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General Chemistry 1.1
General Chemistry 1.1
Chemistry
The central science
Chemistry is the study of
matter including their
chemical and physical properties
chemical and physical changes it
undergoes
energy changes that accompany
those processes
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Rowel P. Catchillar, MS Phar
Major Divisions
energy
Laws
Principles
General
Chemistry
Inorganic
Chemistry
Physical
Chemistry
Organic
Chemistry
changes
Study of matter
composition
properties
Matter
Major Divisions
Biochemistry
Nuclear
Chemistry
Geological
Chemistry
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Mass vs Weight
Mass
Weight
Units of Measurement
States of Matter
Name of Unit
Meter
Kilogram
Seconds
Kelvin
Mole
Ampere
Candela
Interconversion of Matter
STATE SHAPE
VOLUME
Solid
Definite Definite
Liquid Indefinite Definite
Gas
Indefinite Indefinite
COMPRESSION
Very slight
Slight
High
Symbol
m
kg
sec
K
mol
A
cd
IFA
Strongest
Strong
Weakest
MOLECULAR
MOTION
Vibration
Gliding
Constant
random
motion
Classification of Matter
Element
Simplest form of matter,1 kind of
material or atom
Compound
Substance composed of two or
more elements united chemically
in definite proportion
Mixture
Composed of 2 or more substances
that are not chemically combined
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Classification of Mixture
Classification of Mixture
HETEROGENEOUS
Consists of physically
distinct parts, each with
different properties
HOMOGENEOUS
Consists of uniform
properties throughout
given samples; two or
more substance but
single phase
Separation of Mixture
Separation of Mixture
Decantation
Evaporation
Distillation
Distillation followed by
condensation
Magnetic separation
metals
Separation of Mixture
Separation of Mixture
Filtration
Fractional crystallization
Sorting
mechanical separation
Centrifugation
to increase settling of a
precipitate
Chromatography
difference in solvent affinity
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Properties of Matter
Properties of Matter
Extrinsic or extensive
properties
Changes in matter
Physical change
Evolution of gas
Formation of a precipitate
Emission of light
Generation of electricity
Production of mechanical
energy
Absorption/liberation of heat
Chemical change
Nuclear Change
Oxidation
Neutralization
LEORA
Oxidation (+) Oxygen
Dehydogenation (-) Hydrogen
Reduction
GEROA
Hydrogenation (+) Hydrogen
Reduction (-) Oxygen
Salt formation
Hydrolysis
Breakdown of molecule in the
presence of water
Saponification
Soap formation
Fermentation
Alcohol + CO2
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aA + bB cC + dD
Result Analysis
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ATOMS
MOLECULES
IONS
ATOMS
Democritus
MOLECULE
smallest unit of a compound
ION
positively or negatively charged atom
Positive ion: cation
Negative ion: anion
Matter is made up of
indivisible particles
he pounded up
materials in his
pestle and mortar
until he had reduced
them to smaller and
smaller particles
which he called
ATOMOS
(indivisible)
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Ernest Rutherford
Gold Film
Experiment
Most particles
passed through. So,
atoms are mostly
empty.
Some positive particles deflected or
bounced back!
Thus, a nucleus is
positive & holds most
of an atoms mass
Planetary Model
Neil Bohr
Refined Rutherfords idea by
adding that the electrons were in
orbits (like planets orbiting the
sun)
Model: Planetary Model
electrons in orbits
nucleus
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James Chadwick
Erwin
Schrodinger
Neutron
discovery
Quantum
Mechanical
Model
Atomic Structure
Nuclide Writing
Composition
A nuclide is an atom
characterized by a definite
atomic number and mass
number
Atomic Particles
Proton
Neutron
Electron
1,836 lighter than proton, thus
negligible
Remember Me!
Exercises
If neutral
Determine the
Proton
Atomic #
Neutron
Electron
Mass Number
Nucleon #
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Exercises
Exercises
Determine the
Determine the
Proton
Atomic #
Neutron
Electron
Mass Number
Nucleon #
Proton
Atomic #
Neutron
Electron
Mass Number
Nucleon #
Essential Terms
Isotopes
Isobars
Isotones
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Allotropism
phenomenon of an element
existing in two or more physical
forms
Same elemental constituent,
different form
Electron Configuration
representation of the
arrangement of electrons that
are distributed among the
orbitals.
