The principal decisions regarding structure relate to column layout, foundation conditions, integration of

building services, and external wall construction.

The design of steel framed buildings encompasses not only the structure, but also the building
envelope, services and finishes. All these elements must be coordinated by a firm dimensional
discipline which recognizes the modular nature of the components to ensure maximum repetition and
standardization in the predetermined grid layout.
The role of a multi-storey building structure is to transmit the applied loads to the foundations.
The principal loads on a multi-storey building are those due to gravity and wind. These are applied at
every floor level and on the faade respectively. The structural frame transmits these from their point of
application to the foundations. Ideally it should combine structural efficiency with minimum impact on
the economy and function of the other elements of the building.
The choice of structural grid defines column positions and is a very important design decision.
The structural grid is defined principally by column positions and the main beams spanning between
them. This defines on plan two sets of grid lines which are normally perpendicular. The establishment
of this structural grid is a very important design decision and the following points should be considered:
a column should normally be positioned at every intersection of two grid lines
a main beam should normally be positioned along every grid line
ideally grid lines should be orthogonal (the two sets of parallel lines forming a rectangular grid,
and the spacing between grid lines should be regular (for circular buildings radial and
circumferential grids are often used)
in practice the shape of the building and/or site may require some variation from this, and
irregular spacings or skewed grid lines cannot be avoided. However, these can generally be
concentrated in small areas, allowing the main part of the building to be set out in
accordance with a regular orthogonal grid.
Where floor voids are required, for example for stair wells or atria, the following guidelines for the
location of each void, listed in order of preference, should be followed:
Locate entirely within a structural bay to avoid cutting across the line of a main beam
For very large voids, omit complete bays, including main beams if necessary
The omission of a column at a grid intersection has enormous structural implications unless the
supporting beams and columns above are also omitted. The exception to this is on the top storey
where it may be possible to increase the structural grid by omitting columns on a regular pattern for
example removing alternate columns would effectively double the grid size and designing the roof
structure to span the increased distances. This is generally possible because of the lighter weight
construction of roofs compared with floors in normal building construction.
A regular grid improves construction efficiency.
Structural steel floor systems consist of pre-fabricated standard components. If possible columns
should be laid out on a repetitive grid which establishes a standard structural bay. This gives maximum
repetition of the floor components and thereby reduces fabrication costs and erection time.

Column layout will be influenced by functional requirements.

The function of the building will frequently determine the column layout. For example, financial dealing
floors require clear, open spaces located on the lower floors, which would dictate a different structural
solution to the rest of the building. Large, column-free areas at ground floor level may necessitate the
use of a at first floor to carry the upper floors on an economical column grid.

Typical load transfer systems

The structural grid should coordinate with the planning module and allow for future changes.
Column grids for many office developments have traditionally been in the range 6-9m which
coordinates well with the 1.5m planning module. Work patterns are evolving rapidly due to changing
commercial practice and the advent of sophisticated electronic communications. A 1.5m module is still
common, but longer spans may provide greater future flexibility and can be achieved for only a small
increase in cost. A 9m grid is therefore rather more common in current projects, and even longer spans
of 12-18m are not unknown.
The rights of light issues of planning considerations may dictate that upper floors are set back from the
perimeter, resulting in stepped construction of the upper levels.
Foundations: The design of the superstructure should take account of foundation conditions.
In inner city and difficult sites, the time and cost of constructing the foundations has a major effect on
the viability of a project. Although the weight of the frame is relatively small compared with floors and
walls, a steel frame can be significantly lighter than a comparable reinforced concrete frame. Further
reductions in weight can be achieved by using light floor construction such as composite metal deck
floors and lightweight concrete.
Difficult ground conditions may dictate the column grid. Long spans may be required to bridge
obstructions in the ground. Generally, widely spaced columns reduce the number of foundations and
increase simplicity of construction in the ground.

Widely spread columns on large diameter bored piles

Integration of building services: Service runs can be integrated within the depth of the structure or
separated by fixing at a lower level.
The overall depth of the floor construction will depend on the type and distribution of the building
services. The coordination of services and structure is an important factor in the choice of an efficient
structural floor system. The designer may choose to separate the structural and services zones, or
integrate them, allowing for the structural system to occupy the full depth of the floor construction.
Separate service zones result in deeper floors but facilitates future changes.
Separation of zones usually requires confining the ducts, pipes and cables to a horizontal plane below
the structure, either resulting in a relatively deep overall floor construction, or close column spacings.
However, the services remain reasonably accessible for maintenance and future refitting.
Integration of services and structure reduces construction depth but requires a perforated structure;
installation and subsequent refitting may be more difficult.
Integration of services with structure requires either deep perforated structural components, or vertical
zoning of the services and structure.
The size and frequency of holes for services will greatly influence the cost of structural floor systems
and a highly disciplined approach to design will not only facilitate the construction, but shorten the
contract programme and reduce costs.

