KHAY ANN C.

MAGUNDAYAO
AND LOGIC
Wesleyan Law School
2016

LEGAL TECHNIQUES
March 30,

Fallaciesarestatementsthatmightsoundreasonableorsuperficiallytruebutareactuallyflawedor
dishonest.Theselogicalfallaciesbackfirebymakingtheaudiencethinkthewriteris(a)unintelligentor
(b)deceptive.Itisimportanttoavoidtheminyourownarguments,anditisalsoimportanttobeableto
spottheminothers'argumentssoafalselineofreasoningwon'tfoolyou.
FALLACIESOFRELEVANCE
Thesefallaciesappealtoevidenceorexamplesthatarenotrelevanttotheargumentathand.
AppealtoForce(ArgumentumAdBaculumorthe"MightMakesRight"Fallacy):Thisargumentuses
force,thethreatofforce,orsomeotherunpleasantbacklashtomaketheaudienceacceptaconclusion.It
commonlyappearsasalastresortwhenevidenceorrationalargumentsfailtoconvinceareader.Ifthe
debateisaboutwhetherornot2+2=4,anopponent'sargumentthathewillsmashyournoseinifyou
don'tagreewithhisclaimdoesn'tchangethetruthofanissue.Logically,thisconsiderationhasnothing
todowiththepointsunderconsideration.Thefallacyisnotlimitedtothreatsofviolence,however.The
fallacyincludesthreatsofanyunpleasantbacklashfinancial,professional,andsoon.
Example:"Superintendent,youshouldcuttheschoolbudgetby$16,000.Ineednotremindyou
that past school boards have fired superintendents who cannot keep down costs." While
intimidationmayforcethesuperintendenttoconform,itdoesnotconvincehimthatthechoiceto
cutthebudgetwasthemostbeneficialfortheschoolorcommunity.Lobbyistsusethismethod
when they remind legislators that they represent so many thousand votes in the legislators'
constituenciesandthreatentothrowthepoliticianoutofofficeifhedoesn'tvotethewaythey
want.Teachers usethismethodiftheystatethatstudents shouldholdthesamepoliticalor
philosophicalpositionastheteachersorriskfailingtheclass.Notethatitisisn'talogicalfallacy,
however,toassertthatstudentsmustfulfillcertainrequirementsinthecourseorriskfailingthe
class!
GeneticFallacy:Thegeneticfallacyistheclaimthatanidea,product,orpersonmustbeuntrustworthy
becauseofitsracial,geographic,orethnicorigin."Thatcarcan'tpossiblybeanygood!Itwasmadein
Japan!"Or,"WhyshouldIlistentoherargument?ShecomesfromCalifornia,andweallknowthose
peopleareflakes."Or,"Ha!I'mnotreadingthatbook.ItwaspublishedinTennessee,andweknowall
Tennesseefolkarehillbilliesandrednecks!"Thistypeoffallacyiscloselyrelatedtothefallacyof
argumentumadhominemorpersonalattack,appearingimmediatelybelow.
Personal Attack (Argumentum Ad Hominem, literally, "argument toward the man." Also called
"PoisoningtheWell"):Attackingorpraisingthepeoplewhomakeanargument,ratherthandiscussing
theargumentitself.Thispracticeisfallaciousbecausethepersonalcharacterofanindividualislogically
irrelevanttothetruthorfalsenessoftheargumentitself.Thestatement"2+2=4"istrueregardlessifitis
statedbycriminals,congressmen,orpastors.Therearetwosubcategories:
(1) Abusive: To argue that proposals, assertions, or arguments must be false or dangerous
becausetheyoriginatewithatheists,Christians,Muslims,communists,capitalists,theJohnBirch

KHAY ANN C. MAGUNDAYAO

AND LOGIC
Wesleyan Law School
2016

LEGAL TECHNIQUES
March 30,

Society, Catholics, antiCatholics, racists, antiracists, feminists, misogynists (or any other
group)isfallacious.Thispersuasioncomesfromirrationalpsychologicaltransferenceratherthan
fromanappealtoevidenceorlogicconcerningtheissueathand.Thisissimilartothegenetic
fallacy,andonlyanantiintellectualwouldargueotherwise.
(2)Circumstantial:Toarguethatanopponentshouldacceptorrejectanargumentbecauseof
circumstancesinhisorherlife.Ifone'sadversaryisaclergyman,suggestingthatheshould
acceptaparticularargumentbecausenottodosowouldbeincompatiblewiththescripturesis
suchafallacy.Toarguethat,becausethereaderisaRepublicanorDemocrat,shemustvotefor
aspecificmeasureislikewiseacircumstantialfallacy.Theopponent'sspecialcircumstances
havenocontroloverthetruthoruntruthofaspecificcontention.Thespeakerorwritermustfind
additionalevidencebeyondthattomakeastrongcase.Thisisalsosimilartothegeneticfallacy
insomeways.Ifyouareacollegestudentwhowantstolearnrationalthought,yousimplymust
avoidcircumstantialfallacies.
ArgumentumadPopulum (Literally"ArgumenttothePeople"):Usinganappealtopopularassent,
oftenbyarousingthefeelingsandenthusiasmofthemultituderatherthanbuildinganargument.Itisa
favoritedevicewiththepropagandist,thedemagogue,andtheadvertiser.Anexampleofthistypeof
argumentisShakespeare'sversionofMarkAntony'sfuneralorationforJuliusCaesar.Therearethree
basicapproaches:
(1)BandwagonApproach:Everybodyisdoingit.Thisargumentumadpopulumassertsthat,
sincethemajorityofpeoplebelievesanargumentorchoosesaparticularcourseofaction,the
argumentmustbetrue,orthecourseofactionmustbefollowed,orthedecisionmustbethebest
choice.Forinstance,85%ofconsumerspurchaseIBMcomputersratherthanMacintosh;all
thosepeoplecantbewrong.IBMmustmakethebestcomputers.Popularacceptanceofany
argumentdoesnotproveittobevalid,nordoespopularuseofanyproductnecessarilyproveit
isthebestone.Afterall,85%ofpeoplemayoncehavethoughtplanetearthwasflat,butthat
majority'sbeliefdidn'tmeantheearthreallywasflatwhentheybelievedit!Keepthisinmind,
andrememberthateverybodyshouldavoidthistypeoflogicalfallacy.
(2) Patriotic Approach: "Draping oneselfin theflag." This argumentasserts thatacertain
stance is true or correct because it is somehow patriotic, and that those who disagree are
unpatriotic.Itoverlaps with pathosandargumentumadhominemtoacertainextent.Thebest
waytospotitistolookforemotionallychargedtermslikeAmericanism,ruggedindividualism,
motherhood, patriotism, godless communism, etc. A true American would never use this
approach.AndatrulyfreemanwillexercisehisAmericanrighttodrinkbeer,sincebeerbelongs
inthisgreatcountryofours.Thisapproachisunworthyofagoodcitizen.
(3)SnobApproach:Thistypeofargumentumadpopulumdoesntasserteverybodyisdoing
it,butratherthatallthebestpeoplearedoingit.Forinstance,Anytrueintellectualwould

