
direct
diffuse
ground-reflected
2/7/2016
IRRADIANCE MODELING
Now you have been informed about two modeling approaches for
hourly horizontal irradiance measurements to hourly tilted irradiance.
However there exist several tenths of this sort approaches in practice.
Not only for hourly time series, but also for daily data and longer time scales.
Further it is possible to use synthetic data, like Test Meteorological Years,
instead of measured data, ensuring climatologically representative data.
Or one can use satellite data, though the modeling will be more complex, the
applicability will be more diverse (solar forecasting, agriculture, health etc)
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
2/7/2016
250
200
De Bilt Netherlands
150
100
Yaounde Cameroon
50
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Average
0
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
INDOOR IRRADIANCE
Specific spectral distribution
Solar irradiance + artificial light
Transmission windows
Decrease of intensity of light
Low power from G=0 to 50 W/m2
Indoor solar powered products
2/7/2016
PV MODULES
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
Aluminum frame
Front sheet glass
Encapsulant
Backsheet
Encapsulant
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
MANUFACTURING OF PV MODULES
T=150 oC
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
Break
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
PV modules: specifications
First silicon PV modules: 36 cells in series -> 17-18 Volt at STC, to be able
to charge a lead-sulpheric acid battery.
Nowadays 250 Wp modules, 60 cells in series, 30-55 Volt, 6 10 A, these
PV modules are fit for grid connection
Information on data sheet of PV modules
Peak power - Wp
Open circuit voltage - Voc
Short circuit current - Isc
Voltage at maximum power - Vmp
Current at maximum power - Imp
Temperature coefficient
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
AIR MASS
AM0 and AM1.5 solar spectrum, http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/standards
Optical air mass,
angle from zenith
2500
Intensity (W/m2m)
AM 1 => 0
AM 0 => 0 (ET)
AM 1,5 => 48.2o
2000
Solar constant = 1,353 W/m2
1500
1000
AM =
500
Visible
UV
0
0.25
area
0.5
1
(cos )
IR
1.0
Wavelength (m)
1.5
2.0
2.5
FIG. 015.2
2/7/2016
IV-curve of a PV module
I
I =0
Pmp or Pmpp
V = Voc
V =0
Power
P = I V
I = Isc
I sc
I mp
FF =
Vmp I mp
Voc Isc
Vmp
Voc
2/7/2016
IV-curve of a PV module
The IV-curve of a PV module
can be described by the
1-diode model, this is a
simplification of the more
accurate 2-diode model
I ph
Rs
I
+
R sh
I = I ph
q (V +kTI Rs )
V + I Rs
Is e
1
Rsh
2/7/2016
IV-curve of a PV module
All curves at Tc= 25oC
except for one
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2/7/2016
2/7/2016
EA
=
dc
100%
H i ,u A
where,
EA is the power produced by a PV module (W)
A the area of a PV module (m2)
Hi,u the irradiance falling on a PV module (W/m2)
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0.32
8.91 + 2.0
(3)
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Break
2/7/2016
PV SYSTEMS
PV systems
Grid-connected PV Inverters
Stand-alone PV Energy storage
Hybrid PV
BIPV, PIPV
Components Balance of System
Performance indicators for PV systems
Sizing and simulation
2/7/2016
DC loads
DC/DC
(MPPT)
AC loads
Inverter
DC/AC
Utility Grid
Battery
BMS
DC
Grid-connected PV
0.2 kW to megawatts AC
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
2/7/2016
DC loads
DC/DC
(MPPT)
AC loads
Inverter
DC/AC
Utility Grid
Battery
BMS
DC
Grid-connected PV
with auxiliary back-up
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
AC
2/7/2016
DC loads
DC/DC
(MPPT)
AC loads
Inverter
DC/AC
Utility Grid
Battery
BMS
DC
Stand alone PV I
~ 1 - 5 kilowatts
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
AC
2/7/2016
DC loads
DC/DC
(MPPT)
AC loads
Inverter
DC/AC
Utility Grid
Battery
BMS
DC
Stand alone PV II
AC
50 watt to 1 kW at a max.
