CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
The Main aim of this project is to study about steam turbine blades and its design
aspects.
Blades are the heart of a steam turbine, as they are the principal elements that
convert the thermal energy into kinetic energy. The efficiency and reliability of a turbine
depend on the proper design of the blade.
Study of Blade Involves Constructional Features Of a blade and its Machining
process.

1.2 Project overview

This paper deals mainly with the mechanical aspects of the blade design. It
aims mainly at understanding the principles of design of the existing blades, and giving an
overview of other related issues to blades which a designer should be aware of.

1.3 Thesis Overview

The Thesis Explains The "Study of Steam Turbine Blade and its Design".
The Organisation of the Thesis is explained here with:

* Presents introduction to the overall thesis and the overview of the project. In the project
overview a brief introduction of the study of steam turbine blade and its design
* Presents the constructional features of blade which involves features of its profile and
roots.
* Presents the Dynamics of blades and damping of Blades. The next chapter presents the
blading material.
* Presents the sequence of Operation and manufacturing methods like conventional and
unconventional methods.
* presents the advantages over one another machining process.
* presents the result, conclusion and references. Presents the information on types of
blades.

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CHAPTER 2
TYPES OF BLADES
2.1 AWHEEL BLADE AND NOZZLE

The nozzles for the A-wheel

blades are of 2 types: Type 1 and Type 2. The difference between the 2 types is shown in the
figure below.

FIG: 2.1 (A) Type 1 nozzles

FIG: 2.1(B) Type 2 nozzles

Type 1 nozzles are generally used in most of the applications, and Type 2 nozzles are
used in barrel type inner casings. Siemens has discontinued the type 2 nozzle construction for
barrel type inner casings, and is instead using a nozzle wheel manufactured by special
electron-beam-welding technique. Since this is a costly technique and not available in BHEL,
we are still using the type2 construction of the nozzles.

2.2 Classification based on pressure at stages

* High pressure moving and guide blades
* Intermediate Pressure Blades
* Low pressure Blades

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2.3 Blades from Bar Stock

* Rhomboid Blades
* Curved Blades
* Twisted Profile Blades
* Drawn Profile Blades

2.4 Forged Blades

* Originally Forging Blades
* Precision Forging Blades

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CHAPTER 3
CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF A BLADE
3.1 Basic terminology of blade
Pressure blades is mainly divided into three parts
a) Profile: The profile which converts thermal energy of steam into kinetic energy and with
certain efficiency depending on the shape of profile.
b) Root: The root which fixes into the turbine rotor which gives the proper anchor to the
blade and transmitting the kinetic energy of blade to the rotor. Different kinds of roots of
blades used are
*

T-Root

Double T-Root

Fork Root

Fir tree Root

Dove Tail Root

c) Shroud: The dampening element which reduces the vibration the vibration occurs in the
blade which forms due to the flowing of high pressure steam through the blades. This
dampening element may be integral with the blade or that may be separate element mounted
between the blades

3.2 Classification of profile

3.2.1 Impulse and Reaction profile
There are two basic types of profiles - Impulse and Reaction. In the impulse type of
profiles, the entire heat drop of the stage occurs only in the stationary blades. In the reaction
type of blades, the heat drop of the stage is distributed almost equally between the guide and
moving blades.
Though the theoretical impulse blades have zero pressure drop in the moving blades,
practically, for the flow to take place across the moving blades, there must be a small pressure
drop across the moving blades also. Therefore, the impulse stages in practice have a small
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degree of reaction. BHEL uses impulse stages with a maximum reaction upto 15-20%. These
stages are therefore more accurately, though less widely, described as low-reaction stages.

The
typical impulse and reaction stages are plotted in the following figure.
FIG 3.2.1(A) Impulse stage

FIG: 3.2.1 (B) Reaction stage

The profiles plotted are T1-20 + A1-20 for impulse, and T4-20 + T4-20 for reaction
stages.
The presently used Siemens reaction profiles are more efficient than the impulse
profiles at part loads. This is because of the more rounded inlet edge for reaction profiles.
Due to this, even if the inlet angle of the steam is not tangential to the pressure-side profile of
the blade, the losses are low.
However, the impulse profiles have one advantage. The impulse profiles can take a
large heat drop across a single stage, and the same heat drop would require a greater number
of stages if reaction profiles are used, thereby increasing the turbine length.
The BHEL turbines use the impulse profiles for the control stage (1st stage), and the
reaction profiles for subsequent stages. There are three reasons for using impulse profile for
the first stage. Most of the BHEL turbines are partial arc admission turbines. If the first stage
is a reaction stage, the lower half of the moving blades do not have any inlet steam, and
would ventilate. Therefore, most of the stage heat drop should occur in the guide blades.
a) The heat drop across the first stage should be high, so that the wheel chamber of
the outer casing is not exposed to the high inlet parameters. In case of -4 turbines,
the inner casing parting plane strength becomes the limitation, and therefore
requires a large heat drop across the 1st stage.
b) Nozzle control gives better efficiency at part loads than throttle control.
c) The number of stages in the turbine should not be too high, as this will increase
the length of the turbine.
There are exceptions to the rule. Turbines used for CCPs, and BFP drive turbines do
not have a control stage. They are throttle-governed machines. Such designs are used when
the inlet pressure slides. Such machines only have reaction stages. However, the inlet
passages of such turbines must be so designed that the inlet steam to the first reaction stage is
properly mixed, and occupies the entire 360 degrees.
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There are also cases of controlled extraction turbines where the L.P. control stage is an
impulse stage. This is either to reduce the number of stages to make the turbine short, or to
increase the part load efficiency by using nozzle control, which minimises throttle losses.

3.2.2 Types of profiles available in BHEL HYD

BHEL has made turbines of Czech design and Siemens design. Consequently, there
are several types of profiles available with BHEL. However, only the Siemens types of
profiles are covered in this document.

There is only one family of impulse

profiles used by Siemens. This is the A1 family. Blades of different sizes are designated by
the family and the chord length. For example, a blade of A1 profile and 25mm chord length is
designated as A1-25. All profiles of different sizes belonging to the same family are
geometrically similar. A typical A1 profile is plotted below.