KHAY ANN C. MAGUNDAYAO

AND LOGIC
Wesleyan Law School
2016

LEGAL TECHNIQUES
March 30,

recognizethenecessityforstudyinglogicalfallacies.Theimplicationisthatanyonewhofails
torecognizethetruthoftheauthorsassertionisnotanintellectual,andthusthereaderhadbest
recognizethatnecessity.
Inallthreeoftheseexamples,therhetoriciandoesnotsupplyevidencethatanargumentistrue;he
merelymakesassertionsaboutpeoplewhoagreeordisagreewiththeargument.ForChristianstudents
inreligiousschoolslikeCarsonNewman,wemightaddafourthcategory,"CoveringOneselfinthe
Cross."Thisargumentassertsthatacertainpoliticalordenominationalstanceistrueorcorrectbecause
itissomehow"Christian,"andthatanyonewhodisagreesisbehavinginan"unChristian"or"godless"
manner.(Itissimilartothepatrioticapproachexceptitsubstitutesaglossofpietyinsteadofpatriotism.)
Examplesincludethevarious"ChristianVotingGuides"thatappearnearelectiontime,manyofthem
published by nonChurch related organizations with hidden financial/political agendas, or the
stereotypicalcrookedusedcarsalesmanwhokeepsapairofbiblesonhisdashboardinordertowinthe
trustofthosehewouldfleece.KeepinmindMoliere'squestioninTartuffe:"Isnotafacequitedifferent
thanamask?"IsnottheappearanceofChristianityquitedifferentthanactualChristianity?Christians
shouldbewareofsuchmanipulationsincetheyareespeciallyvulnerabletoit.
AppealtoTradition(ArgumentumAdTraditio):Thislineofthoughtassertsthatapremisemustbe
truebecausepeoplehavealwaysbelieveditordoneit.Alternatively,itmayconcludethatthepremise
hasalwaysworkedinthepastandwillthusalwaysworkinthefuture:JeffersonCityhaskeptitsurban
growthboundaryatsixmilesforthepastthirtyyears.Thathasbeengoodenoughforthirtyyears,so
whyshouldwechangeitnow?Ifitaintbroke,dontfixit.Suchanargumentisappealinginthatit
seemstobecommonsense,butitignoresimportantquestions.Mightanalternativepolicyworkeven
betterthantheoldone?Aretheredrawbackstothatlongstandingpolicy?Arecircumstanceschanging
fromthewaytheywerethirtyyearsago?
AppealtoImproperAuthority(ArgumentumAdVerecundium,literally"argumentfromthatwhichis
improper"):Anappealtoanimproperauthority,suchasafamouspersonorasourcethatmaynotbe
reliable. This fallacy attempts to capitalize upon feelings of respect or familiarity with a famous
individual.Itisnotfallacioustorefertoanadmittedauthorityiftheindividualsexpertiseiswithina
strictfieldofknowledge.Ontheotherhand,tociteEinsteintosettleanargumentabouteducationor
economicsisfallacious.TociteDarwin,anauthorityonbiology,onreligiousmattersisfallacious.To
citeCardinalSpellmanonlegalproblemsisfallacious.Theworstoffendersusuallyinvolvemoviestars
andpsychichotlines.Asubcategoryisthe AppealtoBiasedAuthority.Inthissortofappeal,the
authorityisonewhoactually is knowledgeableonthematter,butonewhomayhaveprofessionalor
personalmotivationsthatrenderhisprofessionaljudgmentsuspect:forinstance,"Todeterminewhether
fraternitiesarebeneficialtothiscampus,weinterviewedallthefratpresidents."Oragain,"Tofindout
whetherornotsludgeminingreallyisendangeringtheTuskogeesalamander'sbreedinggrounds,we
interviewed the supervisors of the sludgemines, who declared there is no problem." Indeed, it is
importanttoget"bothviewpoints"onanargument,butbasingasubstantialpartofyourargumentona
sourcethathaspersonal,professional,orfinancialinterestsatstakemayleadtobiasedarguments.