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
2/7/2016
DC loads
DC/DC
(MPPT)
AC loads
Inverter
DC/AC
Diesel
Utility Grid
genset
Battery
BMS
DC
Hybrid PV system
up to 10s of kWs
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
AC
2/7/2016
PV SYSTEMS TERMINOLOGY
2/7/2016
Applications : grid-connected PV
Building integrated PV, Netherlands
2/7/2016
Applications : grid-connected PV
PV in the built environment: Nieuwland
2/7/2016
HEERHUGOWAARD 2013
2/7/2016
Applications : grid-connected PV
PV Sound barriers
2/7/2016
Applications : grid-connected PV
VLS: Very Large Systems
2/7/2016
Applications : grid-connected PV
BIPV: PV facades
2/7/2016
Applications : grid-connected PV
BIPV: Architectural integration
2/7/2016
2016
2/7/2016
Applications : grid-connected PV
BAPV: on top of the Reichstag
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2/7/2016
5 km
1 km net
10 km
20 km
LCOE PV-high
LCOE PV-low
0
1
10
Dagelijkse behoefte aan elektriciteit (kWh)
100
2/7/2016
Applications : autonomous PV
Telecommunication
Remote areas
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
CATEGORIES OF PIPV
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
PV systems: components
PV modules
BOS: Balance of System
MPP trackers
Inverters, most of the time DC/AC
Energy storage, usually batteries
Battery management systems (BMS)
Other power electronics, cabling, diodes etc
Sun tracking systems
Racks and other mounting systems for PV arrays
Cabinets for inverters
Monitoring equipment, if necessary
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
2/7/2016
MPP TRACKERS
Different algorithms based on the shape of an IV curve. Most common: Perturb and
Observe. The controller adjusts the voltage by a small amount from the array and
measures power; if the power increases, further adjustments in that direction are tried
until power no longer increases.
In general: sensitive for non-optimal peaks due to shading
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
2/7/2016
Inverters (DC/AC)
Applied in grid-connected systems to convert DC power from PV arry to AC power that can be fed in the grid
Most inverters have an integrated MPP tracker (see previous slide)
Power electronics: MOSFETs or Thyristor (large inverter)
Requirements PV inverters:
Electromagnetic compatibility: EMC, not sending undesired signals and immune against external disturbances
Provision against island operation: automatic switch off
2/7/2016
Inverters DC/AC
2/7/2016
ENERGY STORAGE
Different means for energy storage available, however for PV applications
lead-acid batteries are still the most dominant form of energy storage,
because of low costs and matureness of technology (Sorensen, 2015)
2/7/2016
Batteries
Important battery properties
The capacity: the amount of charge energy (Wh) or charge (Ah) which
can be withdrawn from a fully charged battery
The energy storage efficiency: the ratio between the amount of energy
that can be withdrawn from a charged battery and the energy needed to
charge it.
Notice: batteries lower discharge limit depth of discharge- is usually
above 40% of a fully charged batteries state of charge (see next slide)
The cyclic service of the battery: the number of times that a battery can
be discharged to a specified depth of discharge (until it gets worn out)
2/7/2016
Batteries
State of charge: SOC
SOC = (Crated Cdischarged)/Crated
SOC = Cremaining/Crated
2/7/2016
Batteries
2/7/2016
Perez,
1993
2/7/2016
Perez,
1993
2/7/2016
NiCd
NiMH
Li-ion
Lead-acid
45-80
60-120
110-160
30-50
Internal Resistance in m
(includes peripheral circuits)
100-200
6V pack
200-300
6V pack
<100-250
7.2V pack
1500
300-500
300-500
200-300
Service Life
5 years +
3-4 years
2-3 years
5 years +
1-2h
2-4h
-4h
8-16h
20%
30%
5-10%
5%
1.2V
1.2V
3.7V
2V
20C
1C
5C
0.5C or lower
2-5C
1C or lower
5C
0.2C
-40 to 60C
-20 to 60C
-20 to 60C
-20 to 60C
Maintenance Requirement
30-60 days
60-90 days
6 months
6 months
$50 (7.2V)
$60 (7.2V)
$100 (7.2V)
$25 (6V)
$0.04
$0.12
$0.14
$0.10
Load Current
peak
best result
2/7/2016
SUN TRACKING
A sun tracker is device that orients PV modules towards the sun with the
objective to minimize the angle of incidence between the incoming beams of
irradiance and the PV modules.