FIG: 3.2.2 (A) A1 PROFILE

There are several families of

reaction profiles. They are T1, T2, T3, T4, T6, T7, TX, and F
FIG: 3.2.2 (B) T1, T2, T3, T4, TX REACTION PROFILES
The T1 profiles are used for 1st stage nozzles of normal parameter applications, and
for L.P. guide blades.
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The T2 profiles are about 35% reaction profiles, and are not used at present.
Initially T3 profiles were used for HP guide and moving blades. These were replaced
by the stronger T4 profiles. In T4 profiles, the outlet edge is made thinner for improving the
efficiency of the profile. At the same time, to avoid high stresses, the outlet edge is made to
fall on the neutral axis. This design allows the blades to take larger heat drops. The T4
profiles are also used with a larger setting angle (angle between the bitangent line and the
circumferential direction), resulting in higher throats, which means that they are capable of
passing more steam.
When barrel type inner casing is used. The following is a write-up on T4 profile advantages
extracted from Siemens Service Report No.12, Aug.1990, and pg.12.The continuous
curvature of the suction side optimises flow patterns with a reduction in flow-induced losses.

The steam flow is decelerated only slightly and there is no flow separation (See following
figure).
FIG: 3.2.2 (C)

FLOW PATTERN

Lines of identical Mach Numbers for blades

contour

Mach number characteristic on the

With T4 profile for a specified operating

from the

of blades with T4 profile (derived

Condition: there is no concentration of

the

lines of identical Mach numbers in

Mach number lines in the sensitive outlet

edge

earlier figure): Flow in the trailing

Area.
decelerated

Region of the suction side is

Only marginally.

The blunt nose makes the blades relatively immune to changes in the incident flow the
narrow trailing edges of the blades reduce losses. Moreover, the bending stresses in the
trailing edges of blades with T4 profile are virtually zero, and hardly any mechanical stresses
occur at that point. "
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The T6 and T7 profiles are exactly same as T4 profiles, but are meant for very small
chord lengths - T6 is for 16 chord length, and T7 for 12.5 chord length. For these small
profiles, if they are made geometrically similar to T4 profiles, the outlet edge becomes very
thin. This results in manufacturing problems. So, the outlet edge is thickened for these blades.
Otherwise, the remaining profile is exactly similar to T4 family.

Siemens have subsequently developed TX series blades, which are used by BHEL
Hyderabad in the Kothagudem Retrofit job. The TX series have 33% thinner outlet edges
than T4 profiles, and are therefore more difficult to manufacture. Due to their less rounded
inlet edge, they are less prone to salt deposits. The efficiency below 70% of the load is less
than that of T4 profiles, due to the less rounded inlet edge. The efficiency at full load is same
as that of the T4 profiles. The efficiency from 70% to full load is marginally better than that
of T4 profiles.

The F type profiles are twisted blades with integral shrouds. The blade profiles are not
as thin as LP blade profiles, and the blades are also not as long as LP blades. They are used
only when the height-to-mean diameter ratio exceeds 0.14.

Siemens have also recently developed 3DS and 3DV blades. These are blades that
have a twist and a bend, and are designed for minimising secondary losses. The profile
efficiency also is improved. The typical blades are shown below, taken from the catalogue of
AEA technology, whose software TASC-Flow was used for developing these blades.

FIG: 3.2.2 (D) TYPICAL 3DS STEAM TURBINE BLADE

The following figure, extracted from the KWU Service Report No.4, May 1986,
Pg.13, shows the development of the reaction profiles over the years up to the development
of T4 profile.

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3.2.3 High pressure Blade profile

In order to understand the

further explanation, a familiarity of the terminology used is required. The following
terminology is used in the subsequent sections.
FIG: 3.2.3 HP BLADE PROFILE

If circles are drawn tangential to the suction side and pressure side profiles of a blade,
and their Centres are joined by a curve, this curve is called the camber line. This camber line
intersects the profile at two points A and B. The line joining these points is called chord, and
the length of this line is called the chord length. A line which is tangential to the inlet and
outlet edges is called the Bi-tangent line. The angle which this line makes with the
circumferential direction is called the setting angle. Pitch of a blade is the circumferential
distance between any point on the profile and an identical point on the next blade.

3.2.4 Low pressure blade profile

The LP blade profiles of moving blades are twisted and tapered. These blades are used
when blade height-to-mean stage diameter ratio (h/d m) exceeds 0.2. In case of KWU blades,
when h/D ratio exceeds 0.14, twisted and tapered (F type) moving blades are used, but they
are not as twisted and as tapered as moving blades.

The LP blade profiles used in Siemens Wesel turbines (industrial machines) are as follows:

1) 2 blading:
The LP blading has 2 stages. The LP module is designated by the equivalent diameter
of the exhaust flange. The 2 stages in LP are also therefore designated in the same
fashion. For example, in an EK1100-2 turbine, the LP blading 1 st and 2nd stages are
designated as ND1100-I and ND1100-II respectively. The profiles of the first stage are of
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VK family, and the profiles of 2 nd stage are of WF family. Only in ND600-I blades, a VN
profile is used.

2) 3 blading:
The LP blading has either 2 or 3 stages. The LP blading is of 3 types: HK, SK and LK.
The HK and LK type blading has 2 LP stages, whereas the SK type of blading has 3 LP
stages. Each family has different sizes which are geometrically similar, in the ratio of
1.25. However, the profiles from 28 to 56 size are modified by strengthening the profile.
So the latest 28 to 56 size profiles are geometrically similar to each other, and 63 to 90
profiles are geometrically similar to each other, but these two families are not the same. In
very old sets, the 28 to 56 profiles are not modified, so they are similar to the profiles of
present 63 to 90 profiles.
The SK type blading is designed for high speeds whereas the LK type blading is
designed for high mass flows but low speeds. The HK blading is designed for
intermediate speeds and flows. It may be noted that the last stage moving blade of HK
and SK type blading is identical. In fact, the precision forging of last stage blade is
identical for all three families of HK, SK and LK.
The guide blade profiles are of T1 type for HK, SK and LK type, and also for 2 turbines.
Depending on the thermodynamic requirements, sometimes, -3 LP blading may also be
used in 2 turbines. For example, in K800 turbines given for bio-mass applications
(Gouthami, Rossini etc.), HK37 blading is used.
3) 4 blading:
The 4 turbines have the following L P modules: 2.8 sq.m, 3.2 sq.m and 5 sq.m. Each
of these modules is discussed below.
a) 2.8 sq.m: This module is designed by Fuji, who was a licensee of Siemens Germany
at one time, and given to Siemens. This module has 3 stages. Moving blades of all
three stages have precision-forged blades. The guide blades are tapered. The first
stage guide blades are solid, and the last two stage guide blades are hollow. The guide
blades are welded to an inner and an outer ring. This assembly, called guide wheel, is
bolted to the exhaust hood.
b) 3.2 sq.m: This module has 4 stages. This is designed by Siemens-KWU. The version
currently in use is an improved version. The old version, used in Nalco 1 to 5 sets,
used cast guide blades. The new version uses blades milled from bar stock (or
precision forged) for the first two stages, and hollow guide blades made from plates
for the last two stages. The moving blade precision forgings remain same, though the
machining drawings and the flow path have undergone modifications. The modified
version of LP blading is used in Sikka project, and again in Nalco-7 and 8 projects.
However, the axial clearances between the blades are increased in Nalco-7 and 8
projects due to the increased axial expansions in the K30-16 version, and because of
the bypass valve.
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c) 5 sq.m: This module is so far never completely used by BHEL Hyderabad. There are
two versions in this module the older version, documents of which are obtained
from Hardwar, and the newer version. There are 3 stages in this module. The first two
stages of this module were used by Siemens and BHEL Hyderabad in the
Kothagudem Retrofit project. The last stage documents also are available. The
specialty in the profiles of these blades is that the last stage guide blade is a forwardleaning blade, also called banana blade. This feature is incorporated by Siemens to
improve the efficiency of the module.