KHAY ANN C. MAGUNDAYAO

AND LOGIC
Wesleyan Law School
2016

LEGAL TECHNIQUES
March 30,

AppealtoEmotion (ArgumentumAdMisericordiam,literally,"argumentfrompity"):Anemotional
appealconcerningwhatshouldbealogicalissueduringadebate.While pathos generallyworksto
reinforceareaderssenseofdutyoroutrageatsomeabuse,ifawritertriestouseemotionmerelyforthe
sakeofgettingthereadertoacceptwhatshouldbealogicalconclusion,theargumentisafallacy.For
example,inthe1880s,prosecutorsinaVirginiacourtpresentedoverwhelmingproofthataboywas
guiltyofmurderinghisparentswithanax.Thedefensepresenteda"notguilty"pleaforonthegrounds
thattheboywasnowanorphan,withnoonetolookafterhisinterestsifthecourtwasnotlenient.This
appealtoemotionobviouslyseemsmisplaced,andtheargumentisirrelevanttothequestionofwhether
ornothedidthecrime.
Argument from Adverse Consequences: Asserting that an argument must be false because the
implicationsofitbeingtruewouldcreatenegativeresults.Forinstance,Themedicaltestsshowthat
Grandmahasadvancedcancer.However,that cant betruebecausethenshewoulddie!Irefuseto
believeit!Theargumentisillogicalbecausetruthandfalsityarenotcontingentbaseduponhowmuch
welikeordisliketheconsequencesofthattruth.Grandma,indeed,mighthavecancer,inspiteofhow
negativethatfactmaybeorhowcruellyitmayaffectus.
ArgumentfromPersonalIncredulity:Assertingthatopponentsargumentmustbefalsebecauseyou
personallydontunderstanditorcantfollowitstechnicalities.Forinstance,onepersonmightassert,I
dontunderstandthatengineersargumentabouthowairplanescanfly.Therefore,Icannotbelievethat
airplanesareabletofly.Aucontraire,thatspeakersownmentallimitationsdonotlimitthephysical
worldsoairplanesmayverywellbeabletoflyinspiteofaperson'sinabilitytounderstandhowthey
work.Onepersonscomprehensionisnotrelevanttothetruthofamatter.

COMPONENTFALLACIES
Componentfallaciesareerrorsininductiveanddeductivereasoningorinsyllogistictermsthatfailto
overlap.
BeggingtheQuestion(alsocalledPetitioPrincipii,thistermissometimesusedinterchangeablywith
CircularReasoning):Ifwritersassumeasevidencefortheirargumenttheveryconclusiontheyare
attemptingtoprove,theyengageinthefallacyofbeggingthequestion.Themostcommonformofthis
fallacyiswhenthefirstclaimisinitiallyloadedwiththeveryconclusiononehasyettoprove.For
instance,supposeaparticularstudentgroupstates,"UselesscourseslikeEnglish101shouldbedropped
fromthecollege'scurriculum."Themembersofthestudentgroupthenimmediatelymoveoninthe
argument,illustratingthatspendingmoneyonauselesscourseissomethingnobodywants.Yes,weall
agreethatspendingmoneyonuselesscoursesisabadthing.However,thosestudentsneverdidprove
thatEnglish101was itself auselesscoursetheymerely"beggedthequestion"andmovedontothe
next"safe"partoftheargument,skippingoverthepartthat'stherealcontroversy,theheartofthe
matter,themostimportantcomponent.Beggingthequestionisoftenhiddenintheformofacomplex
question.

KHAY ANN C. MAGUNDAYAO

AND LOGIC
Wesleyan Law School
2016

LEGAL TECHNIQUES
March 30,

CircularReasoningiscloselyrelatedtobeggingthequestion.Oftenthewritersusingthisfallacyword
takeoneideaandphraseitintwostatements.Theassertionsdiffersufficientlytoobscurethefactthat
thatthesamepropositionoccursasbothapremiseandaconclusion.Thespeakerorauthorthentriesto
"prove" his or her assertion by merely repeating it in different words. Richard Whately wrote in
ElementsofLogic(London1826):Toalloweverymanunboundedfreedomofspeechmustalwaysbe
onthewhole,advantageoustothestate;foritishighlyconducivetotheinterestofthecommunitythat
eachindividualshouldenjoyalibertyperfectlyunlimitedofexpressinghissentiments.Obviouslythe
premiseisnotlogicallyirrelevanttotheconclusion,forifthepremiseistruetheconclusionmustalsobe
true.Itis,however,logicallyirrelevantinprovingtheconclusion.Intheexample,theauthorisrepeating
thesamepointindifferentwords,andthenattemptingto"prove"thefirstassertionwiththesecondone.
A more complex but equally fallacious type of circular reasoning is to create a circular chain of
reasoninglikethisone:"Godexists.""HowdoyouknowthatGodexists?""TheBiblesaysso.""Why
shouldIbelievetheBible?""Becauseit'stheinspiredwordofGod."Ifwedrawthisoutasachart,it
lookslikethis:

The socalled "final proof"relies onunprovenevidenceset forthinitiallyas the subjectofdebate.