Also sun tracking is a requirement in Concentrating PV (CPV). Therefore we
will come back to this topic in lecture 6.
Two approaches:
Single axis tracking, horizontal, vertical (East to West) and tilted
Dual axis tracking, full tracking of sun in all directions
Issues with wind loads, wear of drives, costs
By lack of good references to tracking, please read http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_tracker
Lecture 2 - Solar Energy
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
Final yield
Besides the system efficiency the following normalized index can be
determined
Final yield Yf = Euse,PV,day Po (kWh/kWp)
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Performance ratio
The performance ration follows from the final yield and the reference yield
Reference yield Yr = day GI dt GSTC
Final yield Yf = Euse,PV,day Po
Performance ratio PR = Yf Yr (%)
Nowadays PV systems can reach a PR of 90%!
2/7/2016
Performance grid-connected PV
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
SIMULATION TOOLS
2/7/2016
PVGIS
http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/
Easy to handle
Can be used to calculate daily irradiance profiles, monthly irradiance,
electricity generation of different grid-connected PV systems
Produces data and graphs
Meteorological data for Europe, Africa and Asia
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2/7/2016
2/7/2016
Homer
http://homerenergy.com/
Easy to handle
Can be used to simulate small energy systems with solar PV, wind
turbines, batteries, fuel cells electrolyzers, both stand alone and
connected to the grid
Produces data and graphs
Optimization of system components with respect to customizable
variables: meteo data or costs or total power etc.
Possibility to input measured meteo data
This is THE standard simulation environment for professional RET experts
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
2/7/2016
To read:
These lecture slides
Chapter 7 of PVeducation: Modules and Arrays
See: http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules/introduction
FYI, to give you an overview: report IEA-PVPS T1-27:2015 (on Blackboard)
To prepare:
Assignment 1, submission on February 18th, 2016
Assignment 2, this assignment is a mini-project which has to be executed in
couples. Submit topic on February 15th, 2016, presentation on March 16th
2/7/2016
ASSIGNMENT 2
MINI PROJECT
2/7/2016
ASSIGNMENT 2
MINI PROJECT
2/7/2016
CONTENTS
18/02/16
Sunlight1
Contact grid
AR-coating
0,3 mm
2 3
6
Electron
current
P-typeregion
Back contact
N-type region
Junction
Fig. 001_5
18/02/16
Principle of operation
Sunlight (photons) 1
N
Separation 5
Absorption 2
Diffusion 4
Load
Generation 3
External
current 6
18/02/16
2500
Intensity (W/m2m)
AM 1 => 0
AM 0 => 0 (ET)
AM 1,5 => 48.2o
2000
Solar constant = 1,353 W/m2
1500
1000
AM =
500
Visible
UV
0
0.25
area
0.5
1
(cos )
IR
1.0
Wavelength (m)
1.5
2.0
2.5
FIG. 015.2
18/02/16
E = h =
h = Plancks constant
hc
= velocity of light
= =
18/02/16
V = 1 volt
18/02/16
Visible area
Ultra violet
Infra red
3.18 eV
violet
1.61 eV
blue
0.39
red
0.77
FIG 047.2
Wavelength (m)
18/02/16
Principle of operation
Sunlight (photons) 1
N
Separation 5
Absorption 2
Diffusion 4
Load
Generation 3
External
current 6
18/02/16
I(x ) = I ( x = 0 ) e x
() : absorption coefficient
0
dp =
0
( )
1
I (x = 0)
( )
= I ( x = 0 ) e
= I ( x = 0 ) e 1 =
I x = dp =
( )
e
18/02/16
10
Absorption coefficient
(cm-1)
1.24
0.62
0.41 0.35
5
10
4
10
Infrared
300K
= 1.05 m
3
10
2
10
= 10 cm-1
dp=
1
= 1000 m
= 105 cm-1
dp=
1
= 0.1 m
Violet
= 0.41 m
10
1
-1
10
1.0
FIG 048.1
18/02/16
11
Sunlight
Red light
Blue light
1 m
100 m
LIB-1465
18/02/16
12
ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT
18/02/16
13
Principle of operation
Sunlight (photons) 1
N
Separation 5
Absorption 2
Diffusion 4
Load
Generation 3
External
current 6
18/02/16
14
GENERATION RATE G
= 0
18/02/16
15
IV-curves (1)
Iph
V1
IV-curve diode
V
V1
Id(V1 )
I
I (V1 )
V1
Iph
V
Solar Energy - Lecture 2
14/02/13
16
SHOCKLEY EQUATION
= exp
where:
I = the net current flowing through the diode;
IS = "dark saturation current",
diode leakage current density in absence of light;
V = applied voltage across the terminals of the diode;
q = absolute value of electron charge;
n = diode ideality factor (n ~ 1)
k = Boltzmann's constant; and
T = absolute temperature (K).