3.3 Constructional features of Roots

3.3.1 High Pressure Blade Root
The root is a part of the blade that fixes the blade to the rotor or stator. Its
design depends upon the centrifugal and steam bending forces of the blade. The root should
be designed such that the material in the blade root as well as the rotor
/ stator claw and
any fixing element are in the safe limits to avoid failure.

The typical
roots used for the HP moving blades for various steam turbine applications by BHEL
Hyderabad are shown in the following figure:
FIG: 3.3.1 (B) Fork-root

FIG: 3.3.1(a) T-root

The roots are T-root and Fork-root. The fork root has a higher load-carrying capacity
than the T-root.
For A-wheel blades, fork root is used invariably, since the disc diameter is high and
therefore centrifugal stresses are high. A T-root may not be able to handle the forces under
high-speed or high-temperature conditions. So Fork-root is standardised by Siemens for Awheel blades.

At one period of time, there were a lot of deviations in the A-wheel blade fork-root
taper pin drilling due to drift in the drill bit. In an attempt to avoid these problems, some
projects were executed with A-wheels with a T-root design involving a side grip. This side
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grip is required wherever T-root is used on disc-type rotors, since without this side grip, the
limbs of the T tend to bend outwards, causing a distortion of the root in operation.

However, it was found that machining this T-root with side grip is more of a problem.
It has to be machined by broaching, and the broaching machine available could not handle the
sizes of the roots. Availability of broaches of this size in market was also a problem. This
design of T-root with side grip was therefore subsequently discontinued.

FIG: 3.3.1 (C) T-root with side-grip

The fork-root of the A-wheel blade has two variants a 2-fork root and a 3-fork root.
If the stresses in the blade root, rotor claw and the taper pin are limited, 2-fork design is
adopted. If the stresses are beyond the limits of a 2-fork design, a 3-fork root is adopted.
Various standard sizes are available in each of these 2 designs. Appropriate size is s elected
based on the strength requirements and the chord length of the A-wheel blade. TEB-003 gives
the calculation procedures for the fork-root A-wheel blades. Program TW1020 calculates the
strength and thermodynamics of A-wheel blades and nozzles for 3 machines. For 4
machines, the program is TW0060.
3.3.2 LOW PRESSURE BLADE ROOTS
The roots of LP blades are as follows:
1) 2 blading:
The roots of both the LP stages in 2 type of LP blading are T-roots.
2) 3 blading:
The last stage LP blade of HK, SK and LK blades have a fork-root. SK blades have 4fork roots for all sizes. HK blades have 4-fork roots up to 56 size, where modified profiles
are used. Beyond this size, HK blades have 3 fork roots. LK blades have 3-fork roots for
all sizes.

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The roots of the LP blades of preceding stages are of T-roots.

3) 4 blading:
There are, as mentioned before, 3 different modules of 4 LP blading available with
BHEL Hyderabad.
a) 2.8 sq.m: Out of the three stages in LP blades of this module, the first stage has
rhomboid T-root. The next 2 stages have fir-tree root. This is because of the higher
load-carrying capacity of the fir-tree root, which is required by the heavier last two
stages.
b) 3.2 sq.m: Out of the four stages, the first stage has rhomboid T-root. The next two
stages have rhomboid double-T root. The last stage has fir-tree root. This is also in
accordance with the increasing requirement of load-carrying capacity.
c) 5 sq.m (old version and new version): Out of the three stages, the first stage has
rhomboid T-root, and the last two stages have fir-tree root.

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CHAPTER 4
DYNAMICS IN BLADES
4.1 Nozzle-passing excitation:
As the blades pass the nozzles of the stage, they encounter flow disturbances due to
the pressure variations across the guide blade passage. They also encounter disturbances due
to the wakes and eddies in the flow path. These are sufficient to cause excitation in the
moving blades. The excitation gets repeated at every pitch of the blade. This is called nozzlepassing frequency excitation. The order of this frequency = no. of guide blades x speed of the
machine. Multiples of this frequency are considered for checking for resonance.

4.2 Excitation due to non-uniformities in guide-blades around the

periphery:
These can occur due to manufacturing inaccuracies, like pitch errors, setting angle
variations, inlet and outlet edge variations, etc. For HP blades, due to the thick and cylindrical
cross-sections and short blade heights, the natural frequencies are very high. Nozzle-passing
frequencies are therefore necessarily considered, since resonance with the lower natural
frequencies occurs only with these orders of excitation.
In LP blades, since the blades are thin and long, the natural frequencies are low. The
excitation frequencies to be considered are therefore the first few multiples of speed, since the
nozzle-passing frequencies only give resonance with very high modes, where the vibration
stresses are low. Generally, in Siemens philosophy which is followed by BHEL, the first 6
speed-multiples are considered for resonance-checking. API 612, however, specifies that first
15 multiples are to be considered. It is not BHEL practice to do so.

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CHAPTER 5
DAMPING OF BLADES
The damping in any blade can be of any of the following types:
a) Material damping: This type of damping is because of the inherent damping
properties of the material which makes up the component.
b) Aerodynamic damping: This is due to the damping of the fluid which surrounds
the component in operation.
c) Friction damping: This is due to the rubbing friction between the components
under consideration with any other object.
Out of these damping mechanisms, the material and aerodynamic types of damping
are very small in magnitude. Friction damping is enormous as compared to the other two
types of damping. Because of this reason, the damping elements in blades generally
incorporate a feature by which the vibrational energy is dissipated as frictional heat.
The frictional damping has a particular characteristic. When the frictional force
between the rubbing surfaces is very small as compared to the excitation force, the surfaces
slip, resulting in friction damping. However, when the excitation force is small when
compared to the frictional force, the surfaces do not slip, resulting in locking of the surfaces.
This condition gives zero friction damping, and only the material and aerodynamic damping
exists. In a periodically varying excitation force, it may frequently happen that the force is
less than the friction force. During this phase, the damping is very less. At the same time, due
to the locking of the rubbing surfaces, the overall stiffness increases and the natural frequency
shifts drastically away from the individual value. The response therefore also changes in the
locked condition. The resonant response of a system therefore depends upon the amount of
damping in the system (which is determined by the relative duration of slip and stick in the
system, i.e., the relative magnitude of excitation and friction forces) and the natural frequency
of the system (which alters between the individual values and the locked condition value,
depending upon the slip or stick condition).