Building services and floor structure

External wall construction: Cladding costs can be very high and the structure should be designed
recognising this and ensuring adequate fixing arrangements.
The external skin of a multi-storey building is supported off the structural frame. In most high quality
commercial buildings, the cost of external cladding systems greatly exceeds the cost of the structure.
This influences the design and construction of the structural system in the following ways:
The perimeter structure must provide a satisfactory platform to support the cladding system
and be sufficiently rigid to limit deflections of the external wall.
Reducing the floor zone may be more cost-effective than an overall increase in the area of
cladding.
Fixings to the structure should facilitate rapid erection of cladding panels.
Reducing the weight of cladding at the expense of cladding cost will not necessarily lead to a
lower overall construction cost.

Floor systems

The principal structural elements of a typical multi-storey building are the floors, beams, columns and
foundations.
The principal structural elements of a typical multi-storey building comprise floors, beams and columns.
A wide variety of alternative forms and arrangements can be used in multi-storey steel framed
structures.

The principal structural elements of a typical multi-storey building

Floor slabs: Several different types of slab can be used, in either composite or non composite form.
A number of different floor slab types can be used in association with a steel frame. The floor slab
usually spans one way; it is either simply supported or continuous. Most slab types can be designed to
act compositely with the supporting beams if adequate shear connection is provided
Composite floors consist of a concrete topping cast onto metal decking.
Composite floor slabs use metal decking, which spans between secondary steel beams usually spaced
at between 2.5 and 3m centres. Concrete, which may be either lightweight or normal weight, is then
poured onto the decking, usually by pumping, to make up the composite system. Metal decking acts
both as permanent formwork for the concrete, eliminating the need to provide props, and as tensile
reinforcement for the slab. Steel bars are included in the slab to prevent cracking and to provide
reinforcement in the event of degradation of the decking in a fire.
Alternative arrangements of primary and secondary beams can be adopted for an optimum deck span
of 3m. and a typical system is illustrated.
There are many types of steel decking available, but perhaps the most commonly used is the re-entrant
profile type which provides a flat soffit and facilitates fixings for services and ceilings.

Primary and secondary steel beams

Composite floor slabs have become popular for multi-storey buildings when rapid construction is
required.

This form of slab construction is particularly popular for multi-storey buildings when rapid construction
is required. Some of the advantages of the composite system are:
Steel decking acts as a permanent shuttering which can eliminate the need for slab reinforcement and
propping of the construction while the concrete develops strength. This leads to simple, rapid
construction.
Composite action reduces the overall depth of structure. It provides up to 2 hours fire
resistance without additional fire protection and 4 hours with added thickness or extra
surface protection.
It is a light, adaptable system that can be cut to awkward shapes and can easily be drilled or
cut out for additional service requirements.
The overall weight of this system is low, particularly if lightweight concrete topping is used,
reducing frame loadings and foundation costs.
The demands on cranage are low as many sheets of steel decking may be lifted at a time, and
then laid out by hand; the concrete topping may be placed by pump.
Precast concrete units are also often used with a steel frame, offering long spans and quick
installation.
Precast concrete floors area heavier form of construction than comparable composite metal
deck floors, but offer the following advantages:
Fewer floor beams since precast floor units typically span 6 to 8m.
Shallow floor construction can be obtained by supporting precast floor units on shelf angles.
Fast construction because there is no propping and no time is needed for curing and the
development of concrete strength.

Precast concrete floor systems

Composite action may be difficult with precast floors, and construction requires a crane.
The disadvantages of precast concrete floors are:
Composite action not readily achieved without a structural floor screed.
Heavy floor units are difficult to erect, requiring the use of a crane which may have
implications on the construction programme.

Slimdek is an engineered floor solution developed to offer a cost-effective, service-integrated, minimal

depth floor for use in multi-storey steel framed buildings with grids up to 9 metres x 9 metres.

Slimdek extends the range of cost-effective steel options for modern buildings. Ease of planning and
servicing, combined with a reduction in building height, gives significant cost and speed of construction
benefits.
Slimdek solutions can be designed to incorporate the latest technology in energy efficient services
principles.
Alternative floor framing systems
Composite beams mobilise the strength of the floor slab to improve the strength of the steel beam.
Composite action is achieved by welding studs to the beam flange to form a continuous shear
connection. The slab then acts as the compression flange for the beam. When used with composite
deck flooring, the studs are welded through the decking onto the flange of the beams below to form a
connection between steel beam and concrete slab.
Maximum beam span is about 15m and beam depth can be estimated as span/25 (see figure 1)
Weight comparisons for different beam layouts indicate the use of long span main beams.
Figure 1 shows the effect of varying the arrangements of primary and secondary beams. The weight of
steelwork per square metre for each arrangement is plotted against span of primary beam. This
comparison has been based on a limiting criterion of span/360 for superimposed load deflection
required by BS 5950 and incorporates an allowance for trimmers and connections.
The comparison highlights a number of interesting features relating to this type of floor system and floor
grids in general:
Long spanning secondary systems result in heavier floor steel than using long span primary
beams. For example, a 9m by 15m structural bay with 15m secondary beams uses 20
percent more steel than a 15m by 9m bay with 15m primary beams.
For the longer spans the effect of setting more stringent deflection criteria (say a flat limit of
25mm instead of span/360) is to increase the weight of steel required significantly (between
5 and 10 percent).
In practice long span secondary beams are often used.