Solar Energy - Lecture 2
14/02/13
17
I
+
I ph
Id
V
qV
I = I ph I s e kT 1
18/02/16
18
Rs
I
+
I ph
R sh
Rs = Series resistance
Rsh = Shunt resistance
V
-
I = I ph
q (V +kTI Rs )
V + I Rs
Is e
1
Rsh
18/02/16
19
18/02/16
20
I
+
I ph
D1
D2
Rsh
V
-
I Rs )
I Rs )
V +IR
q (Vn+ kT
q (Vn+kT
s
1
2
I = I ph I s1 e
1
1 I s 2 e
Rsh
18/02/16
21
SILICON PV MANUFACTURING
18/02/16
22
18/02/16
23
FEEDSTOCK PRODUCTION
Quartz sand
SiO2
Reduction with carbon C
SiO2 + C Si + SiO + CO
Si with 98% purity, metallurgical grade silicon
Metallurgical grade Si
Conversion to SiHCl3
Fractional distillation of SiHCl3
Deposition as polysilicon rod
Zone refining
Electronic
grade Si feedstock
Semiconductor
industry
Siemens process
At least 99.9999% (6N) purity for
solar-grade silicon: SoG-Si
waste
Waste
18/02/16
24
High-purity silica (SiO2) or quartzite is mixed with charcoal, wood chips and
coal. The carbon reduces the silica to form silicon:
2 +
1900
+ 2
+ +
1900
2 + 2
1900
3 + 2
18/02/16
25
2. PURIFICATION OF SILICON
300
3 + 2 +
18/02/16
26
3. PRODUCTION OF SOC-SILICON
1150
2 + 6
This process, known as the Siemens process, is the best known technique
for producing silicon feedstock for PV application.
18/02/16
27
Remaining lectures
Cheap
substrate
Thin film
PV
FIG 054.1
Multicrystalline silicon
solar cells
18/02/16
28
18/02/16
29
Seed crystal
Silicon rod
Molten silicon
Fig. 003_2
18/02/16
30
Solid
Liquid-solid
transition
TL
Fig. 004-2
18/02/16
31
MULTI-CRYSTALLINE SILICON
18/02/16
32
Descriptor
Symbol
Grain Size
Common
Growth
Techniques
Mono crystalline
or single crystal
sc-Si
>10cm
Czochralski (CZ)
float zone (FZ)
Multicrystalline
mc-Si
1mm-10cm
Cast, sheet,
ribbon
Polycrystalline
pc-Si
1m-1mm
Chemical-vapour
deposition
Microcrystalline
c-Si
<1m
Plasma
deposition
18/02/16
33
18/02/16
34
Sawing of wafers
Wire sawing process:
Wafer thinkness ~ 180 m
Kerf loss of ~200 m
Sawing takes about
6 to 8 hours for
156 x 156 mm cells
Wire
Silicon block
Fig. 005_2
18/02/16
35
SQUARED-OFF CZ INGOT
18/02/16
36
Removal of sawing
P
damage by etching
Formation of N-layer
by phosphorus diffusion
ARC
Deposition of anti-
reflection coating
ARC
Metallisation by
screen printing
FIG 060.1
18/02/16
37
80-ies
18/02/16
38
18/02/16
39
ABSORPTION OF LIGHT
18/02/16
40
18/02/16
41
R
R
busbar
finger
sheet n-layer
contact
bulk
Solar Energy - Lecture 3
18/02/16
42
18/02/16
43
18/02/16
44
SURFACE TEXTURE
(a)
(b)
FIG 056.2
n1 > n2
Solar Energy - Lecture 3
18/02/16
45
SURFACE TEXTURE
Inverted pyramids
18/02/16
46
Bare silicon has a high surface reflection of over 30%. An ARC reduces reflection
by destructive interference of light.