Basically,theargumentgoesinanendlesscircle,witheachstepoftheargumentrelyingonaprevious
one,whichinturnreliesonthefirstargumentyettobeproven.SurelyGoddeservesamoreintelligible
argumentthanthecircularreasoningproposedinthisexample!
HastyGeneralization(DictoSimpliciter,alsocalledJumpingtoConclusions,"ConverseAccident"):
Mistakenuseofinductivereasoningwhentherearetoofewsamplestoproveapoint.Example:"Susan
failedBiology101.HermanfailedBiology101.EgbertfailedBiology101.Ithereforeconcludethat
moststudentswhotakeBiology101willfailit."Inunderstandingandcharacterizinggeneralsituations,
alogiciancannotnormallyexamineeverysingleexample.However,theexamplesusedininductive

KHAY ANN C. MAGUNDAYAO

AND LOGIC
Wesleyan Law School
2016

LEGAL TECHNIQUES
March 30,

reasoningshouldbetypicaloftheproblemorsituationathand.MaybeSusan,Herman,andEgbertare
exceptionallypoorstudents.Maybetheyweresickandmissedtoomanylecturesthattermtopass.Ifa
logicianwantstomakethecasethatmoststudentswillfailBiology101,sheshould(a)getaverylarge
sampleatleastonelargerthanthreeor(b)ifthatisn'tpossible,shewillneedtogooutofhiswayto
prove to the reader that her three samples are somehow representative of the norm. If a logician
considersonlyexceptionalordramaticcasesandgeneralizesarulethatfitsthesealone,theauthor
commitsthefallacyofhastygeneralization.
FALLACY OF ACCIDENT. One common type of hasty generalization is the Fallacy of
Accident.Thiserroroccurswhenoneappliesageneralruletoaparticularcasewhenaccidental
circumstancesrenderthegeneralruleinapplicable.Forexample,inPlatosRepublic,Platofinds
anexceptiontothegeneralrulethatoneshouldreturnwhatonehasborrowed:Supposethata
friendwheninhisrightmindhasdepositedarmswithmeandasksforthemwhenheisnotinhis
rightmind.OughtItogivetheweaponsbacktohim?NoonewouldsaythatIoughtorthatI
shouldberightindoingso....Whatistrueingeneralmaynotbetrueuniversallyandwithout
qualification.Soremember,generalizationsarebad.Allofthem.Everysinglelastone.Except,
ofcourse,forthosethatarenot.
MISLEADING STATISTIC. Another common example of this fallacy is the misleading
statistic.Supposeanindividualarguesthatwomenmustbeincompetentdrivers,andhepoints
outthatlastTuesdayattheDepartmentofMotorVehicles,50%ofthewomenwhotookthe
drivingtestfailed.Thatwouldseemtobecompellingevidencefromthewaythestatisticisset
forth.However,ifonlytwowomentookthetestthatday,theresultswouldbefarlessclearcut.
Incidentally,thecartoonDilbertmakesmuchofanincompetentmanagerwhocannotperceive
misleadingstatistics.Hedoesastatisticalstudyofwhenemployeescallinsickandcannotcome
toworkduringthefivedayworkweek.Hebecomesfurioustolearnthat40%ofoffice"sick
days"occuronMondays(20%)andFridays(20%)justintimetocreateathreedayweekend.
Suspectingfraud,hedecidestopunishhisworkers.Theirony,ofcourse,isthatthesetwodays
compose 40% of a five day work week, so the numbers are completely average. Similar
nonsenseemergeswhenparentsorteacherscomplainthat"50%ofstudentsperformatorbelow
thenationalaverageonstandardizedtestsinmathematicsandverbalaptitude."Ofcoursethey
do!Theverynatureofanaverageimpliesthat!
FalseCause:Thisfallacyestablishesacause/effectrelationshipthatdoesnotexist.Therearevarious
Latinnamesforvariousanalysesofthefallacy.Thetwomostcommonincludethesetypes:
(1)NonCausaProCausa(Literally,"Notthecauseforacause"):Ageneral,catchallcategory
formistakingafalsecauseofaneventfortherealcause.
(2)PostHoc,ErgoPropterHoc(Literally:"Afterthis,thereforebecauseofthis"):Thistypeof