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5.1 Low pressure blade damping

In industrial turbines, in LP blades, the resonant vibrations have high amplitudes due
to the thin sections of the blades, and the large lengths. It may also not always be possible to
avoid resonance at all operating conditions. This is because of two reasons. Firstly, the LP
blades are standardized for certain ranges of speeds, and turbines may be selected to operate
anywhere in the speed range. The entire design range of operating speed of the LP blades
cannot be outside the resonance range. It is, of course, possible to design a new LP blade for
each application, but this involves a lot of design efforts and manufacturing cycle time.
However, with the present-day computer packages and manufacturing methods, it has
become feasible to do so. In fact, Triveni, which is making steam turbines in the lower MW
range under collaboration with M/s Peter Brotherhood, does make tailor-made LP blades for
its customer. The design data is directly fed to the machine tool which mills the blade.
However, with the facilities available in BHEL, this is not possible.
Secondly, the driven machine may be a variable speed machine like a compressor or a
boiler-feed-pump. In this case also, it is not possible to avoid resonance.
In such cases, where it is not possible to avoid resonance, a damping element is to be
used in the LP blades to reduce the dynamic stresses, so that the blades can operate
continuously under resonance also. The Siemens Wesel philosophy, applied to industrial
turbines, incorporates this damping element in its LP blades.
May be blades which are not adequately damped due to manufacturing inaccuracies. Since
KWU blades are not design
Frequency the KWU philosophy, applied to utility sets of 120 MW turbines and above, is
totally different. They consider that the damping arrangement used by Wesel is not totally reliable,
and there Ned for variable speed operation, they can be designed to avoid resonance at the operating
speed. The need for a damping element is therefore eliminated. In case the frequencies of the blades
tend towards resonance due to manufacturing inaccuracies, tuning is to be done on the blades to
correct the frequency. This tuning is done by grinding off material at the tip (which reduces the inertia
more than the stiffness) to increase the frequency, and by grinding off material at the base of the
profile (which reduces the stiffness more than the inertia) to reduce the natural.

The damping elements incorporated in the LP blades of industrial turbines of Wesel

design are:
a) Damping wire
b) Double-taper pins.

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The two arrangements are shown in the following figure:

FIG: 5.1(A) Damping wire design

FIG: 5.1(B) Double-taper pin design

The damping wire is a continuous wire passing through holes drilled in the blade
profiles at a fixed height. This wire passes through several blades in the stage. There are
several such segments in a stage. This wire is loose, and in operation, due to centrifugal force,
butts against the top surface of the holes in the blades, thus joining the blades in that segment.
Vibrations in the blades are dissipated as friction between the wire and the blades.
However, it may so happen that the wire does not uniformly touch all the blades. In
such cases, all blades may not be adequately damped. To avoid this problem, the last stage
blades of SK, HK and LK blades are provided with double-taper pins. A pin with taper at
both ends is loosely fitted between two blades. Every pair of blades has a pin in between.
Thus, all blades are equally acted upon by the damping element. For other stages of 3
blading and for 2 blading, only wire is still used. This is because the LP blades of other
stages of 3 blading have natural frequencies higher than the 6 th speed multiple, so the
vibration energy is very less. In 2 blades, the profiles are too thin to take the boss required
for putting the double-taper pin.
In 2.8 sq.m LP blade design, which was developed by Fuji and given to Siemens
Wesel, the blading was originally designed for 60 Hz machines. Siemens, while adapting
these blades for 50 Hz machines, found that there is resonance for the second stage blade first
mode with 4th speed multiple. There is also a near-resonance for the third stage blade first
mode with 3rd speed multiple. Therefore, though the original design was for free-standing
blades, Siemens incorporated damping elements for all three LP moving blades. The first
stage, which has no resonance up to 6th multiple, was nevertheless fitted with a damping wire.
Damping wire also was added for the 2nd stage. For the third stage, due to the large twist, a
staggered pin design was used. The staggered pin design is shown below.
However, the 2nd stage LP blades showed blade failures at several sites, including in
the set supplied by Siemens for Renusagar Power Company. Siemens service engineer was
called by Renusagar, and he advised a change of design from wire to staggered pin for the 2 nd
stage also. This design was done indigenously by BHEL, and is the present standard. Several
sets are working with this now, and no failures were reported.
The 3.2 sq.m design, being of KWU philosophy, has no damping elements, but the
blades are tuned to avoid resonance. It may be mentioned here that there are some practical
problems associated with tuning the blades. KWU guidelines are available for tuning the
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blades, which specify where the material is to be ground, and how much the minimum
thickness should be at these locations. For blades with only one natural frequency below the
6th speed multiple (the first 3 stages of 3.2 sq.m LP blading) there is no problem. The blades
can be tuned by grinding to achieve the required frequency. For blades with more than one
natural frequency below the 6th speed multiple (4th stage blade of 3.2 sq.m LP blading) the
tuning is difficult, because the correction for one natural frequency pushes the other out of the
acceptable range. This becomes more critical when the customer-specified operating regime
is not the standard range of 47.5-51.5 Hz but 47-53 Hz. This wider frequency range is
prevalent in some grids in India. Nalco was the first customer to specify this range for this
size blading. In such cases, the blades which are likely to involve high rejections during
tuning (i.e. 4th stage blades of 3.2 sq.m blading) are to be procured extra, so that tuning
rejections can be replenished. Based on Nalco experience, it is decided that the 4 th stage
blades have to be
In 5 sq.m LP module new design, KWU has provided the first LP stage with an
integral Z-shaped shroud. The blade is sufficiently thick to carry the shroud, making this
design possible. This shroud is mainly meant for sealing the steam, though vibration damping
is also a function.
In order to have high damping even in low excitation regimes, the friction force has to
be low. The following curve shows the variation of amplitude with normal force.