35
Bare silicon
30
Antireflection
coating
nARC, d
FIG 057.2
Silicon
n2
n ARC d =
0
4
n ARC = n0 n 2
Guidelines for
refractive indices:
nair=1.0001
nglass=1.46
nsilicon=3.44
Reflection (%)
Air or glass
n0
25
Silicon
In air
Under glass
20
15
n = 2.3
With
AR
n = 1.9
10
n = 2.3
5
0
FIG 058.2
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
Wavelength (m)
18/02/16
1.1
47
p-substrate
- electron
photon
p +-layer
BSF
Back
contact
BSR
18/02/16
Fig 008_2
48
Light source
Fig. 001.7
18/02/16
49
Chopper
Narrow band
filter
Solar
cell
Light source
Bias light
source
PSD
FIG 061.1
18/02/16
50
0.9
0.8
EQE (A/W)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
300
400
500
600
700
800
(nm)
900
1000
1100
1200
FIG 023.2
18/02/16
51
To read:
These lecture slides and information mentioned at Blackboard
To prepare:
Assignment 3 to be submitted at March 14th, 2016 on Blackboard.
18/02/16
52
CONTENTS
Semiconductors
PN junction
Diode equation (general case)
To do for next week
22/02/16
Principle of operation
Sunlight (photons) 1
N
Separation 5
Absorption 2
Diffusion 4
Load
Generation 3
External
current 6
22/02/16
=1/
22/02/16
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Column/
Period
Mg Al
Si
Zn Ga Ge As Se
Cd
Hg
II
III
IV
VI
In
Sn Sb Te
Pb
22/02/16
SEMICONDUCTOR SILICON
+14
2 e8 e-
4 e-
Schematic representation
of an isolated Si atom with
3 energy levels / shells / for
electrons Solar Energy - Lecture 4
22/02/16
SEMICONDUCTOR SILICON
BAND GAP
Eg ~1,14 eV
Forbidden gap
Ge Eg ~ 0,67 eV
GaAs Eg~ 1,42 eV
Solar Energy - Lecture 4
22/02/16
22/02/16
Eph < Eg
Photons with energy Eph less than the band gap energy Eg
interact only weakly with the semiconductor, passing through
it as if it were transparent.
Eph = Eg
Eph > Eg
Photons with energy much greater than the band gap are
strongly absorbed. However, for photovoltaic applications, the
photon energy greater than the band gap is wasted as
electrons quickly thermalize back down to the conduction
band edges.
22/02/16
10
2500
Intensity (W/m2m)
2000
Solar constant = 1,353 W/m2
1500
1000
Irradiance on earth (AM 1.5)
500
Visible
UV
0
0.25
area
0.5
IR
1.0
Wavelength (m)
1.5
2.0
2.5
FIG. 015.2
18/02/16
11
22/02/16
12
The exact value of the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon has been
extensively studied.
At 300 K the generally accepted value for the intrinsic carrier concentration
of silicon, ni, is 9.65 x 109 cm-3 ,given by Altermatt.
A formula for the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon as a function of
temperature is given by Misiakos:
ni(T)=5.29 1019 x (T/300)2.54 x e(6726/T)
Notice that solar cells are usually measured at 25 C where the intrinsic
carrier concentration is 8.3 x 109 cm-3.
22/02/16
13
DOPING
Shift the balance of electrons and holes in a silicon crystal lattice by "doping" it with
other atoms which have different numbers of valence e Doping creates N-type material (negatively charged material) when semiconductor
materials from group IV are doped with group V atoms. P-type materials (positively
charged) are created when semiconductor materials from group IV are doped with
group III atoms.
