.

Chapter 1
FLUID KINEMATICS

1.1 Introduction
Fluid kinematics is a field of physics and mechanics concerned with the movement of fluids and the
specific forces required to create the movement. Fluids tend to flow easily, which causes a net motion
of molecules from one point in space to another point as a function of time. These fluids may be
liquids or may be materials with fluid properties, including crowds of people or volumes of grains.
While studying Fluid Mechanics, it is very important to note that velocity of the fluid particles forms
the most important part of the study. Because, if one knows the velocity of every fluid particle, then
in a way the whole fluid flow is known. It has always been and will be our effort to find the velocity
of each and fluid particle to solve a general Fluid Mechanics problem.

Fig 1.1 Kinematics of Fluid

So, lets consider the flow within a pipe, and say you know the velocity of each and every particle
then comes the question how would you convey that data to me. Obviously, you cannot tell me the
position of each and every particle and the velocity of that particle since the number of particles in a
certain sample of fluid is very large. Yes.. thats what I am telling now we need a way to convey the
velocity information, and so comes Velocity Field to the rescue. So the velocity field is a way of
mapping the spatial co-ordinates and time to the velocity of the fluid.
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics that studies the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases,
and plasmas) and the forces on them. Fluid mechanics has a wide range of applications,
including

for mechanical

engineering, chemical

engineering, geophysics, astrophysics,

andbiology. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; and fluid
dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. It is a branch of continuum
mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the information that it is made out of
atoms; that is, it models matter from a macroscopic viewpoint rather than from microscopic.
Fluid mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of research with many problems
that are partly or wholly unsolved. Fluid mechanics can be mathematically complex, and can best
be solved by numerical methods, typically using computers. A modern discipline,
calledcomputational fluid dynamics (CFD), is devoted to this approach to solving fluid
mechanics problems. Particle image velocimetry, an experimental method for visualizing and
analyzing fluid flow, also takes advantage of the highly visual nature of fluid flow.
Using the continuum hypothesis, fluids are classified into fluid particles, which are composed of
numerous fluid molecules. These particles interact with one another and with the surroundings they

are in. Using a Eulerian model (the continuum hypothesis), fluid motion can be described in terms
of acceleration or velocity.

1.2 History of fluid mechanics

The study of fluid mechanics goes back at least to the days of ancient Greece,
when Archimedes investigated fluid statics and buoyancy and formulated his famous law known
now as the Archimedes' principle, which was published in his work On Floating Bodies
generally considered to be the first major work on fluid mechanics. Rapid advancement in fluid
mechanics

began with Leonardo da Vinci (observations

Torricelli (invented

the barometer), Isaac

and experiments), Evangelista

Newton (investigated viscosity)

and Blaise

Pascal (researchedhydrostatics, formulated Pascal's law), and was continued by Daniel

Bernoulli with the introduction of mathematical fluid dynamics inHydrodynamica (1738).
Inviscid flow was further analyzed by various mathematicians (Leonhard Euler, Jean le Rond
d'Alembert, Joseph Louis Lagrange, Pierre-Simon Laplace, Simon Denis Poisson) and viscous
flow

was

explored

by

multitude

of engineers including Jean

Lonard

Marie

Poiseuille andGotthilf Hagen. Further mathematical justification was provided by Claude-Louis

Navier and George Gabriel Stokes in the NavierStokes equations, and boundary layers were
investigated (Ludwig Prandtl, Theodore von Krmn), while various scientists such as Osborne
Reynolds, Andrey Kolmogorov, and Geoffrey Ingram Taylor advanced the understanding of
fluid viscosity and turbulence.

1.3 Main branches

Fluid statics

Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at rest. It
embraces the study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium; and is
contrasted with fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion.
Hydrostatics is fundamental to hydraulics, the engineering of equipment for storing, transporting
and using fluids. It is also relevant to geophysics and astrophysics (for example, in
understanding plate tectonics and the anomalies of the Earth's gravitational field), to
meteorology, to medicine (in the context of blood pressure), and many other fields.
Hydrostatics offers physical explanations for many phenomena of everyday life, such as
why atmospheric pressure changes with altitude, why wood and oil float on water, and why the
surface of water is always flat and horizontal whatever the shape of its container.

