SME Annual Meeting

Feb. 19 - 22, 2012, Seattle, WA

Preprint 12-007
GROUND CONTROL IN HARD ROCK MINING
S. Chen, Great Basin Gold, Winnemucca, NV
R. McKinnon, Great Basin Gold, Winnemucca, NV

hole, swellex will be inflated up with high pressure water. Coated

swellex can be used when ground water exhibits low pH value (Figure
2). Acid test on these bolts had been performed at mine site. After
being soaked in low pH (1~2) mine water for a month, the coating
exhibited stable chemical properties (Figure 2). The purpose of coating
is to prevent bolt rusting and provide long term support performance.

ABSTRACT
In the last four years, 2007~2010, 9 out of 24 metal/nonmetal
underground mine fatalities were caused by ground fall across United
States of America (Mine Safety & Health Administration, MSHA). To
reduce or eliminate incidents/accidents caused by ground fall, this
paper clarified how to design and select ground support based on
different ground conditions, how to use mine ground support
standards, what geotechnical engineers and underground operators
should do to keep mine production free of ground failures.
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of ground control is to provide a safe environment
while operators working or traveling underground during openings
serving time. Ground support design and quality control are based on
design theory and mine geotechnical data. Geotechnical data
collection, ground support design and installation are the first step of
ground control. Ground movement is a dynamic process. Either
support or hosting rock condition changes with time. Factors that affect
ground control positively and negatively exist. These factors, like
structure, moisture, adjacent openings, long term support performance,
long term rock stress-strain relationship etc, can decide opening
stability and must be inspected regularly by designated personnel.
Monitoring should be adopted if necessary. Inspection/monitoring is
the second step of ground control and must be performed regularly.
Inspection frequency will be decided by the speed of the ground
movement.

Figure 1. Split set bolts, black and galvanized.

GROUND SUPPORT SELECTION, INSTALLATION AND QUALITY

CONTROL
Stress and strength are always relative, low quality rock can be
competent under low stresses and high quality, strong rocks can be
fragile under high pressure. Under either circumstance, ground support
should provide confining stress, not necessary as strong as pre-mining
state but high enough for safety and stability purpose.

Figure 2. Swellex bolts, black and coated (acid test).

Resin (cement or chemical) bolts, like cable bolts (single strand,
double strand, bulbed), dywidags, william bolts can be used in medium
size blocky, structured ground. These bolts provide very high load
capacity. Cable bolts can endure even bigger ground movement and
more shearing than swellex. Hole size is not a key factor when
installing resin bolts. One important factor is water to cement ratio
when cement is used as a replacement of resin. Cement can be
pumped into holes in two different methods (Figure 3) when cable bolts
is used. The first method (graph on left side of Figure 3), grouting tube
is extended all the way to the top of the hole, breathing tube is
extended just inside the sealed collar. The second method, breathing
tube is extended all the way to the top and grouting tube just inside the
seal. The principle to decide which method should be used is grouting
tube should be exposed at a lower elevation of the hole to eliminate
potential voids during grouting. Cement or resin can get into fractures
and strengthen the rock when being pumped into the hole. This is
another advantage of resin bolts. Ending plates and mesh can be
installed only after enough time has been given for the cement or
resin to set. The differences between cable bolt and William bolt are
the inner tube of William bolts can be used as breathing tube and cable
bolt can endure larger ground movement.

Manufacturers can provide many kinds of ground support

materials today, different material can be used under different ground
conditions to reach the most economical and efficient ground control
results. Almost all the bolts used in hard rock mines are full length
strengthen bolts, few anchor bolts are used as consistent ground and
high quality drill hole are required. Those full length strengthen bolts
can be divided into two types, friction bolts and resin (cement) bolts.
When bolts and mesh cannot stabilize the ground, other methods,
shotcrete and steel set can be considered.
Support Type and Application
Friction bolts (Figure 1 split set and Figure 2 swellex) are widely
used in metal/nonmetal mines to support ground because they can be
easily installed. Split set can be used in medium hard and hard rock
mass. A hole with a smaller (than bolt diameter) diameter will be drilled
and the bolt will be driven/thrusted into the hole. Drill bit size is a key
parameter that can decide the load capacity. Smaller size of bit is
recommended on relatively soft rock and larger size of bit is suggested
when developing in hard ground. Galvanized bolts and accessories
should be used in long term openings. Swellex is another kind of full
length friction bolts which provides more flexibility and expansion.
Together with shotcrete it can be used in soft or extremely soft ground
and ground exhibits more movement. After being pushed into the drill

Besides the rule of thumb, which can be found in most of the rock
mechanics literature, on deciding the length and spacing of bolt should

Copyright 2012 by SME

SME Annual Meeting

Feb. 19 - 22, 2012, Seattle, WA
be used in development, wedge analysis (structured dead weight) is
also used in the support design to decide the bolt length and pattern.
Size or volume calculation of the wedge is based on the main
structural mapping.