Column/
Period
II
III
IV
VI
Mg
Al
Si
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hg - Lecture 4
Solar Energy
Pb
22/02/16
14
N-type silicon
CB
DONORS
VB
T=0K
- - - - - + + + + +
T=300K
CB
IONISED
DONORS
VB
22/02/16
15
P-type silicon
CB
ACCEPTORS
VB
T=0K
CB
- - - - - IONISED
ACCEPTORS
+ + + + + +
T=300K
VB
22/02/16
16
0 0 = 2
where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration and n0 and p0 are the electron and hole equilibrium
carrier concentrations
The concentrations of the majority carriers and , and the concentrations of the
minority carriers and , are given by:
N-type material: = , =
P-type material: = , =
22/02/16
17
Principle of operation
Sunlight (photons) 1
N
Separation 5
Absorption 2
Diffusion 4
Load
Generation 3
External
current 6
22/02/16
18
N-Si
P-Si
N-Si
+
+
+
+
+
N-Si
0.5V
CB
1m
VB
22/02/16
20
P-Si
N-Si
Si to N-Si
Diffusion of holes (majorities from N-Si to
0.5V
P-Si
CB
VB
1m
Si (majorities) to N-Si
At Vexternal= 0, balance between these two
currents
22/02/16
21
PN JUNCTION
Built-in potential
0 =
P-type
N-type
Ecp
qV0
EF
Ecn
Evp
Slope proportional to electric field
1m
Evn
Solar Energy - Lecture 4
22/02/16
22
22/02/16
23
SHOCKLEY EQUATION
= 0 exp
where:
I = the net current flowing through the diode;
I0 = "dark saturation current",
that is the diode leakage current density in the absence of light;
V = applied voltage across the terminals of the diode (V)
q = absolute value of electron charge, 1.602 10-19 C
k = Boltzmanns constant = 1,38 10-23 J/K
T = absolute temperature (K)
Notice that:
I0 increases as T increases; and
I0 decreases as material quality increases
VT is the thermal voltage ~25.85 mV at 300K
22/02/16
24
V1
IV-curve diode
V
V1
Id(V1 )
I
I (V1 )
V1
Iph
V
Solar Energy - Lecture 4
22/02/16
25
P
3
Diffusion
4
CB
Eg
3
Generation
Separation
VB
Solar Energy - Lecture 4
22/02/16
26
RECOMBINATION
Eventually, electrons lose energy and fall back to the valence band, recombining
with a hole: this is recombination.
There are three types of bulk recombination, see next slide for examples
1. Shockley-Read-Hall (through defects, which happens typically in PV cells)
2. Auger (three carriers, dominates in silicon solar cells)
3. Radiative (dominating recombination effect in LEDs)
Also, surface recombination happens at the surface of a cell by dangling bonds
In low level injected material (where the number of minority carriers is less than the
doping) the lifetime of charge carriers is related to the recombination rate by:
is the minority carrier lifetime, n is the excess minority carriers concentration and
=
R is the recombination rate, notice there exist two lifetimes: namely n and p
Solar Energy - Lecture 4
22/02/16
27
RECOMBINATION
22/02/16
28
DIFFUSION
22/02/16
29
MOBILITY
22/02/16
30
1. General case
2. Specific case
22/02/16
31
I = I1 + I2 + I3 I4
[ 4.1 ]
I1 = k1n p
[ 4.2 ]
I2 = k 2 ppe q1 / kT
[ 4.3 ]
I3 = k 3 nn e q1 /kT