Weight of structural steel for composite floors

The above graph should be used with caution because:

 They are based on idealised grids

Although the long span primary system is some 20 percent lighter than the equivalent long
span secondary system, it contains as much as 40 percent more labour content in
fabrication and erection.
Although an allowance is made for items such as connections and trimming round openings
these are difficult to define. In practice, the irregularities encountered in a real building may
have an overriding influence.
Section sizes of main and secondary beams is more consistent if the more lightly loaded secondary
beams have longer spans
The weight of columns is largely independent of beam span.
The graphs also exclude the influence of the columns on the weight of the floor steel. Studies on
composite floors have shown that the average weight of column on a particular floor is largely
independent of the span of the floor provided. Of course, the columns must not be so closely spaced
that the column size is not related to the load it carries. This being the case, to find the combined
weight of both floors and vertical steel in a building, the effect of the columns can be added to the
floors.
The figure below shows the weight per metre of typical column (forming part of a 9m by 6m grid) for a
building with increasing height. To obtain an estimate of the overall tonnage of structural steel in a
building, the weight per square metre for the floors can be added and multiplied by the gross floor area.

Weight of structural steel for columns

Longer spans are possible using composite steel floor trusses, but fabrication costs are higher.
Use of composite steel floor trusses as primary beams in the structural floor system permits much
longer spans than would be possible with conventional universal beams. The use of steel trusses for
flooring systems is common for multi-storey buildings in North America, but seldom used in Britain.
Although they are considerably lighter than the equivalent universal beam section, the cost of
fabrication is very much greater, as is the cost of fire proofing the truss members. For maximum
economy, trusses should be fabricated using simple welded lap joints. Maximum span for floor trusses
is about 30m and truss depth can be estimated as span/15.

Typical composite truss details

Truss forms allow integration of services.
The openings between the diagonal members should be designed to accept service ducts, and if a
larger opening is required, a Vierendeel panel can be incorporated, typically at the centre of the span.

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Home Reference Teaching Resources Architectural Teaching Resource Design Choice of structural systems for multi-storey
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Floor systems
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Choice of structural systems for multi-storey buildings

Introduction

Factors affecting choice of structural system

Floor systems

Framing schematics for a complete building

structure

Structural principles

Vertical bracing systems

Concluding summary

Designing single storey steel framed buildings

Initial design approach for steel framed buildings

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Floor systems
The principal structural elements of a typical multi-storey building are the floors, beams, columns and
foundations.
The principal structural elements of a typical multi-storey building comprise floors, beams and columns.
A wide variety of alternative forms and arrangements can be used in multi-storey steel framed
structures.

The principal structural elements of a typical multi-storey building

Floor slabs: Several different types of slab can be used, in either composite or non composite form.
A number of different floor slab types can be used in association with a steel frame. The floor slab
usually spans one way; it is either simply supported or continuous. Most slab types can be designed to
act compositely with the supporting beams if adequate shear connection is provided
Composite floors consist of a concrete topping cast onto metal decking.
Composite floor slabs use metal decking, which spans between secondary steel beams usually spaced
at between 2.5 and 3m centres. Concrete, which may be either lightweight or normal weight, is then
poured onto the decking, usually by pumping, to make up the composite system. Metal decking acts
both as permanent formwork for the concrete, eliminating the need to provide props, and as tensile
reinforcement for the slab. Steel bars are included in the slab to prevent cracking and to provide
reinforcement in the event of degradation of the decking in a fire.
Alternative arrangements of primary and secondary beams can be adopted for an optimum deck span
of 3m. and a typical system is illustrated.
There are many types of steel decking available, but perhaps the most commonly used is the re-entrant
profile type which provides a flat soffit and facilitates fixings for services and ceilings.

Primary and secondary steel beams

Composite floor slabs have become popular for multi-storey buildings when rapid construction is
required.
This form of slab construction is particularly popular for multi-storey buildings when rapid construction
is required. Some of the advantages of the composite system are:
Steel decking acts as a permanent shuttering which can eliminate the need for slab reinforcement and
propping of the construction while the concrete develops strength. This leads to simple, rapid
construction.
Composite action reduces the overall depth of structure. It provides up to 2 hours fire
resistance without additional fire protection and 4 hours with added thickness or extra
surface protection.
It is a light, adaptable system that can be cut to awkward shapes and can easily be drilled or
cut out for additional service requirements.
The overall weight of this system is low, particularly if lightweight concrete topping is used,
reducing frame loadings and foundation costs.
The demands on cranage are low as many sheets of steel decking may be lifted at a time, and
then laid out by hand; the concrete topping may be placed by pump.
Precast concrete units are also often used with a steel frame, offering long spans and quick
installation.
Precast concrete floors area heavier form of construction than comparable composite metal
deck floors, but offer the following advantages:

 Fewer floor beams since precast floor units typically span 6 to 8m.
Shallow floor construction can be obtained by supporting precast floor units on shelf angles.
Fast construction because there is no propping and no time is needed for curing and the
development of concrete strength.