KHAY ANN C. MAGUNDAYAO

AND LOGIC
Wesleyan Law School
2016

LEGAL TECHNIQUES
March 30,

falsecauseoccurswhenthewritermistakenlyassumesthat,becausethefirsteventprecededthe
secondevent,itmustmeanthefirsteventcausedthelaterone.Sometimesitdoes,butsometimes
itdoesn't.Itisthehonestwriter'sjobtoestablishclearlythatconnectionratherthanmerelyassert
itexists.Example:"Ablackcatcrossedmypathatnoon.Anhourlater,mymotherhadaheart
attack.Becausethefirsteventoccurredearlier,itmusthavecausedthebadlucklater."Thisis
howsuperstitionsbegin.
Themostcommonexamplesareargumentsthatviewingaparticularmovieorshow,orlisteningtoa
particular type of music caused the listener to perform an antisocial actto snort coke, shoot
classmates,ortakeupalifeofcrime.Thesemaybepotentialsuspectsforthecause,butthemerefact
thatanindividualdidtheseactsandsubsequentlybehavedinacertainwaydoesnotyetconclusively
ruleoutothercauses.Perhapsthelistenerhadanabusivehomelifeorschoollife,sufferedfroma
chemicalimbalanceleadingtodepressionandparanoia,ormadeabadchoiceinhiscompanions.Other
potentialcausesmustbeexaminedbeforeassertingthatonlyoneeventorcircumstancealoneearlierin
timecausedaeventorbehaviorlater.
Irrelevant Conclusion (Ignorantio Elenchi): This fallacy occurs when a rhetorician adapts an
argumentpurportingtoestablishaparticularconclusionanddirectsittoproveadifferentconclusion.
Forexample,whenaparticularproposalforhousinglegislationisunderconsideration,alegislatormay
arguethatdecenthousingforallpeopleisdesirable.Everyone,presumably,willagree.However,the
questionathandconcernsaparticularmeasure.Thequestionreallyisn't,"Isitgoodtohavedecent
housing?"Thequestionreallyis,"Willthisparticularmeasureactuallyprovideitoristhereabetter
alternative?" This type of fallacy is a common one in student papers when students use a shared
assumptionsuchasthefactthatdecenthousingisadesirablethingtohaveandthenspendthebulkof
theiressaysfocusedonthatfactratherthantherealquestionatissue.It'ssimilartobeggingthequestion,
above.
REDHERRING.OneofthemostcommonformsofIgnorantioElenchiisthe"RedHerring."
Aredherringisadeliberateattempttochangethesubjectordiverttheargumentfromthereal
questionatissuetosomesidepoint;forinstance,SenatorJonesshouldnotbeheldaccountable
forcheatingonhisincometax.Afterall,thereareothersenatorswhohavedonefarworse
things.Anotherexample:Ishouldnotpayafineforrecklessdriving.Therearemanyother
peopleonthestreetwhoaredangerouscriminalsandrapists,andthepoliceshouldbechasing
them,notharassingadecenttaxpayingcitizenlikeme.Certainly,worsecriminalsdoexist,but
thatitisanotherissue!Thequestionsathandare(1)didthespeakerdriverecklessly,and(2)
shouldhepayafineforit?
TUQUOQUE.AnothersimilarexampleoftheredherringisthefallacyknownasTuQuoque
(Latinfor"Andyoutoo!"),whichasserts thattheadviceorargumentmustbefalsesimply
because the person presenting the advice doesn't follow it herself. For instance, "Reverend
Jeremiasclaimsthattheftiswrong,buthowcantheftbewrongifJeremiashimselfadmitshe
stoleobjectswhenhewasachild?"

KHAY ANN C. MAGUNDAYAO

AND LOGIC
Wesleyan Law School
2016

LEGAL TECHNIQUES
March 30,

StrawManArgument:Asubtypeoftheredherring,thisfallacyincludesanylameattemptto"prove"
anargumentbyoverstating,exaggerating,oroversimplifyingtheargumentsoftheopposingside.Such
anapproachisbuildingastrawmanargument.Thenamecomesfromtheideaofaboxerorfighterwho
meticulouslyfashionsafalseopponentoutofstraw,likeascarecrow,andtheneasilyknocksitoverin
theringbeforehisadmiringaudience.His"victory"isahollowmockery,ofcourse,becausethestraw
stuffedopponentisincapableoffightingback.Whenawritermakesacartoonlikecaricatureofthe
opposingargument,ignoringtherealorsubtlepointsofcontention,andthenproceedstoknockdown
each"fake"pointonebyone,hehascreatedastrawmanargument.
Forinstance,onespeaker might beengaged inadebateconcerning welfare.The opponentargues,
"Tennesseeshouldincreasefundingtounemployedsinglemothersduringthefirstyearafterchildbirth
becausetheyneedsufficientmoneytoprovidemedicalcarefortheirnewbornchildren."Thesecond
speakerretorts,"Myopponentbelievesthatsomeparasiteswhodon'tworkshouldgetafreeridefrom
thetaxmoneyofhardworkinghonestcitizens.I'llshowyouwhyhe'swrong..."Inthisexample,the
secondspeakerisengaginginastrawmanstrategy,distortingtheopposition'sstatementaboutmedical
carefornewbornchildrenintoanoversimplifiedformsohecanmoreeasilyappearto"win."However,
the second speaker is only defeating a dummyargument rather than honestly engaging in the real
nuancesofthedebate.
NonSequitur(literally,"Itdoesnotfollow"):Anonsequiturisanyargumentthatdoesnotfollowfrom
thepreviousstatements.UsuallywhathappenedisthatthewriterleapedfromAtoBandthenjumpedto
D,leavingoutstepCofanargumentshethoughtthroughinherhead,butdidnotputdownonpaper.
Thephraseisapplicableingeneraltoanytypeoflogicalfallacy,butlogiciansusethetermparticularly
in reference to syllogistic errors such as the undistributed middle term, non causa pro causa, and
ignorantioelenchi.Acommonexamplewouldbeanargumentalongtheselines:"Givingupournuclear
arsenalinthe1980'sweakenedtheUnitedStates'military.Givingupnuclearweaponryalsoweakened
Chinainthe1990s.Forthisreason,itiswrongtotrytooutlawpistolsandriflesintheUnitedStates
today."There'sobviouslyasteportwomissinghere.
The"SlipperySlope"Fallacy(alsocalled"TheCamel'sNoseFallacy")isanonsequiturinwhichthe
speakerarguesthat,oncethefirststepisundertaken,asecondorthirdstepwillinevitablyfollow,much
likethewayonesteponaslipperyinclinewillcauseapersontofallandslideallthewaytothebottom.
Itisalsocalled"theCamel'sNoseFallacy"becauseoftheimageofasheikwholethiscamelstickits
noseintohistentonacoldnight.Theideaisthatthesheikisafraidtoletthecamelstickitsnoseinto
thetentbecauseoncethebeaststicksinitsnose,itwillinevitablystickinitshead,andthenitsneck,and
eventuallyitswholebody.However,thissortofthinkingdoesnotallowforanypossibilityofstopping
theprocess.Itsimplyassumesthat,oncethenoseisin,therestmustfollowthatthesheikcan'tstopthe
progressiononceithasbegunandthustheargumentisalogicalfallacy.Forinstance,ifonewereto
argue,"IfweallowthegovernmenttoinfringeuponourrighttoprivacyontheInternet,itwillthenfeel
freetoinfringeuponourprivacyonthetelephone.Afterthat,FBIagentswillbereadingourmail.Then
theywillbeplacingcamerasinourhouses.Wemustnotletanygovernmentalagencyinterferewithour