[ 4.4 ]
I4 = k 4 pn
[ 4.5 ]
FIG. 018.1
q1
Ec
I1
I4
Ev
I3
I2
22/02/16
32
[ 4.7 ]
[ 4.8 ]
Is = k1np + k4 pp
[ 4.9 ]
qV
kT
I = Is e 1
[ 4.10 ]
Is
FIG 031.1
22/02/16
33
N-area
J p = -qDp
pp0
nn 0
n
p n0
x1
x2
[ 4.11 ]
1 dp p
=
E
p dx D p
[ 4.12 ]
kT
[ 4.13 ]
D=
np 0
FIG 032_2
dp
+ qp pE
dx
n dp
p
pn0
ln
pp
0
n qE
kT
dx
q
=
(V -V )
kT p n
[ 4.15 ]
[ 4.16 ]
22/02/16
34
n p0
nn0
q
( Vp - Vn )
= exp
kT
kT n p0
Vd = Vp - Vn =
ln
q nn0
[ 4.18 ]
[ 4.19 ]
22/02/16
35
N-area
pp0
qV
p2
= e kT
pp
[ 4.20 ]
nn 0
with
p2
n1
p
p n0
n
np 0
FIG 033_2
x1
x2
V = Vd + Va
qVd qVa
qVa
p
p2
n
= e kT e kT = 0 e kT
pp
pp0
[ 4.21 ]
[ 4.22 ]
pp pp0
p2 = pn0 e
n1 = n p0 e
qVa
kT
qVa
kT
Solar Energy - Lecture 4
[ 4.23 ]
[ 4.24 ]
22/02/16
36
Diffusion equation
d 2 pn pn - pn0
Dp
=
dx 2
(p
) (
[ 4.25 ]
n - pn0 = p2 - pn0 e
- ( x - x 2 ) /Lp
[ 4.27 ]
Lp = Dp
[ 4.28 ]
a
qV
- ( x-x2 ) /Lp
kT
pn=pn0 +pn0 e -1 e
[ 4.29 ]
a
qV
( x-x1 ) /Ln
kT
n p=np0 +np0 e -1 e
[ 4.30 ]
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37
[ 4.31 ]
dn
dx
[ 4.32 ]
J n p = -qDn
dp
J p n = qD p
dx
x = x1
[ 4.33 ]
x = x2
kT
J = J0 e - 1
a
qV
e kT - 1
[ 4.34 ]
[ 4.35 ]
[ 4.36 ]
Solar Energy - Lecture 4
22/02/16
38
exp
I0
I0 is the reversed saturation current
22/02/16
39
Shockley-Queisser Limit
1.
2.
3.
22/02/16
40
Forbidden gap
Eg
h > Eg
33%
h < Eg
23%
Voc / Eg limited
12%
22/02/16
41
35
CdTe
Efficiency (%)
30
CuInGaSe2
CuInSe2
Si
25
a-Si:H:F
GaAs
a-Si:H
20
15
T = 300 K
CdS
Ge
10
5
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
FIG 019_2
22/02/16
42
To read:
These lecture slides
The following handouts at Blackboard:
- Efficiency limiting factors
- SolarEnergy_Diode
To do:
Work on assignment 2 or 3
Excercises shown on next slide
22/02/16
43
EXERCISES
1. Read: http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/design/anti-reflection-coatings
What is the ARC thickness for nARC=2.1 and = 600 nm?
Fill this thickness in the interactive graph of reflection vs wavelength.
What do you see? Could you explain what happens if you increase the
thickness of the ARC to 155 nm?
2. Read: http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/design/light-trapping
Use the light trapping calculator on this webpage to determine the
proportion of reflected and transmitted light at an air silicon surface for
incidence angles of 0 to 90 degrees, and the other way around for a siliconair surface, for incidence angles of 0 to 90 degrees. Make graphs.
Explain your observations.
Solar Energy - Lecture 4
22/02/16
44
CONTENTS
FIG. 018.1
to P-Si (I4)
I1
q1
Ec
I4
Ev
I3
I2
minority electrons
p++
Energy band diagram for a homojunction with back surface field, i.e.
heavily doped p+ area
Energy band diagram for a heterojunction solar cell such as HIT cells.
Heterojunctions have different semiconductor materials at both sides of
the PN-junction.That means that the
band gap is different for the n-type
and the p-type area of the cell.