Amplitude

Normal Force
FIG: 5.1(C) The following curve shows the variation of amplitude with normal force
It can be seen that for very low (almost zero) normal load, the friction force is not
sufficient to cause good damping. There is an optimum value for normal force which causes
maximum damping. Beyond this value of normal force, the damping again reduces due to the
increasing lock-up of the two rubbing surfaces. At very high normal force (in relation to the
excitation) the lock-up is total, and the damping very low, though the stiffness is altered due
to the lock-up. The normal operating regime for the blades with damping wire or double-taper
pins is well towards the right of the minimum point in the curve. It is practically impossible
to achieve the minimum point in the curve, since the wire or pin has to be of very low weight
for this purpose. Therefore, in practice, the operation is in a regime where any reduction in
weight of the damping element is always an advantage, provided the strength and rigidity of
the damping element permit it.
If resonance (at or less than 6 th speed multiple) is unavoidable in the operating speeds,
the resonant stresses are to be checked with the help of Goodman diagram. The dynamic
stress calculations are given in the book on Steam Turbines by Walter Traupel.
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For double-taper pin design of 3 LP blading last stage, Siemens have made a
monogram based on experimental test results. This monogram gives the dynamic stresses
directly as a function of static steam bending stresses. The calculation of dynamic stresses for
these blades is therefore simplified, and the elaborate procedure of Traupel need not be
followed.
The dynamic and static stresses are plotted on a Goodman diagram curve to determine
whether the blade is safe or not. If safe, the blade can be operated even in resonance.
Generally, it is found that the 3 LP blade last stage (with double taper pin or damping
wire) is safe in resonance for all operating conditions due to the high damping provided by
the damping element. But 2 LP blades (ND blading) are not so. Even with damping wire,
they frequently may be stresses beyond tolerable limits.

5.2 High pressure blade damping

The HP moving blades experience relatively low vibration amplitudes due to their
thicker sections and shorter heights. They also have integral shrouds. These shrouds of
adjacent blades butt against each other forming a continuous ring. This ring serves two
purposes it acts as a steam seal, and it acts as a damper for the vibrations. When vibrations
occur, the vibration energy is dissipated as friction between shrouds of adjacent blades.
For HP guide blades of Wesel design, the shroud is not integral, but a shroud band is
riveted to a number of guide blades together. The function of this shroud band is mainly to
seat the steam. The HP guide blades of KWU design have integral shrouds like moving
blades. The primary function remains steam sealing.

CHAPTER 6
BLADING MATERIAL
6.1Blade Material and Blade Types:
Among the different materials typically used for blading are 403 stainless steel, 422
stainless steel, A286, and Haynes Stellate Alloy Number 31 and titanium alloy. The 403
stainless steel is essentially the industrys standard blade material and, on impulse steam
turbines, it is probably found on over 90 percent of all the stages. It is used because of its
high yield strength, endurance limit, ductility, toughness, erosion and corrosion resistance,
and damping. It is used within a Brinell hardness range of 207 to 248 to maximize its
Page | 19

damping and corrosion resistance. The 422 stainless steel material is applied only on high
temperature stages (between 700 and 900F or 371 and 482C), where its higher yield,
endurance, creep and rupture strengths are needed. The A-286 material is a nickel-based
super alloy that is generally used in hot gas expanders with stage temperatures between 900
and 1150F (482 and 621C). The Haynes stellate Alloy Number 31 is a cobalt-based super
alloy and is used on jet expanders when precision cast blades are needed. The Haynes stellate
Number 31 is used at stage temperatures between 900 and 1200F (482 and 649C). Another
blade material is titanium. Its high strength, low density, and good erosion resistance make it
a good candidate for high speed or long-last stage blading. Blades are made of alloy steel
which mainly contains carbon, chromium, nickel, molybdenum X20 and x20 are the material
specification which contains the alloying elements in given percentage
Material
X20
X22

C
0.22
0.8

Ni
0.8
0.3-0.5

Cr
12-13
11.5-11.5

Mo
0.8-1.2
0.8-1.20

Mn
0.3
0.3

Si
0.1-0.5
0.1-0.5

V
0.25-0.35

6.2 Analysis of Steam Turbines Material

All the Among the different materials typically used for blading are 403 stainless
steel, 422 stainless steel, A-286, and Haynes stellate Alloy Number 31 and titanium alloy. The
403 stainless steel is essentially the industrys standard blade material and, on impulse steam
turbines, it is probably found on over 90 percent of all the stages. It is used because of its
high yield strength, endurance limit, ductility, toughness, erosion and corrosion resistance,
and damping. It is used within a Brinell hardness range of 207 to 248 to maximize its
damping and corrosion resistance. The 422 stainless steel material is applied only on high
temperature stages (between 700 and 900F or 371 and 482C), where its higher yield,
endurance, creep and rupture strengths are needed. The A-286 material is a nickel-based
super alloy that is generally used in hot gas expanders with stage temperatures between 900
and 1150F (482 and 621C). The Haynes stellate Alloy Number 31 is a cobalt-based super
alloy and is used on jet expanders when precision cast blades are needed. The Haynes stellate
Number 31 is used at stage temperatures between 900 and 1200F (482 and 649C).
Which mainly contains carbon, chromium, nickel, molybdenum X20 and x20 are the
material specification which contains the alloying elements in given percentage. Tensile
strength: 95 kgf/mm2 0.2 Yield stress: 70 kgf/mm2 Impact: 05 kg/mm2. Elongation, (l=5d):
15% min. Reduction in area: 50% min BHN: 270.
The blade materials generally used by Siemens are:
a) HP Moving blades: X22CrMoV121V for blades operating above 300 deg. C
X20Cr13 for blades operating below 300 deg.C
b) HP Guide blades of Wesel design: X20CrMo13KG: The guide blades are not
subjected to centrifugal stresses, and so X20Cr13 material strength is sufficient.
However, as they are made from drawn profiles, Mo is added for better drivability.
c) HP moving and guide blades of KWU design: No guidelines are available from
KWU. Material is input to the program, unlike Wesel practice. If the material
strength can withstand the calculated stress, the material is finalized. If not, higher
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material is to be used. However, BHEL Hyderabad has made it a practice to use

X22CrMoV121V material for all HP and IP guide and moving blades, and
X20Cr13 for all moving and guide blades in LP cylinder.
d) LP blades of all turbines are of X20Cr13 material. Exception is the 4 LP guide
blades. In these, the solid blades are made of X5CrNi-134 material, and the
hollow guide blades are made of plates of X7CrAl-13 material.
e) BHEL has made a high-temperature turbine for TCL Mithapur project. The inlet
steam temperature for this turbine is 560 deg.C. Even X22CrMoV121V material
strength is not sufficient at these temperatures. A special steel,
X19CrMoVNbN111, is used for the first 3 moving blades in this turbine. This is a
Niobium-stabilized steel.
f) Some manufacturers have made blades of very large length in relation to the
diameter and speed for better thermal performance and more compact size. In fact,
BHEL is also in the process of designing a 30 MW steam turbine operating at
12000 rpm. Such applications result in the LP stages being stressed beyond the
allowable limits for conventional materials. Turbine manufacturers have therefore
tried using Titanium alloys for these blades, which have a high strength-to-weight
ratio. The centrifugal forces are therefore reduced by using Ti-alloys, and the
strength of the material is sufficient to take the stress. One such alloy is T-6Al-6V2Sn used by Hitachi in their 46-long blade. Other manufacturers use other
proprietary Ti-alloys.