intense on installation, steel set is always used as a secondary

support.
Quality Control
The load capacity of bolts can be checked by pull test and this
value can also be used as a reference number when designing (Figure
5 a & b) ground support. The pull test result is a comprehensive
reflection of rock quality, bit selection and resin quality. Normally for
friction bolts the capacity is between 0.5~1.5 tons/foot, for resin bolts at
least 1.5~2.5 tons/foot. For example, if pull test is performed on a 8
feet split set, the load should be between 4 and 12 tons depends on
the bit size used to drill the hole, rock hardness, how long the pull test
is performed after installation.

cable bolts

grout tube

breath tube

sealing

Figure 3. Two different grouting methods.

a. claw and stand
Figure 5. Underground pull test kit.

b. pump

Shotcrete quality can be reflected on the amount of rebound,

thickness and also panel bending test. When voids exists behind the
wire, that part of wire is recommended to cut open, so shotcrete can be
applied behind the wire on the rock surface.
Water or moisture is not favorable for ground control purpose. It
can reduce the effective stress, lower the friction between rocks, wash
away structure fillings, damage the support effectiveness. Special
attention should be paid to wet area especially when rock is highly
altered. In high moisture long term serving openings, try to dewater
first by using galvanized split set bolts as drain pipes. Some pull test
rings can be installed at this time. Perform pull test on these bolts
every quarter to evaluate the water effect on bolts strength. If a
decrease loading capacity has been found or ground movement has
been detected, secondary ground support is required in these
headings.
Water pH should be measured to check its effects on bolts, mesh
and other supports.
Figure 4. William bolts.

GROUND SUPPORT STANDARD

Shotcrete is recommended for soft or high clay altered ground

together with bolts and welded mesh. Shotcrete can prevent rock
weathering, strengthen rock and monitor the ground movement. When
there is a big area of soft ground, shotcrete fracture development can
help on monitoring. When shotcete is used the following must be
considered.
1.
2.
3.

Mine ground support standard is a minimum requirement and

when different ground condition is encountered, ground support
method should be re-evaluated and adjusted.
GROUND INSPECTION
After support design and installation, geotechnical engineers must
inspect the mine and collect monitoring data regularly and record the
conditions by different emergency level. Some areas may need more
often inspection. Some areas may need immediate rehabilitation. A
report should be sent out to the management and operations
suggesting the actions should be taken to prevent ground fall.

Make sure the right length of bolts are used;

When the ground is wet, bleeding holes must be left to drain
the water behind shotcrete;
Shotcrete training must be provided to the operator.

When being used together with bolts, select welded mesh over
chain link mesh when it is possible, especially in headings that could
be open over a year, as:
1.
2.
3.

During inspection, attention must be paid to soft ground area.

Check floor heave and rib undercut. Attention must also be paid to wet
area, irregular profile area, structure with soft fillings area, swelling
area, high stress concentrated area, like rock pillars. Monitoring
instrument should be installed if necessary.

Welded mesh has a lower gauge number which means

thicker, therefore last longer;
A broken in the chain link can lead to a big area of mesh
lose its functionality;
When used together with shotcrete, welded mesh can easily
let shotcrete penetrate behind it and less void is left inside.

Underground operators must inspect and evaluate his working

areas before start his shift. Scale down the loose slabs or bolt or
support the loose slabs to make sure personnel or equipment is not
under substandard supported ground. Areas cannot be finished in one
shift, information must be passed on to the next one.

Steel set is selected when horizontal or vertical stress is strong

where rock is relatively soft and the support methods mentioned above
cannot control the ground movement. Because of its cost and labor

Copyright 2012 by SME

SME Annual Meeting

Feb. 19 - 22, 2012, Seattle, WA
NUMERICAL METHODS
Numerical model can be used in homogeneous or heterogeneous
geotechnical ground condition. It is very challenging by using
numerical model to accurately predict future ground movement in nonhomogeneous ground condition mainly due to the following reasons:
1.
2.
3.

Hard to decide representative strength parameters;

Some parameters have to be simplified or defaulted;
Ground stability is also related to blasting skills, ground
support installation and scaling skills.

But modeling can help on the sensitivity analysis of each

parameters effect on the ground movement. With their effects justified,
factors with a negative impact should be controlled or eliminated.
SUMMARY
Ground support design and installation is the first step of ground
control. Regular inspection must be performed to observe the long
term support performance, long term rock stress-strain relationship and
other factors changing underground.
Water always has a negative impact on ground control. Special
attention must be paid to wet areas. Numerical modeling must be
combined with on site design and experience to detect ground
movement and chose appropriate support method.
REFERENCE
1.

MSHA, www.msha.gov

Copyright 2012 by SME