Precast concrete floor systems

Composite action may be difficult with precast floors, and construction requires a crane.
The disadvantages of precast concrete floors are:
Composite action not readily achieved without a structural floor screed.
Heavy floor units are difficult to erect, requiring the use of a crane which may have
implications on the construction programme.

Slimdek is an engineered floor solution developed to offer a cost-effective, service-integrated, minimal

depth floor for use in multi-storey steel framed buildings with grids up to 9 metres x 9 metres.
Slimdek extends the range of cost-effective steel options for modern buildings. Ease of planning and
servicing, combined with a reduction in building height, gives significant cost and speed of construction
benefits.
Slimdek solutions can be designed to incorporate the latest technology in energy efficient services
principles.
Alternative floor framing systems
Composite beams mobilise the strength of the floor slab to improve the strength of the steel beam.
Composite action is achieved by welding studs to the beam flange to form a continuous shear
connection. The slab then acts as the compression flange for the beam. When used with composite
deck flooring, the studs are welded through the decking onto the flange of the beams below to form a
connection between steel beam and concrete slab.
Maximum beam span is about 15m and beam depth can be estimated as span/25 (see figure 1)
Weight comparisons for different beam layouts indicate the use of long span main beams.
Figure 1 shows the effect of varying the arrangements of primary and secondary beams. The weight of
steelwork per square metre for each arrangement is plotted against span of primary beam. This
comparison has been based on a limiting criterion of span/360 for superimposed load deflection
required by BS 5950 and incorporates an allowance for trimmers and connections.
The comparison highlights a number of interesting features relating to this type of floor system and floor
grids in general:
Long spanning secondary systems result in heavier floor steel than using long span primary
beams. For example, a 9m by 15m structural bay with 15m secondary beams uses 20
percent more steel than a 15m by 9m bay with 15m primary beams.
For the longer spans the effect of setting more stringent deflection criteria (say a flat limit of
25mm instead of span/360) is to increase the weight of steel required significantly (between
5 and 10 percent).
In practice long span secondary beams are often used.

Weight of structural steel for composite floors

The above graph should be used with caution because:
They are based on idealised grids
Although the long span primary system is some 20 percent lighter than the equivalent long
span secondary system, it contains as much as 40 percent more labour content in
fabrication and erection.
Although an allowance is made for items such as connections and trimming round openings
these are difficult to define. In practice, the irregularities encountered in a real building may
have an overriding influence.
Section sizes of main and secondary beams is more consistent if the more lightly loaded secondary
beams have longer spans
The weight of columns is largely independent of beam span.
The graphs also exclude the influence of the columns on the weight of the floor steel. Studies on
composite floors have shown that the average weight of column on a particular floor is largely
independent of the span of the floor provided. Of course, the columns must not be so closely spaced
that the column size is not related to the load it carries. This being the case, to find the combined
weight of both floors and vertical steel in a building, the effect of the columns can be added to the
floors.
The figure below shows the weight per metre of typical column (forming part of a 9m by 6m grid) for a
building with increasing height. To obtain an estimate of the overall tonnage of structural steel in a
building, the weight per square metre for the floors can be added and multiplied by the gross floor area.

Weight of structural steel for columns

Longer spans are possible using composite steel floor trusses, but fabrication costs are higher.
Use of composite steel floor trusses as primary beams in the structural floor system permits much
longer spans than would be possible with conventional universal beams. The use of steel trusses for
flooring systems is common for multi-storey buildings in North America, but seldom used in Britain.
Although they are considerably lighter than the equivalent universal beam section, the cost of
fabrication is very much greater, as is the cost of fire proofing the truss members. For maximum
economy, trusses should be fabricated using simple welded lap joints. Maximum span for floor trusses
is about 30m and truss depth can be estimated as span/15.

Typical composite truss details

Truss forms allow integration of services.
The openings between the diagonal members should be designed to accept service ducts, and if a
larger opening is required, a Vierendeel panel can be incorporated, typically at the centre of the span.

Framing schematics for a complete building

structure
Most steel buildings use eithier composite or Slimdek flooring. For both the various structural
components - slab, beams and columns - are brought together to form the complete building structure.
Composite construction
The composite frame uses a combination of composite slab and beam elements and has proved very
efficient for multi-storey construction
The traditional composite frame comprises primary and secondary beams rigidly connected to the floor
slab using shear studs. The composite action developed between the beams and slab enables
shallower beam depths to be used.
Floor slabs generally comprise composite metal decking with in situ concrete. These span onto the
secondary beams.