CHAPTER 7
OTHER CONSIDERATION ON BLADES
1) Erosion: The LP blades are frequently subjected to wet steam. This is especially the case
with last stage blades. The water particles in the wet steam travelling at high velocities
erode the moving blades. This erosion normally occurs on the back-profile at the top onethird of the blade height. So, in case calculations predict a possibility of erosion, the last
stage moving blades are therefore hardened to resist this erosion. The erosion index of the
last stage is checked. In Wesel practice, if the erosion index is more than 0.3, last stage
moving blade hardening is required. In KWU practice, if the erosion index is more than
0.2, last stage moving blade hardening is required. If the erosion index is more than 0.6,
slits must be provided in the last stage guide blade to drain away the water droplets. The
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last stage guide wheel is also lined at the inlet side with a high-strength material so that
the guide wheel is not eroded.
2) Corrosion fatigue: The steam has impurities dissolved in it. Some of these impurities
cause corrosion on the blades if deposited on the blade. For blades which are in transition
zone (alternating between super-heat and wet conditions), the salts get deposited by water
particles in wet steam, and when the water gets evaporated, are left behind, corroding the
blade. For blades in transition zone, therefore, the allowable strength is drastically
reduced.
3) In Wesel design, the blade height-to-chord ratio is limited to 5 in all HP blades except for
the blade just after the A-wheel. For this blade, the limit is reduced to 4. This is because
of the turbulence just after the A-wheel, due to the high velocities and due to partial
admission.

CHAPTER 8
MANUFACTURING METHODS OF DIFFERENT BLADES
1) A-wheel blade: The A-wheel blade is machined from a ring forging. The forging is first
turned to have a cross-section same as the root shape, the shroud and the blade width. The
ring has a standard OD, and an ID fixed based on the blade height. In practice, only 2
sizes of rings are standardized.
The ring is then cut into pieces and each piece is milled to get the required profile.
2) Nozzles: These are also machined from ring forgings. The ring dimensions are, however,
exactly same as those required for the final blade. This ring is then cut to pieces and each
piece milled to get the required profile.
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3) HP Moving blades: The moving blades are machined from flats. The flats are initially
milled to a rhomboid shape, the T-root portion the milled by gang milling, the profile
width milled, and then the front and back profiles milled. Finally, the moving blade is put
on a sine bar and the pitch taper is milled. However, the accuracies required for
machining the blades are not fully achievable with existing machinery. Siemens
acceptance standards are therefore relaxed by BHEL. This is especially so for TX
profiles, where the channel side is not part of a single circular arc, but us a profile by
itself. In T4 profiles, the channel side is milled by a circular cutter, and only the back
profile is copied. This is not valid for a TX profile. The machining of TX profile is
therefore more difficult.
Another difficulty in machining the blades is that with the existing procedure, there is a
lot of material UN machined at the inlet edge. This is hand-ground to match the
templates. This involves inaccuracies. In Siemens, the entire blade is machined by a
machine tool using creep-feed grinding, and no manual intervention exists.
4) HP Guide blade: In Wesel design, the guide blades are made from drawn profiles. The
blade root is milled, and then the rivet pin is milled. The guide blades are then assembled
in the carrier / casing, with spacers in between each pair of guide blades to maintain the
pitch. Shroud bands are then placed over the rivet pins, and riveted.
The guide blades of KWU design, because of their integral shroud and root, are machined
from flats like the moving blades.
5) LP moving blades: The 2 LP moving blades, and the previous-to-last stages of 3 LP
blading, which do not have any bosses in their profiles for damping elements, are made
by copy-milling the profile, and the root is milled like any other T-root.
The LP moving blade last stage of 3 blading (HK, SK and LK), which have a boss in the
profile for the damping element, are made from precision forgings. The profile is
untouched after precision-forging, but the root and the boss for damping element are
milled.
The L P moving blades of 2.8 sq.m, 3.2 sq.m blading are all precision-forged. Only the
root is milled, and also the boss if any.
The 5 sq.m moving blades are presently imported. The first stage of these blades requires
a 4- or 5-axis machine which is not available with BHEL Hyderabad. The fir-tree blades
can be made from precision-forgings like other fir-tree blades.
6) LP guide blades: The 2 and 3 guide blades are made like HP guide blades. The 4 guide
blades are welded to an inner ring and an outer ring. The assembly is called a guide
wheel. The outer ring has a flange for bolting the guide wheel to exhaust hood.
a) 2.8 sq.m: The first guide blade is solid, either milled from flats or precision-forged.
The last 2 stages are hollow, made from plates bent into the suction and pressure
profiles of the blade, and welded together.
b) 3.2 sq.m: the first 2 stages are solid, and the last 2 stages are hollow, made from
plates.
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c) 5 sq.m: the first stage is solid, and the last 2 stages are hollow, made from plates.

CHAPTER 9
SEQUENCE OF OPERATION

9.1 STEPS INVOLVED IN MACHINING OF STEAM TURBINE

BLADE

1) Cutting to Bar Size:

This is the initial process that is processed over the raw material to cut in to the
required size of bar. Band saw machine is used to do this process. A continues hacksaw blade
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made f H.S.S is rotated and pressed over the bar at the desired locations to cut the bar to the
required size.

Size milling: Is the starting operation of blade manufacturing which is done over
a conventional milling or CNC milling machine. As the name appears this operation sizes the
bar into the required thickness and width of the blade if thickness has very less allowance for
milling then it directly passes to grinding operation. Thus we can say it is a roughing
operation Size milling operation required a slab end mill cutter to give required size...Size
milling operation to get required size some allowance is given on the basic size of the bar that
is +0.5mm. After completion of milling operation its size is ensured.

Steps of Size Milling:

Clamp the work piece in the vice

Firmly tight the work piece in the vice
Give depth of cut as per suitability
Start the machine and switch on the supply of coolant
Feed the material in the longitudinal axis
After completion of operation stop the machine
Check the size of the work piece

3) Size Grinding:
Size grinding is the next operation of the blade in which the size of blade is
maintained by grinding. In milling operation size of the blade is not equally machined to its
proper size thats why we give some extra allowance for grinding.