KHAY ANN C. MAGUNDAYAO

AND LOGIC
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2016

LEGAL TECHNIQUES
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Internetcommunications,orprivacywillcompletelyvanishintheUnitedStates."Suchthinkingis
fallacious;nologicalproofhasbeenprovidedyetthatinfringementinoneareawillnecessarilyleadto
infringementinanother,nomorethanapersonbuyingasinglecanofCocaColainagrocerystore
wouldindicatethepersonwillinevitablygoontobuyeveryitemavailableinthestore,helplesstostop
herself.Soremembertoavoidtheslipperyslopefallacy;onceyouuseone,youmayfindyourselfusing
moreandmorelogicalfallacies.
Either/OrFallacy(alsocalled"theBlackandWhiteFallacy,""ExcludedMiddle,""FalseDilemma,"
or"FalseDichotomy"):Thisfallacyoccurswhenawriterbuildsanargumentupontheassumptionthat
thereareonlytwochoicesorpossibleoutcomeswhenactuallythereareseveral.Outcomesareseldom
sosimple.Thisfallacymostfrequentlyappearsinconnectiontosweepinggeneralizations:Eitherwe
mustbanXortheAmericanwayoflifewillcollapse."WegotowarwithCanada,orelseCanadawill
eventuallygrowinpopulationandoverwhelmtheUnitedStates.""EitheryoudrinkBurpsyCola,oryou
willhavenofriendsandnosociallife."Eitheryoumustavoideither/orfallacies,oreveryonewillthink
youarefoolish.
FaultyAnalogy: Relyingonlyoncomparisonstoproveapointratherthanarguingdeductivelyand
inductively.Forexample,educationislikecake;asmallamounttastessweet,buteattoomuchand
yourteethwillrotout.Likewise,morethantwoyearsofeducationisbadforastudent.Theanalogyis
onlyacceptabletothedegreeareaderthinksthateducationissimilartocake.Asyoucansee,faulty
analogiesarelikeflimsywood,andjustasnocarpenterwouldbuildahouseoutofflimsywood,no
writershouldeverconstructanargumentoutofflimsymaterial.
Undistributed Middle Term: A specific type of error in deductive reasoning in which the minor
premiseandthemajorpremiseofasyllogismmightormightnotoverlap.Considerthesetwoexamples:
(1)Allreptilesarecoldblooded.Allsnakesarereptiles.Allsnakesarecoldblooded.Inthefirst
example,themiddletermsnakesfitsinthecategoriesofbothreptileandthingsthatarecold
blooded.(2)Allsnailsarecoldblooded.Allsnakesarecoldblooded.Allsnailsaresnakes.Inthe
secondexample,themiddletermofsnakesdoesnotfitintothecategoriesofboththingsthatare
coldbloodedandsnails.Sometimes,equivocationleadstoanundistributedmiddleterm.

ContradictoryPremises(alsoknownasalogicalparadox):Establishingapremiseinsuchawaythatit
contradictsanother,earlierpremise.Forinstance,"IfGodcandoanything,hecanmakeastoneso
heavythathecan'tliftit."Thefirstpremiseestablishesadeitythathastheirresistiblecapacitytomove
otherobjects.Thesecondpremiseestablishesanimmovableobjectimpervioustoanymovement.Ifthe
firstobjectcapableofmovinganythingexists,bydefinition,theimmovableobjectcannotexist,and
viceversa.
CloselyrelatedisthefallacyofSpecialPleading,inwhichthewritercreatesauniversalprinciple,then
insiststhatprincipledoesnotforsomereasonapplytotheissueathand.Forinstance,Everythingmust

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haveasourceorcreator.ThereforeGodmusthavecreatedtheworld.What?WhocreatedGod?Well,
GodiseternalandunchangingHehasnosourceorcreator.Insuchanassertion,eitherGodmusthave
Hisownsourceorcreator,orelsetheuniversalprincipleofeverythinghavingasourceorcreatormust
besetasidethepersonmakingtheargumentcanthaveitbothways.
FALLACIESOFAMBIGUITY
Theseerrorsoccurwithambiguouswordsorphrases,themeaningsofwhichshiftandchangeinthe
courseofdiscussion.Suchmoreorlesssubtlechangescanrenderargumentsfallacious.
Equivocation: Usingawordinadifferentwaythantheauthoruseditintheoriginalpremise,or
changingdefinitionshalfwaythroughadiscussion.Whenweusethesamewordorphraseindifferent
senseswithinonelineofargument,wecommitthefallacyofequivocation.Considerthisexample:
Platosaystheendofathingisitsperfection;Isaythatdeathistheendoflife;hence,deathisthe
perfection of life. Here the word end means "goal" in Plato's usage, but it means "last event" or
"termination"intheauthor'ssecondusage.Clearly,thespeakeristwistingPlato'smeaningoftheword
todrawaverydifferentconclusion.Comparewithamphiboly,below.
Amphiboly (fromtheGreekword"indeterminate"):Thisfallacyissimilartoequivocation.Here,the
ambiguity results from grammatical construction. A statement may be true according to one
interpretationofhoweachwordfunctionsinasentenceandfalseaccordingtoanother.Whenapremise
workswithaninterpretationthatistrue,buttheconclusionusesthesecondary"false"interpretation,we
have the fallacy of amphiboly on our hands. In the command, "Save soap and waste paper," the
amphiboloususeof"waste"resultsintheproblemofdeterminingwhether"waste"functionsasaverbor
asanadjective.
Composition:Thisfallacyisaresultofreasoningfromthepropertiesofthepartsofthewholetothe
propertiesofthewholeitselfitisaninductiveerror.Suchanargumentmightholdthat,becauseevery
individualpartofalargetractorislightweight,theentiremachinealsomustbelightweight.Thisfallacy
issimilartoHastyGeneralization,butitfocusesonpartsofasinglewholeratherthanusingtoofew
examplestocreateacategoricalgeneralization.
Division:Thisfallacyisthereverseofcomposition.Itisthemisapplicationofdeductivereasoning.One
fallacyofdivisionarguesfalselythatwhatistrueofthewholemustbetrueofindividualparts.Suchan
argumentnotesthat,"MicrotechisacompanywithgreatinfluenceintheCalifornialegislature.Egbert
Smithworks at Microtech.Hemusthave great influenceinthe Californialegislature."This is not
necessarily true. Egbert might work as a graveyard shift security guard or as the copymachine
repairmanatMicrotechpositionsrequiringlittleinteractionwiththeCalifornialegislature.Another
fallacyofdivisionattributesthepropertiesofthewholetotheindividualmemberofthewhole:"Sunsurf
isacompanythatsellsenvironmentallysafeproducts.SusanJonesisaworkeratSunsurf.Shemustbe
anenvironmentallymindedindividual."(Perhapssheismotivatedbymoneyalone?)