Long-hand Method
Diagonal rule
Madelungs rule
Klechkowskis rule
An empirical rule for determining the
order in which atomic orbitals are
filled
Short-hand notation
Nobel gas method
Orbital Notation
Electronic Principles
Quantum Mechanics
Heisenbergs Uncertainty
Theory
Paulis Exclusion Theory
Aufbau Principle Diagonal
rule
Hunds Rule
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Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics
Azimuthal QN / Angular
Momentum Number
Magnetic QN
Symbol: l
Values: 0 to (n-1)
Quantum Mechanics
Spin QN
3p4
4s2
3d10
Antoine Lavoisier
Johann Dobereiner
Atomic mass
7
23
39
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Li
Be
(6.9) (9.0)
Na
Mg
(23.0) (24.3)
K
Ca
B
C
(10.8) (12.0)
Al
Si
(27.0) (28.1)
N
(14.0)
P
(31.0)
O
(16.0)
S
(32.1)
F
(19.0)
Cl
(35.5)
(39.1) (40.1)
Henry Moseley
Period
Groups
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Metals vs Nonmetals
METALS
Good conductors of heat
and electricity
Form BASIC oxides
Lustrous, Ductile,
Malleable
High Density
High Melting point
Tends to lose e-
Metalloids
Periodic Trends
Atomic Radius
NON-METALS
Poor conductors
Form ACIDIC oxides
Dull & Brittle if Solid
Low Density
Low Melting point
Tends to accept e-
Electron affinity
Electronegativity
Periodic Trends
Intramolecular Force of
Attraction
ELECTRONEGATIVITY / IE / EA
Covalent Bond
Polar Covalent Bond
Non-polar
Ionic Bond
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Memorize me!
Element
Fluorine
Oxygen
Chlorine
Nitrogen
Bromine
Carbon
Sulfur
Hydrogen
Sodium
Potassium
Electronegativity
4.0
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.8
2.5
2.5
2.1
0.9
0.8
Chemical Bonding
Based on Electronegativity
Difference
SrCl2
PCl3
NH3
RbBr
LiCl
Ionic
Covalent
Covalent
Ionic
Ionic
Chemical Bonding
SOLUTIONS
Water
CH3F
Br2
NH3
CH2O
C 2H 2
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Types of Solutions
Saturated
Unsaturated
Supersaturated
Temperature
Endothermic
solubility increases with increases
in temperature
Concentration-Dependent Solution
Properties
Raoults law
when a solute is added to a
solvent, the vapor pressure of
the solvent decreases in
proportion to the concentration of
the solute
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Colligative Properties
Colligative Properties
Colligative Properties
Colligative Properties
presence of salt/non-volatile
solid will cause lowering of
freezing point
Application: Manufacture of ice
cream
Colligative Properties
Gas Laws
Osmotic pressure
Clinical Correlation:
Isotonicity
Hypertonic
Hypotonic
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Gas Laws
Kinetic molecular theory of gases
Gas Laws
Boyles Law
Sometimes: Mariotte
law
Relationship of
pressure and volume
at constant
temperature
Inversely proportional
P1V1 = P2V2 (show
derivation)
P 1/V
Gas Laws
Gas Laws
Boyles Law
Charles Law
Relationship of
volume and
temperature at
constant
pressure
Directly
proportional
V T
Formula:
Gas Laws
Gas Laws
Charles Law
Gay-Lussacs Law
Relationship of temperature and
pressure at constant volume
Directly proportional (
temperature, pressure)
Formula:
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Gas Laws
Combined Gas Law
Provides convenient expression
for performing gas law
calculations involving the most
common variables: pressure,
volume, and temperature.
Formula:
Gas Laws
Ideal Gas Law (Ideal Gas
Equation)
Formula: PV = nRT
Where:
R = gas constant (R = 0.08206 L-atm / molK)
T = (Kelvin instead of degrees Celsius)
n = moles
STP:
T = 273.15 K
P = 1 atm
V = 22.4 L
Gas Laws
Gas Laws
Gas Laws
Gas Laws
Grahams Law
Avogadros Law
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Dissociation
Ionization
Strong electrolytes
formation of ions
Weak electrolytes
Acid-Base Theories
THEORY
Arrhenius
Theory
BronstedLowry Theory
Lewis Theory
Pearsons
HSAB
ACID
Substance that yields
H+ or H3O+ in H2O
Proton donor
Electron-acceptor
Electron donor
Hard acids are electron acceptor with high
positive charges and relatively small sizes
while soft acids have positive charges and
relatively large sizes
Taste: SOUR
Litmus : blue red
Aqueous solutions conduct electricity
Reacts with metal to liberate hydrogen
gas
Reacts with carbonate and bicarbonate
to produce carbon dioxide
Turns colorless with phenolphthalein
Turns red with methyl orange indicator
Most common strong acids: HCl, HBr,
HI, HNO3, HCIO3, HCIO4, H2SO4
pH
Taste: BITTER
Litmus: red blue
Aqueous solutions conduct
electricity
Slippery to touch
Pink color with phenolphthalein