Typical Floor Framing

Estimates of structural sizes can be made using simple guidelines
Primary beams can be sized according to the following:
maximum span = 15m
Floor beam depth = span/20
Roof beam depth = span/25
Secondary beams can be sized according to the following:
maximum span = 12m
Floor beam depth = span/25
Roof beam depth = span/30
Composite slabs are typically 125 to 150mm thick (overall) and can span up to 3.5m
Column sizes are largely dependent on the number of floors supported as shown in the table below.

Floors

UC

SHS

152 x 152

150 x 150

2-4

203 x 203

200 x 200

5-8

254 x 254

250 x 250

9-12

305 x 305

300 x 300

13-40

356 x 356

400 x 400

Slimdek uses ASB's to achieve a shallow overall construction depth.

The Slimdek structure comprises shallow slimfloor beams within the depth of the floor slab. The newly
developed Asymmetric Slimfloor Beam (ASB) is designed specially for this, and a rectangular hollow
section with a bottom flange plate (RHSFB) is advised for edge beams. The beams support the floor
slab on their bottom flange.
Floor slabs may comprise precast concrete slabs (slimfloor) or deep metal decking with in situ concrete
(Slimdek). The latter enables composite action to be developed in the supporting ASB beams, and
provides good opportunities for service runs.
Estimates of structural sizes can be made using simple guidelines
ASB beams can be sized according to the following:
maximum span = 7.5m
Beam depth = 300mm
Floor slabs are typically 300mm thick (overall) and can span up to 9m
Column sizes are largely dependent on the number of floors supported as shown in the following table.

Floors

UC

SHS

152 x 152

150 x 150

2-4

203 x 203

200 x 200

5-8

254 x 254

250 x 250

9-12

305 x 305

300 x 300

13-40

356 x 356

400 x 400

Structural principles
The structure must be designed safely to carry the applied loadings.
The structure must have adequate strength and stiffness to resist the applied loads due to gravity and
wind. The function of the structure in resisting vertical loads due to gravity and horizontal loads due to
wind is generally considered separately.
The principal floor loadings are due to the self weight of the building and its occupancy. These are
referred to as 'dead' and 'superimposed' (or 'imposed') loads respectively.
The floor loadings to be supported by the structure have two components:
The permanent or dead loading comprising the self-weight of the flooring and the supporting
structure together with the weight of finishes, raised flooring, ceiling, air-conditioning ducts
and equipment.
The superimposed loading which is the load that the floor is likely to sustain during its life and
will depend on the use. Superimposed floor loading for various types of building are
governed by BS 6399, but the standard loading for office buildings required by developers
and funding agencies is usually 4kN/m2 where movable partitioning is used.
Dead and superimposed loads in commercial buildings are often approximately equal.
For normal office loadings, dead and superimposed loadings are roughly equal in proportion but higher
superimposed load allowances will be necessary in areas of plant or to accommodate special
requirements such as storage or heavy equipment. The optimum structural solution is to locate any
heavier loadings close to columns or where the floor spans are shorter.
The design of the floor structure is concerned mainly with vertical loads. The criteria determining
member sizes depend on floor span.
The criteria determining the choice of a member size in a floor system varies with the span.
The minimum size is fixed by practical considerations such as fitting practical connections. As the span
increases, the size will be determined by the bending strength of the member and, for longer spans, by
the rigidity necessary to prevent excessive deflection under superimposed load or excessive sensitivity
to induced vibrations.

Structural criteria governing choice of floor beam

Composite construction is widely used because of the economic advantages it offers.
Floors may either act compositely with the supporting beam, or independently of it. Composite action
enables the floor slab to work with the beam, enhancing its strength and reducing deflection. It has
therefore become very popular in steel framed construction for multi-storey buildings.

Composite and non-composite floor systems

In some cases deflection limits may need to be stricter than those specified in design codes.
In practice, floors will be designed to limit sagging deflection under the superimposed loadings. The
British Standard BS 5950 governing the design of structural steelwork sets a limit on deflection under
superimposed loading of span/200 generally, and span/360 where there are brittle finishes. For very
long spans, this limit is likely to be inadequate; for example, the sag allowed by the code on a 15m
span girder would be 42mm and the designer may consider setting more stringent limits. Edge beams
supporting cladding will be subject to restriction on deflection of 10-15mm. Deflections may be
noticeable in the ceiling layout, and should be taken into account when determining the available
cumulative effect of deflections in the individual members of a floor system, although the actual
maximum displacement is in practice almost always less than those predicted by theoretical analysis.
Floor vibrations may need to be controlled.
In some instances, vibrations of floor components may cause discomfort or affect sensitive equipment,
and the designer should always check the fundamental frequency of the floor system. The threshold of
perceptible vibrations in buildings is difficult to define and present limits are rather arbitrary. There is
some evidence that modern lightweight floors can be sensitive to dynamic loads which may have an
effect on delicate equipment, but generally only for very long spans or light floors.
Building structures should have sufficient lateral rigidity to resist likely wind loads.