Steps of Size Grinding

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Remove the burrs of work piece with emery paper

Hold the job on the magnetic base.
Switch on the magnetic supply to clamp the blade bars
Give depth of cut to the grinding segments in microns
Start the coolant supply Start the feed
f) Check the size of the blade bars after completion

4) Rhomboidal Milling:
Rhomboidal milling is the operation in which material is given a rhombus shape on
milling machine. This rhomboidal shape is given to form a profile of the blade. An angular
fixture is used to give a rhomboidal shape. Rhomboidal fixture has an angular swivel
arrangement which can be rotated at a certain angle in both the direction against vertical
plane. After setting at a particular given angle bar is clamped in the fixture and milling
operation. As we set the angle to certain degree with vertical plane of the cutter it cut the bars
at an angle given on both side of the bar after completion of this operation the bars are
formed into the rhomboidal shape. Rhomboidal angle is depends upon the profile angle for
different blades. It is generally used around 20 degree, 22 degree etc.

Steps of Rhomboidal Milling:

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a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Adjust the fixture at given rhomboidal angle

Check the angle with bevel protractor
Clamp the blade bars in the fixture
Give depth of cut
Start the machine and coolant supply
Give feed to the machine.
Repeat depth of cut till the required size is produced

5 Rhomboidal Grinding:
Rhomboidal grinding is the operation same as size grinding in this operation the bar is
maintained at its size of rhomboidal grinding. This is finishing operation of the blade.
Allowance for grinding is given around 0.5 to 0.8 mm.

6 Blade Length Cutting:

Blade length cutting is the operation in which the bar is cut into the required blade
length on the milling machine. The tool used for this operation is slitting saw cutter which
has carbide bits mounted on the cutter. Bending may be in the blade if we cut the bar in the
starting stages of operation of the blade.
7) ROOT MILLING: In the machining of the rotor a form cutter is used which has the
same form which is to be produced on the blade. For this purpose a special type of machine
used. Four spindle or two spindle root milling machine is used. Root milling machine consist
of two or four spindles and table which is moves in longitudinal direction. Upper two
spindles are attached to the upper head and lower spindle attached to the lower head. A
special type of fixture is used for this is mounted on the table of the machine. The root width
is maintained by keeping distance equal to the width of the blade between cutters. The extra
metal is removed by the cutter. Depth of cut is given in vertical direction for giving depth of
cut cutters initially touches the bar and then depth of cut is given. There two depth of cut is
given in case of blade which has the higher thickness. Depth of cut= (blade width root
width)/2

Steps of the Root Milling:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

Clamp the blades in the fixture.

Ensure the blades are firmly clamped
Touches the cutters to the blade
Give depth of cut which is to be given
Switch on the machine
Give feed to the machine
Switch on the coolant supply.
Take out the job and switch off all the system after completion of
operation.

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FIG: 9.1 ROOTSTYPES

8 Root Radius:
Blades are assembled in the rotor for forming a turbine. To assemble these blades
these blades should form a circle of radius equal to the rotor as its diameter increases as per
the row of blades. Root radius helps in the assembly of blades in the rotor by giving a radius
on the root on the lower face of root. This radius should be correct to assemble neither it will
create a problem while assembly. In root radius end mill cutter is used on
CNC machine in which it moves in all three axis

9) Taper Milling:
Taper milling is also a milling operation which is done over a milling machine. This
operation also help in the forming a circle of radius equal to the rotor. Taper is given on the
blades when these blades are connected to each other they form a circle of diameter equal to
the diameter of rotor. For tapering sine bars are used. Taper is given in Y axis. The value of
taper which is given in the drawing we select the sine bar and adjust the fixture by placing the
sine bar which gives the taper which is to be produced.

Steps of Taper Milling

a) Select the sine bar value from the drawing
b) Place this sine bar at the bottom of the sine bar roller
c) Automatically fixture come to the slope which is given by taper
milling
d) Clamp the maximum blades can clamped at a time on the fixture.
e) Start the machine, give depth of cut and supply coolant
f) Start feed mechanism
g) Remove the blades after completion of the operation
Check the minimum pitch of the blade

10) Fitting and Polishing:

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Fitting is the pre-final stage of the assembling of blades to the turbine. Here in this
process all the blades are inserted in the groves of rotor and small brass tips are fitted under
the blade root and chipping is done to make the blade tightly fixed in to the rotor. For the last
blade of every row chipping is not possible so small holes are drilled either side of the blade
on rotor and these holes are filled with bolts or brass tips.
Polishing is usually a multistage process. The first stage starts with a rough abrasive and each
subsequent stage uses a finer abrasive until the desired finish is achieved. The rough pass
removes surface defects like pits, nicks, lines and scratches. The finer abrasives leave very
thin lines that are not visible to the naked eye. Lubricants like wax and kerosene are used as
lubricating and cooling media during these operations. Polishing operations for items such as
chisels, hammers, screwdrivers, wrenches, etc., are given a fine finish but not plated. In order
to achieve this finish four operations are required: roughing, dry fining, greasing, and
colouring. For an extra fine polish the greasing operation may be broken up into two operati
ons rough greasing and fine greasing.

CHAPTER 10
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF BLADES
10.1 Conventional Manufacturing process
Manufacturing process is that part of the production process which is directly
concerned with the change of form or dimensions of the part being produced. It does not
include the transportation, handling or storage of parts, as they are not directly concerned
with the changes into the form or dimensions of the part produced. Manufacturing is the
backbone of any industrialized nation. Manufacturing and Technical staff in industry must
Page | 28

know the various manufacturing processes, materials being processed, tools and equipments
for manufacturing different components or products with optimal process plan using proper
precautions and specified safety rules to avoid accidents. Beside above, all kinds of the future
engineers must know the basic requirements of workshop activities in term of man, machine,
material, methods, money and other infrastructure facilities needed to be positioned properly
for optimal shop layouts or plant layout and other support services.
Various Tools Used For Manufacturing of Turbine

FIG: 10.1(A): a) Band saw machine:

Holding device: Hydraulic device Cutter: H.S.Tool cutter; Operation: Cutting into length

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FIG: 10.1(b) Duplex milling machine

Holding device: Hydraulic device
Cutter: Tee max cutter

Operation: Size milling

Holding device: Magnetic base

Cutter: Segments

FIG: 10.1(C) Segmental grinding milling machine

Operation: Face grinding

d)

Horizontal milling machine

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FIG: 10.1(d) Horizontal milling machine

Holding device: Angular fixture, Fixture, Pneumatic vice
Cutter: Slab mill cutter, Slitting saw cutter, Interlocking cutter, side end mill cutter,
form cutter, Fly tool.
Operation: Rhomboid milling, Slitting, Length cutting, form milling, convex milling
and concave milling

FIG: 10.1(e) Four spindle milling machine:

Holding device: Fixture; Cutter: Root mill cutter

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FIG: 10.1(f) vertical milling machine