THIN-FILM PV TECHNOLOGIES
CONTENTS
Organic PV
Multi-junction solar cells
Concentrating PV systems
Space applications
EFFICIENCY OF PV TECHNOLOGIES
A good source for reliable
up to date efficiency values
is the Solar Cell Efficiency
Table which is published
twice a year in the journal
Progress in Photovoltaics, see:
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1002/pip.2728/full
Actually the Best Research Cell
Efficiencies Chart by NREL is using
(partially) the values reported in PiP
ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS
1972:
chlorophyl
sensitized zinc oxide (ZnO)
electrode
Nowadays:
Graetzel cell with
ruthenium complexes on TiO2
Sony
Solar Energy - Lecture 6 31-03-2016
e-
Efficiencies:
11,9% for < 1 cm2 cell
~7% for 120 cm2 module
MATERIALS IN DSSC
SEMICONDUCTING POLYMERS
ADVANTAGES
ETHENE (ETHYLENE)
C2H4
Conjugated polymer
means that the polymer
has single and double bonds
SEMICONDUCTING POLYMERS
Inorganic
semiconductor
Organic
Semiconductor
i.e. conjugated
polymers
MOLECULAR ORBITALS
Organics consisting of alternating single and double bonds
In -conjugated polymers the -orbitals provide discrete energy levels
ELECTRICAL-OPTICAL PROPERTIES
ABSORPTION OF LIGHT
POLYMER SEMICONDUCTORS
= x nanoseconds
As a result organic double layer p/n cell rarely have efficiencies above 1%
Siemens
Solar Energy - Lecture 6 31-03-2016
Production processes:
1. spray coating,
2. slot-die coating,
3. inkjet printing,
4. screen printing
5. rotary screen printing
Because of diversity in
production there is a freedom
of design of OPV modules
New development with promising efficiencies > 21%, see figure below
with X= I-, Br-, Cl
Perovskites are structured like the mineral calcium titanium oxide
(CaTiO3)
Stability issues under
exposure to oxygen
Voc =~ 1,1 V
III V MATERIALS
Therefore restricted energy levels for conduction band and valence band
Column
Period
II
III
IV
VI
Mg
Al
Si
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Hg
Pb
Solar Energy - Lecture 6 31-03-2016
MULTI-JUNCTION APPROACH
Single junctions
multijunction
MULTI-JUNCTION APPROACH
Single junctions
MULTI-JUNCTION APPROACH
Single junctions
Multi-junction
TYPICAL STRUCTURE
APPLICATION ISSUES
Wavelength (m)
Solar Energy - Lecture 6 31-03-2016
CONCENTRATING PV
FROM 40 TO 50 %
FROM 40 TO 50 %
MEASURED QE OF 4J CELL
The open circuit voltage of solar cells depends on the cell temperature
CONCENTRATOR CELLS
Maximum efficiency:
= /
CONCENTRATING PV SYSTEMS
CONCENTRATING PV
CONCENTRATING PV
CPV
CONCENTRATED PV
CONCENTRATING PV (CPV)
Cell + Optics
Module + Electronics
Tracking system
http://www.soitec.com/en/technologies/concentrix/components/
CONCENTRATING PV (CPV)
CONCENTRATION OF SUNLIGHT
Different approaches towards concentration of light, for CPV, concentration in one focus point is
the standard (i.e. little attention to linear concentration): Fresnel Lenses, Dish Mirror, Waveguide
Concentrating optics, Azur, 2014
Simple maintenance of
gear and motor
THERMAL ASPECTS
SOITEC CONCENTRIX
SOITEC CONCENTRIX
SOLAR SYSTEMS
SOLAR SYSTEMS
CPV EFFICIENCY
SPACE APPLICATIONS
ENERGY IN SPACE
PV SYSTEMS IN SATELLITES
Usually consisting of an autonomous PV
system with III-V cells with a lithium battery
~1.000km
~35.000km
NASA
SOLAR CELLS
Mono-crystalline silicon
GaAs or other III V solar cells
Interest in thin film cells (CIGS) for future applications
Nearly ideally matched to the AM0 spectrum
Situation during launch creates many vibrations
Deployment of solar panels in space
TO DO
To read:
Powerpoint presentation of this lecture
Article organic solar cells
Submit: Assignment 4
Try out: the sample exam
Please notice that the study materials to be examed are all shown in the
activity overview of this course.