Steel buildings have to be rigid enough in the horizontal direction to resist wind and other lateral loads.
In tall buildings, the means of providing sufficient lateral rigidity forms the dominant design
consideration and developments in this field have led to the construction of taller and taller buildings
such as the John Hancock Building or the Sears Tower in Chicago.
Most multi-storey buildings are designed on the basis that wind forces acting on the external cladding
are transmitted to the floors which form horizontal diaphragms, transferring the lateral load to rigid
elements and then to the ground. These rigid elements are usually either lattice or rigid jointed frames
or reinforced concrete shear walls.

Lateral load bearing systems

For most multi-storey buildings, functional requirements will determine the column grid which will
dictate spans where the limiting criteria will be rigidity rather than strength.
Floor framing systems may be either simply supported or rigid at the supports. Continuous construction
is more efficient structurally, giving shallower floors, but heavier columns, increased complexity at
junctions and connections with higher fabrication costs. In practice, the great majority of steel framed
multi-storey buildings use simple construction.

Floor framing
In addition to strength and stiffness, building structures must be designed to avoid progressive collapse
in the event of a catastrophic accident.

The partial collapse of a system-built multi-storey building at Ronan Point in 1968 following a gas
explosion, led to a fundamental reappraisal of the approach to structural stability in buildings. This
centred on the need to limit the extent of any damage in the event of catastrophic or accidental
loadings. This concept of robustness in building design requires that any major structural element must
either be designed for blast loading, or be capable of being removed without precipitating progressive
collapse of other parts of the structure. This can be demonstrated by considering alternative load paths
and structural actions in the damaged state.
In addition, there is a requirement for suitable ties to be incorporated in the horizontal direction in the
floors and in the vertical direction through the columns. The designer should be aware of the
consequences of the sudden removal of key elements of the structure and ensure that such an event
does not lead to the progressive collapse of the building or a substantial part of it.

Vertical bracing systems

A variety of structural forms can be used to provide lateral stability. The principal systems are shear
walls, lattice frames and rigid frames, but more sophisticated systems may be needed for very tall
buildings.
Shear walls resist wind forces in bending by cantilever action and where they already exist, for instance
to provide a fire protected service core, are an efficient method of carrying lateral loads. Lattice frames
act as vertical steel trusses. Rigid jointed frames are less effective in providing lateral rigidity because
of shear distortion in the vertical members. The British Standard BS 5950 sets a limit on lateral
deflection of columns as height/300 but height/600 is a more reasonable figure for buildings where the
external envelope consists of sensitive or brittle materials such as stone facings.
Rigid frames resist lateral loads by bending in the beams, columns and connections.
Rigid frames resist lateral forces through the stiffness provided by rigid joints between the horizontal
floor components and vertical columns. The need to resist bending moments from wind loads increases
the size of the column members and the complexity of the framing connections. For these reasons,
rigid frames are only used when there is a particular functional reason for their use, such as the need to
provide unobstructed interior space with total adaptability.
One possible exception to this general rule, is the facade frame with a combination of closely spaced
external columns and deep spandrel facade beams. Such a system is usually used for very tall
buildings where the facade frame forms a rigid tube.

Rigid frames resist lateral forces through the stiffness provided by rigid joints
Rigid frames avoid any intrusion but are relatively expensive.
The advantages of the rigid frame are that:
open bays between all columns are created,
total internal adaptability is provided,
However, the disadvantages are that:
They are almost always more expensive than other systems,
Columns are larger than for simple connections.
Generally, they are less stiff than other bracing systems with large complex connections.
Lattice frames act as vertical trusses and a number of different forms are commonly used.
Lattice frames act as vertical trusses which support the wind loads by cantilever action. The bracing
members can be arranged in a variety of forms designed to carry solely tension, or alternatively tension
and compression. When designed to take only tension, the bracing is made up of crossed diagonals.
Depending on the wind direction, one diagonal will take all the tension while the other is assumed to
remain inactive. Tensile bracing is smaller in cross-section than the equivalent strut and is usually
made up of a back-to-back channel or angle sections. When designed to resist compression, the
bracings become struts and the most common arrangement is the `V' brace.

Typical cross bracing and `K' bracing

Lattice frames are efficient and unobtrusive, if detailed carefully.
The advantages of lattice frames are that:
lattice panels can be arranged to accommodate doors and openings for services,
bracing members can be concealed in partition walls,
they provide an efficient bracing system.
The disadvantages are that:
diagonal members with fire proofing can take up considerable space,
adaptability is limited.
However, with careful design these difficulties can be avoided
Reinforced concrete shear walls and cores act in a similar way to lattice frame bracing.

Shear walls are normally constructed in in-situ reinforced concrete, but may be either pre-cast concrete
of brickwork. They are more rigid than other forms of bracing, and there is a need for fewer of them.
Shear cores are shear walls in box form which provide torsional or twisting resistance as well as
providing a highly effective bracing system.
Shear walls are effective but may create difficulties during construction.
The advantages of shear walling are that:
concrete walls tend to be thinner than other bracing systems and hence save space in
congested areas such as service and lift cores,
they are very rigid and highly effective,
they act as fire compartment walls.
The disadvantages are that:
they constitute a separate form of construction which may delay the contract programme,
it is difficult to provide connections between steel and concrete to transfer the large forces
generated.
For more information on advantages/disadvantages of shear walling please click here
The floor structure transfers lateral loads from the faade to the bracing system.
All stability systems use the floor plate as a diaphragm to transfer lateral loads from their point of
application to the bracing elements. The designer should ensure that the floor is capable of performing
this function.