Yellow with methyl orange
Most common strong bases
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
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Dissociation Constant
Dissociation Constants
Essential Formula
Salts
SA: pH = -log
WA: pH = -log ( . )
SB: pH = pkw [(-log (OH-)]
WB: pH = pkw [(-log . )
(H+)
Note
Ka or Kb > 10O is strong acid/base
Ka or Kb <10O is weak acid/base
Buffer Equation
Henderson-Hasselbalch
Equation
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Binary Ionic
Binary ionic
with two or
more types
of cations
Binary Ionic
FORMULA
AlCl3
NAME
Al2O3
FORMULA
NAME
Barium
sulfide
LiI
MgBr2
Calcium
carbide
HCl
Sodium
hydride
HI
Na2O
Binary Ionic
FORMULA
Cu+1
Cu+2
Hg+1;
(Hg2)+2
Hg+2
Fe+2
Fe+3
Sn+2
Sn+4
Pb+2
Pb+4
As+3
As+5
Ti+3
Ti+4
STOCK
SYSTEM
NAME
Copper (I)
Copper (II)
Mercury (I)
CLASSICAL
NAME
Mercury (II)
Iron (II)
Iron (III)
Tin (II)
Tin (IV)
Lead (II)
Lead (IV)
Arsenic (III)
Arsenic (V)
Titanium (III)
Titanium (IV)
FORMULA
SnF4
Fe2O3
PBI2
CuO
NAME
FORMULA
NAME
Iron (II) sulfide
Cuprous oxide
Stannous chloride
Titanic bromide
Binary Molecular
FORMULA
CO
CO2
PCl3
CCl4
N2O
NAME
FORMULA
H2O
N2O4
NO
S2Cl2
Cl2O
NAME
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FORMULA CHARGE
BO33-3
BrO3-1
CO32-2
ClO4ClO3-1
ClO2ClO
FORMULA CHARGE
C2O42-2
MnO4-1
PO43-3
SO42-2
SO32-2
FORMULA CHARGE
C2H2O2-1
NH4+
+1
AsO4 3-3
HCO3-1
HSO4-
-1
FORMULA CHARGE
CrO42-2
CN-1
Cr2O72-2
OH-1
NO3-1
NO2-1
Ternary Ionic
NAME
FORMULA
NaNO3
Calcium phosphate
Lithium carbonate
NaClO3
Potassium permanganate
Sodium bicarbonate
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Binary Acids
Binary acid
H + non-metal
Hydro + <non-metal stem> -ic +
acid
NAME
Hydrochloric acid
FORMULA
HI
Hydrosulfuric acid
HF
Hydrophosphoric
acid
NAME
FORMULA
H2SO4
Sulfurous acid
Nitric acid
HNO2
H2CO3
Boric acid
Ternary Acid
NAME
Ternary Acid
FORMULA
H3PO4
HIO3
Acetic acid
H2C2O4
HBrO3
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Decomposition
Opposite of synthesis
reaction
AB B + A
Electrolysis of water
Single Displacement
Double displacement
A + BC AC + B
Combustion
Balancing of Equation
By Inspection
Algebraic Method
By Redox-Reaction
NOTE: In performing
chemical reactions, it is
required to balance the
equations, if applicable.
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Rules in assigning ON
Oxidation number
charge on an atom in a
compound
Rule: Assign a number (charge)
to every atom
S8
H2O
H2O2
HCOOH
LiH
Acidic Solution
Basic Solution
AlH3
KMnO4
NaH2PO4
ClO4-
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
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Types of System
TYPE OF SYSTEM
Open (Nonconservative)
Closed (Conservative)
Isolated (Adiabatic)
Important Terms
ALLOWS EXCHANGE
OF
Matter & Energy
TERM
Heat
Work
Energy ONLY
No matter, No energy
SYMBOL
DESCRIPTION
Q
Energy transfer due to
temperature difference
w
A form of energy transfer between
and its surroundings in the form of
compression or expansion of the
gas
Important Terms
Important Terms
TERM
SYMBOL
DESCRIPTION
Enthalpy H
Represents heat; energy of a
reaction
Entropy S
Determines the degree of
randomness or disorderliness.
TERM
Free
energy
SYMBOL
G
DESCRIPTION
Represents the combined
contribution of the enthalpy and
entropy values for a chemical
reaction.
Heat
capacity
Laws of Thermodynamics
Laws of Thermodynamics
2nd Law of
Thermodynamics
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Laws of Thermodynamics
conservation of energy
Energy of the universe is
constant
Second Law of
Thermodynamics
Third Law of
Thermodynamics
Entropy
Gibbs Free Energy
Chemical Kinetics
Question
Endothermic reaction
absorbs energy from the
surroundings
surroundings become colder
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Chemical Equilibrium
LE CHATELIERS PRINCIPLE
if a stress is placed on an
equilibrium system, the system
will respond by altering the
equilibrium in such a way as to
minimize the stress
presence of a catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that
increases the reaction rate.
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
Pressure
Temperature/Heat
Concentration
Catalyst??? no shift of
equilibrium
Radioactivity:
Types of Radiation
decomposition
process of unstable nuclei to
more stable ones
Radiation: energy and particles
released during the
decomposition process
Units of Reactivity
Non-SI
SI
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END
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