Holding device: Machine vice, fixture

Cutter: Tee max cutter, shell and mill cutter, ball nose end mill Operation: Size
milling, profile milling, taper milling, widening root radius

FIG: 10.1(G) Surface grinding machine:

Holding device: Magnetic base
Cutter: Side & face cutter, form cutter
Operation: Step milling
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FIG: 10.1
FACE

(H)
LATHE

MACHINE
(Operation: Root radius turning)
Cutter: Root radius turning tool

FIG: 10.1(I) Copy milling machine Holding device: Hydraulic fixture Cutter:
Special flower type mill cutter Operation: Profile milling

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10.2 unconventional machining process

10.2.1 COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL
Definition: The Meaning of Computer Numerical Control The computer numerical
control (CNC) machine has a built-in computer, which is used to store and send instructions
to different parts of the machine in the form of code. The machine responds to this coded
information in a precise and ordered manner to carry out various machining functions.
Instructions are supplied to the machine as a series of blocks of information. A block of
information is a group of commands sufficient to enable the machine to carry out one
individual machining operation e.g. move the cutter form position 1 to position 2 at a
specified feed rate.
Machine Axis Determination for Horizontal and Vertical Spindle Machines The primary
axes of a machine are designated as X, Y, Z, which have positive and negative values. The Zaxis is always the main spindle axis and is positive away from the work, which is for safety
reasons. The X-axis is always horizontal and parallel to the surface of the work. The Y-axis is
perpendicular to both X and Z axes. For the milling machine, the Z + direction is upwards
away from the work, Z direction is downwards into the work. The X + direction is to the
right of the work and the X direction to the left. The Y + direction is back into the machine
and the Y- direction is directly towards the operator. For the lathe, the Z + direction is to the
right and away from the work, Z direction is to the left and into the work. The X + direction
is directly towards the operator, the X direction is back into the machine away from the
operator.
Constructional Details E.G. Special Configurations to Increase Accuracy the
conventional machine is designed to have an operator standing directly in front controlling
the machine. For the CNC machine this is no longer required as the machine is operating
under program control. CNC machines have more rigid construction when compared to the
conventional machine. The slide ways, guide and spindles of the CNC machine all look over
proportioned when compared to the conventional machine. The structure of the CNC machine
is therefore designed to cope with the torsional forces and heavy duty cutting imposed on
these machines.
Visual Displays Unit User Interfaces. Scarf Removal Systems The visual display unit
(VDU), which is also called a monitor or a display is normally built-in to the side panel of the
CNC machine. It visually lists the machining program in the form of G-codes and can also be
used to show a graphical display of the path that the cutting tool will take to machine the part.
A keyboard close to the VDU allows programs to be written directly into the controller unit of
the machine or can be used to modify existing programs. It is more common nowadays to
prepare the program on a separate computer and then load it onto the CNC machine later. The
advantage of this is that the CNC machine is not idle while the program is being written.

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CHAPTER 11
Advantages of CNC Machines When Compared to Conventional
milling machines
Advantages of CNC Machining: High Accuracy and Repeatability, Production Times,
safety once the program has been written and proved, parts can be consistently machined to a
high degree of accuracy and consistency. Production time can also be reduced due the fact
that the tool can be feed at a rapid feed rate to the work. Also complex form tools are not
required as the CNC machine can generate the required profile. Safety has also been
improved as most CNC machines have safety features such as guards.

Elimination of Special Jigs and Fixtures:

Production time can also be reduced and costs reduced due the fact that writing a part
program is quicker and cheaper than manufacturing jigs and fixtures.

Reduction Of Machine Set Up Times:

Setup times can be reduced when compared to the setup times on conventional machines due
to the fact that equipment such as, the rotary table, jigs, fixtures, form tools etc., do not need
to setup.
Flexibility in Changes of Component Design:
When the program is written to the drawing dimensions, a trial part is machined to prove the
program. The machined part is rarely correct on the first run, therefore modifications will
need to be made to the program to bring some features within the required tolerance band.
This is easily done by calling up the program, which will be displayed on the screen. The
operator then scrolls down to the line where the value needs to be changed. When the change
is made the program can be run again. Also future design changes can be made in the same
way.

Reduction of Operation Error:

Provided that the program is correct and the cutting tools are setup properly no errors will
occur in the work. As explained above, the program is normally proved in advance of
production. Operator fatigue, boredom or inattention will not affect the quality or the duration
of machine as can occur when machining on a conventional machine.

Complex One-Off Components and Small Batch Quantities:

CNC machines are ideal for one-off components and small batch quantities. The fast
changeover times that can be achieved by the CNC machine means that small batches can be
machined economically. The program needs to be prepared on a separate computer so that the
CNC machine can remain in production. The program can be stored on the CNC machine and
called up when required again in the future.

Guarding Arrangements for CNC Machines:

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Safety has also been improved when compared to conventional machines, as most CNC
machines have safety features such as guards. The machine is only accessible through the
sliding doors that are closed prior to the machine starting up. Safety switches are placed
behind the sliding doors will not allow the machine program to run until the doors are closed.
Also, if the doors are opened the machine will switch off.

Adaptability and Advantages of CNC within Modern and Evolving

Industries Including the Apprentices Workplace:
In the past it was adequate for the apprentice Toolmaker to be trained on conventional
milling machines and the lathes. In order to use these machines effectively the apprentice had
to learn to use other equipment such as the sine bar, rotary table, dividing head etc., on the
milling machine and learn how to turn tapers, stepped diameters, threads etc., on the lathe.
Nowadays the CNC machine is used throughout industry. It can perform all the above tasks
and can also be programmed and run by semi-skilled operators. It is still very important to be
proficient in all aspects of the conventional milling machine and lathe, but learning to use the
CNC machine is a necessary requirement of the modern day apprentice

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CHAPTER 12
RESULT
The Project STUDY OF STEAM TURBINE BLADE AND ITS DESIGN helped us to
enhance our knowledge which mainly deals with mechanical aspects of blade design.
The study of this project made us to understand the principles of designs of the existing blade
and has given overview of other related issues to the blade

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CHAPTER 13
CONCLUSION
We have finally acquired knowledge over Steam turbine Blade and its manufacturing process
which had let me know many unknown things that actually be followed during the production
procedure and also about the various materials used. This paper has attempted to cover some
of the issues related to Steam turbines blade which a designer should be aware of.

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CHAPTER 14
REFERENCES
The Sites which were used while doing this project:
1. www.wikipedia.com
2. www.bhelhyderabad.com
3. www.google.co.in
4. www.accessengineeringlibrary.com
5. www.irespage.com
6. A hand material on Steam turbine blade design

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