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FallacyofReification(AlsocalledFallacyofMisplacedConcretenessbyAlfredNorthWhitehead):
Thefallacyoftreatingawordoranideaasequivalenttotheactualthingrepresentedbythatwordor
idea,orthefallacyoftreatinganabstractionorprocessasequivalenttoaconcreteobjectorthing.Inthe
firstcase,wemightimagineareformertryingtoeliminateillicitlustbybanningallmentionofextra
maritalaffairsorcertainsexualactsinpublications.Theproblemisthateliminatingthewordsforthese
deedsisnotthesameaseliminatingthedeedsthemselves.Inthesecondcase,wemightimaginea
personordeclaringawaronpoverty.Inthiscase,thefallacycomesfromthefactthatwarimpliesa
concretestrugglewithanothernation.Poverty,howeverisanabstractionthatcannotsurrenderorsign
peacetreaties,cannotbeshotorbombed,etc.Reificationoftheconceptmerelymuddlestheissueof
whatpoliciestofollow.Itiscloselyrelatedtoandoverlapswithfaultyanalogyandequivocation.
FALLACIESOFOMISSION
Theseerrorsoccurbecausethelogicianleavesoutnecessarymaterialinanargumentormisdirects
othersfrommissinginformation.
StackingtheDeck:Inthisfallacy,thespeaker"stacksthedeck"inherfavorbyignoringexamplesthat
disprovethepoint,andlistingonlythoseexamplesthatsupporthercase.Thisfallacyiscloselyrelated
to hasty generalization, but the term usually implies deliberate deception rather than an accidental
logicalerror.Contrastitwiththestrawmanargument.
NoTrueScotsmanFallacy: Attemptingto stackthedeck specificallybydefiningtermsinsucha
narroworunrealisticmannerastoexcludeoromitrelevantexamplesfromasample.Forinstance,
supposespeaker#1asserts,TheScottishnationalcharacterisbraveandpatriotic.NoScottishsoldier
haseverfledthefieldofbattleinthefaceoftheenemy.Speaker#2objects,Ah,butwhataboutLucas
MacDurgan?HefledfromGermantroopsinWorldWarI.Speaker#1retorts,Well,obviouslyhe
doesntcountasatrueScotsmanbecausehedidnotliveuptoScottishideals,thusheforfeitedhis
Scottish identity. By this fallacious reasoning, any individual who would serve as evidence
contradicting the first speakers assertion is conveniently and automatically dismissed from
consideration.Wecommonlyseethisfallacywhenacompanyassertsthatitcannotbeblamedforoneof
itsparticularlyunsafeorshoddyproductsbecausethatparticularonedoesntliveuptoitsnormallyhigh
standards,andthusshouldntcountagainstitsfinereputation.Likewise,defendersofChristianityasa
positivehistoricalinfluenceintheirzealmightarguetheatrocitiesoftheeightCrusadesdonotcount
in an argument because the Crusaders werent living up to Christian ideals, and thus arent really
Christians,etc.So,rememberthisfallacy.Philosophersandlogiciansneveruseit,andanyonewhodoes
useitbydefinitionisnotreallyaphilosopherorlogician.
ArgumentfromtheNegative:Arguingfromthenegativeassertsthat,sinceonepositionisuntenable,
the opposite stance must be true. This fallacy is often used interchangeably with Argumentum Ad
Ignorantium(listedbelow)andtheeither/orfallacy(listedabove).Forinstance,onemightmistakenly
arguethat,sincetheNewtoniantheoryofmathematicsisnotonehundredpercentaccurate,Einsteins
theoryofrelativitymustbetrue.Perhapsnot.Perhapsthetheoriesofquantummechanicsaremore
accurate, and Einsteins theory is flawed. Perhaps they are all wrong. Disproving an opponents