Diaphragm action of floors

Bracing must ensure lateral stability in all directions and also torsional stability.
The bracing must be arranged on plan to ensure lateral stability in at least two directions, which should
be approximately perpendicular - typically these correspond to the principal axes of the building. This
will effectively ensure stability in all directions.
Torsional stability should also be ensured. This can be done by using an approximately symmetric plan
arrangement, ideally with the bracing elements located close to the perimeter of the building.

Suitable location of bracing elements is therefore a fundamental requirement of the bracing system
design.

Different locations of bracing elements

Shear walls

Isolated shear walls can be used to provide stability to the building frame, where the positioning of the
building cores requires additional stability structures.

Introduction
The successful integration of structure is crucial to solving the aesthetic, functional, technical and
economic requirements of a building. These requirements must be addressed during the design
process.
The choice of structural system is a critical element of the design process, but not one that cannot
easily be abstracted. Decisions regarding structure will be part of a problem solving process that will
require consideration of various requirements and the choice of structural system may be dictated by a
number of these. Although structure may simply be regarded as a means of supporting the building, its
contribution is a far more complex and fundamental aspect of building design.
When considering structure, there is a wide choice of structural systems and materials that may be
used.
Common systems include:
planar (or loadbearing) forms e.g. masonry or concrete walls
frames, e.g. timber, steel or concrete linear elements
membrane, e.g. fabrics and shells.
Steel has useful properties of strength, versatility and ease of connection which make it appropriate for
frame systems. In addition it lends itself to prefabrication.
Steel construction generally uses standard section columns and beams, but also includes arches,
trusses and grids, which can be connected together to produce a wide range of shapes and forms.
Other sections and shapes can be fabricated to order.
A frame deals primarily with the structural forces in a building, allowing other elements, such as walls,
cladding, insulation and weatherproofing, etc to be independent of the main structural requirements of
the building.
Whilst other materials can be used to form structural frames, steelwork, with its properties of strength,
isotropy and stiffness, also its straight and compact linear elements, easily assembled from
prefabricated elements, is particularly appropriate. These elements gather and transfer the major
structural loads as directly as possible to the foundations. These qualities provide strong, lightweight
structural systems that can support large spans and tall buildings whilst maintaining cost-effectiveness.
There are several points in the design process at which the consideration of structure may become
critical, depending on the brief, availability, visual language or cost.
Initial design approaches will necessarily be concerned with the brief development and plan
organisation. The exact point at which a decision concerning choice of primary structure can occur at
various points, e.g. as part of the brief, or dictated by availability of materials; it may be a particular
aesthetic requirement; or it may occur as part of a cost comparison with other structural forms.
A number of early decisions about the form and organisation of the building will affect the choice of
structural system. These include:

 size and shape

volumetric and functional requirements
spatial organisation
nature of enclosure and building skin
integration and relationship to environmental control and servicing
aesthetics
For a long span single storey building general stability is not a problem and can be solved by crossbracing or rigid column/foundation connections; the choice of spanning element is dictated by the span,
e.g. simple beams, trusses or castellated sections, portal frames, arches.
For multi-storey steel buildings, high strength is required - the net floor area is critical and there is,
therefore, a requirement for small columns; resistance to lateral loads (bracing) is critical, and there is a
need to consider fire protection.
Roof volumes and span requirements may necessitate high open spaces, eg. atria, sports halls.
Deeper structural spanning elements such as trusses may be more useful on single storey buildings as
they do not add much to height.
When considering large spaces above cellular accommodation and vice versa it is important to
maintain continuity of structural elements such as columns to foundation. Cellular accommodation
above clear spaces may require large transfer elements.
The implications of large glazed areas or small openings are quite different. The skin can be
independent of primary structure but will require secondary structure to transfer loads to primary
structure, e.g. glazing mullions. The structure may need to be unobtrusive. It may be necessary to
consider possible positioning of cross bracing elements in elevation.
For a highly serviced building, duct requirements can be critical. The relationship of servicing system to
structure needs to be carefully considered accommodation in the same zone is important in multistorey buildings. There are other interactions too - for example a simple, cheap structure may allow the
use of a more expensive and sophisticated skin, whilst the use of other elements to assist structure e.g.
lift shafts/fire stairs acting as shear walls/cores, can help reduce costs.
For an exposed structure, the appearance and form of the building may be partly or wholly dictated by
the structural system. In contrast, where a structure is hidden it can be cheap, cost effective and
efficient, possibly allowing other areas to be more complex, e.g. straightforward office accommodation
to allow an atrium space.
Practical requirements may give rise to particular structural forms, e.g. poor ground requiring piles,
During design stages key requirements can be identified.
A useful early exercise is to identify clearly particular requirements of the brief that must be satisfied by
the structural system, eg. a need for unobstructed spaces, floor to floor heights, likely column layouts.
At early planning stages probable structural positions can be identified and as far as possible, projected
onto other floors. As the building is developed in section, consideration can be given to the nature of
the elements and the overall arrangement of the frame.