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argumentdoesnotnecessarilymeanyourownargumentmustbetrueautomatically,nomorethan
disprovingyouropponent'sassertionthat2+2=5wouldautomaticallymeanyourargumentthat2+2=7
mustbethecorrectone.Keepingthismind,studentsshouldrememberthatargumentsfromthenegative
arebad,argumentsfromthepositivemustautomaticallybegood.
AppealtoaLackofEvidence(ArgumentumAdIgnorantium,literally"ArgumentfromIgnorance"):
Appealingtoalackofinformationtoproveapoint,orarguingthat,sincetheoppositioncannotdisprove
aclaim,theoppositestancemustbetrue.Anexampleofsuchanargumentistheassertionthatghosts
mustexistbecausenoonehasbeenabletoprovethattheydonotexist.Logiciansknowthisisalogical
fallacybecausenocompetingargumenthasyetrevealeditself.
HypothesisContrarytoFact (ArgumentumAdSpeculum): Tryingtoprovesomethinginthereal
worldbyusingimaginaryexamplesalone,orassertingthat,ifhypotheticallyXhadoccurred,Ywould
havebeentheresult.Forinstance,supposeanindividualassertsthatifEinsteinhadbeenaborted in
utero,theworldwouldneverhavelearnedaboutrelativity,orthatifMonethadbeentrainedasabutcher
ratherthangoingtocollege,theimpressionisticmovementwouldhaveneverinfluencedmodernart.
Suchhypothesesaremisleadinglinesofargumentbecauseitisoftenpossiblethatsomeotherindividual
wouldhavesolvedtherelativisticequationsorintroducedanimpressionisticartstyle.Thespeculation
mightmakeaninterestingthoughtexperiment,butitissimplyuselesswhenitcomestoactuallyproving
anythingabouttherealworld.Acommonexampleistheideathatone"owes"hersuccesstoanother
individualwhotaughther.Forinstance,"Youowemepartofyourincreasedsalary.IfIhadn'ttaught
youhowtorecognizelogicalfallacies,youwouldbeflippinghamburgersatMcDonald'sforminimum
wagesrightnowinsteadoftakinginhundredsofthousandsofdollarsasalawyer."Perhaps.Butperhaps
the audience would have learned about logical fallacies elsewhere, so the hypothetical situation
describedismeaningless.
ComplexQuestion (Alsocalledthe"LoadedQuestion"):Phrasingaquestionorstatementinsuchas
wayastoimplyanotherunprovenstatementistruewithoutevidenceordiscussion.Thisfallacyoften
overlapswithbeggingthequestion,sinceitalsopresupposesadefiniteanswertoaprevious,unstated
question.Forinstance,ifIweretoaskyouHaveyoustoppedtakingdrugsyet?myhiddensupposition
isthatyouhavebeentakingdrugs.Suchaquestioncannotbeansweredwithasimpleyesornoanswer.
Itisnotasimplequestionbutconsistsofseveralquestionsrolledintoone.Inthiscasetheunstated
questionis,Haveyoutakendrugsinthepast?followedby,Ifyouhavetakendrugsinthepast,have
youstoppedtakingthemnow?Incrossexamination,alawyermightaskaflusteredwitness,Where
didyouhidetheevidence?or"whendidyoustopbeatingyourwife?"Theintelligentprocedurewhen
facedwithsuchaquestionistoanalyzeitscomponentparts.Ifoneanswersordiscussestheprior,
implicitquestionfirst,theexplicitquestionmaydissolve.
Complex questions appear in written argument frequently. A student might write, Why is private
developmentofresourcessomuchmoreefficientthananypubliccontrol?Therhetoricalquestionleads
directlyintohis nextargument.However,anobservantreadermaydisagree,recognizingtheprior,
implicitquestionremainsunaddressed.Thatquestionis,ofcourse,whetherprivatedevelopmentof

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resourcesreallyismoreefficientinallcases,apointwhichtheauthorisskippingentirelyandmerely
assumingtobetruewithoutdiscussion.

GENERALSYLLOGISMS
CONSTITUTIONALLAW
APresidentialCandidatemustbeaNaturalBornCitizen.
GracePoeisaPresidentialCandidate.
Thus,GracePoeisaNaturalBornCitizen.
Illegalsearchandseizureisinadmissibleinanyproceeding.
Unlawfulwarrantlessarrestisaformofillegalsearchandseizure.
Therefor,unlawfulwarrantlessarrestisinadmissibleinanyproceeding.
Therighttoformassociationsforpurposesnotcontrarytolawshallnotbeabridged.
Bothpublicandprivatesectorshastherighttoformassociations.
Hence,Publicandprivatesectorsformingassociationsforpurposesnotcontrarytolawshallnotbe
abridged.
CRIMINALLAW
Treasonisacrimeagainstnationalsecurity.
CrimesagainstnationalsecurityarebeingfinedundertheRevisedPenalCode.
TreasonisbeingpenalizedundertheRevisedPenalCode.
Onlypublicofficersareliableforarbitrarydetention.
Aprosecutorisapublicofficer.
Thusaprosecutormaybeheldliableforarbitrarydetention.
Conspiracyisnotacrime.
Conspiracytocommittreasonisanexemptiontotherule.
Therefore,conspiracytocommittreasonisacrime.
CIVILLAW
FamilyCodeformpartoftheCivilCodeofthePhilippines
CivilCodeformspartoftheLegalSysteminthePhilippines
Therefore,FamilyCodeormspartoftheLegalSysteminthePhilippines

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Flashfloodisatypeoffortuitousevent.
Fortuitouseventsmayextinguishtheobligation.
Therefore,happeningofaflashfloodmayextinguishtheobligation.
Solidaryobligationsmustbestipulatedinthecontract.
Comakerpolicyisatypeofsolidaryobligation.
Comakerpolicymustbestipulatedinthecontract.

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