Some structural principles related to steel

The main types of force occurring are: Compression (C), Tension (T) Bending (B) Shear (S) and
Torsion (To) - these may be resisted by elements and simple systems in various ways.
Every complete structure system, including the soil below, must have adequate strength and stiffness
to resist any applied vertical and horizontal loading combinations that may reasonably occur during the
building's design lifetime. Equilibrium must always be maintained. Both the individual elements and the
system as a whole must be capable of achieving strength, stiffness and stability.

Diagram of forces in elements and systems

Different combinations of tension and compression occur as the result of bending in beams, trusses
and arches. The shape and size of these elements must allow for these.
Horizontal trusses are a combination of compression and tension (C+T) elements
Solid beams combine tensile and compressive capabilities to resist bending effects within a shallow
depth. The greatest shearing (S) effects occur at the beam ends.
Bending and deformation resistance depend on 2nd moment of area, I, a geometric sectional function.
For a simply supported beam the value of applied bending moment (M) is half that for the same total
load W concentrated centrally.
Arch geometries will be subject to a combination of compression and bending (C+B).

Bending effects in trusses

Bending action in beams

Bending in simply supported beams

Structural forms combining compression and bending

Bending in continuous beams

Whilst bending elements will require calculation to ensure adequate strength and stiffness, estimates of
sizing such as span/depth ratios and safe load tables can be used at design stages.
With a simple "Post" and "Beam" structure system, the beams always have greater depth than the
columns. A "bending" system always uses more material than one with direct compression and tension
forces only.
An initial preliminary assessment for the scale of various section types can be made from conservative
"Rules of Thumb". These are adequate for uniformly distributed loading - heavy concentrated loads will
need increased depth. Rules of Thumb are more difficult for "Columns" and a "Safe Load Table" can be
useful here, this can be found in the blue book.

Relative stiffness of structural elements

Rules of thumb for estimating sizes

Elements behaving primarily in tension and compression have different structural considerations.
A tension element with no internal bending stiffness takes up a funicular "hanging" form. Pure tension
elements (i.e. those that carry no compression or bending) can be very small rods, cables or wires
A centrally loaded long "pin-ended" circular compression element can deform and eventually buckle.
Note that sideways applied loading or an eccentric end load will always make the element deform more
easily and a greater bending stiffness will be needed.

The load carrying resistance can be improved by:

Keeping the element as short as possible, or bracing laterally near mid-length with props.
Increasing bending stiffness - use a larger 2nd moment of area I - or make "cigar" shaped
longitudinally (for "pin end" directly loaded column).
Using higher strength steel.
"Fixing the ends". This reduces the "effective buckling length", but the end fixing must be
resisted by the adjacent elements. Making such a rigid joint is more difficult.

Tension elements

Compression elements

Systems to give stability under horizontal load

The structural system as a whole must also be capable of maintaining strength, stiffness and stability.
These conditions will be satisfied by selection of suitable members and methods of connection, but the
building will also require to resist horizontal loads, normally by the general form of the structure,
method of connections, or additional bracing elements.
The simplest stable system to resist horizontal load - wind - is an inclined triangular "tent" form; a tripod
in three-dimensions. Often this form leads to functionally waste space in the bottom corners. From the
historical stone arch or timber "cruck" frame has developed the steel arch and later the inclined rafter
portal frame with either 3-pin; 2-pin or "fixed" joint systems.

Systems for stability - sloping roof structures

With vertical columns and walls, there are three principal options, vertical cantilevers, rigid jointed
portals, and bracing:
Stability can be provided in one of three basic ways:
Vertical cantilever about the foundation. The column is "rigidly" fixed to the base. Such
columns are "pin" jointed to the beam at the top, sharing the applied load, and are designed
as "propped cantilevers". Note that the foundation size will be greater than for the systems
outlined below to limit soil pressures due to the transfer of bending moments to the
foundation
Rigidly jointed "portal" frames of various types in which the column is rigidly connected to the
roof `beam'
Braced by "pin" jointed slender tensile or compressive elements. With two crossed tensile
elements, one will always go into compression and be ineffective when wind loads are
acting Note that combined horizontal and vertical loading will increase the tendency to sway
horizontally. A frame will also sway sideways under eccentric vertical loading.

Columns acting as vertical cantilevers about foundation

Rigid frame action

Diagonal bracing

Additional structural elements may also be used to resist reactions to horizontal loads, such as
bending, swaying and torsion. These include shear walls and cores.
In tall buildings elements such as lifts and fire escape stairs are also required and these can be used to
provide lateral stability. Additional elements such as shear walls can also be incorporated into the
design.