1.4. Fluid dynamics

Fluid dynamics is a sub discipline of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid flowthe natural
science of fluids (liquids and gases)

in

motion.

It

has

several

sub

disciplines

itself,

including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the
study of liquids in motion). Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including
calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining themass flow rate of petroleum through
pipelines,

predicting weather patterns,

understanding nebulae in interstellar

space and

modelling fission weapon detonation. Some of its principles are even used in traffic engineering,
where traffic is treated as a continuous fluid, and crowd dynamics.
4

Fluid dynamics offers a systematic structurewhich underlies these practical disciplinesthat

embraces empirical and semi-empirical laws derived from flow measurement and used to solve
practical problems. The solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves calculating
various properties of the fluid, such as velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, as functions
of space and time.

1.5. Assumptions
Like any mathematical model of the real world, fluid mechanics makes some basic assumptions
about the materials being studied. These assumptions are turned into equations that must be
satisfied if the assumptions are to be held true.
For example, consider a fluid in three dimensions. The assumption that mass is conserved means
that for any fixed control volume (for example a sphere) enclosed by a control surface
the rate of change of the mass contained is equal to the rate at which mass is passing
from outside to inside through the surface, minus the rate at which mass is passing the other way,
from inside to outside.

(A

special

case

would

be

when

the

mass inside and

the

mass outside remain constant). This can be turned into an equation in integral form over the
control volume.
Fluid mechanics assumes that every fluid obeys the following:

Conservation of mass

Conservation of energy

Conservation of momentum
5

The continuum hypothesis, detailed below.

Further, it is useful at low subsonic speeds to assume that a gas is incompressible that is, the
density of the gas does not change even though the speed and static pressure change.
Similarly, it can sometimes be assumed that the viscosity of the fluid is zero (the fluid
is inviscid). If a fluid is viscous, and its flow contained in some way (e.g. in a pipe), then the
flow at the boundary must have zero velocity. For a viscous fluid, if the boundary is not porous,
the shear forces between the fluid and the boundary results also in a zero velocity for the fluid at
the boundary. This is called the no-slip condition. For a porous media otherwise, in the frontier of
the containing vessel, the slip condition is not zero velocity, and the fluid has a discontinuous
velocity field between the free fluid and the fluid in the porous media (this is related to the
Beavers and Joseph condition).

Chapter 2
2.1 What Is Kinematics Of Fluid?

Fig 2.1 What Is Kinematics Of Fluid

Fluid kinematics is the study on fluid motion in space and time without considering the force
which causes the fluid motion.

According to the continuum hypothesis the local velocity of fluid is the velocity of an
infinitesimally small fluid particle/element at a given instant t. It is generally a continuous
function in space and time.

How small an how large should be a fluid particle/element in frame of the continuum
concept?

2.2 Methods of describing Fluid Motion

Langrangian Method :

It describes a defined mass (position, velocity, acceleration, temperature , pressure, etc)

as functions of time.

Eg. Track the location of a migrating bird.

Eulerian Method :

It describes the flow field ( velocity, acceleration, pressure, temperature, etc. ) as

functions of position and time.

Eg. Ounting the birds passing a particular location.

2.2. Types Of Fluid Flow:

Steady flow :- It is defined as that type of flow in

which the fluid characteristics like

pressure, velocity, density, etc. at a point do not change with respect to time.
Unsteady flow :- It is defined as the flow in which the fluid characteristics like pressure,

velocity, density, etc. at a point changes with respect to time.

Uniform flow :- It is defined as that type of flow in which the flow parameters like pressure,
velocity, density, etc. at a given time do not change with respect to space.

Non-Uniform flow :- The flow in which the flow parameters like pressure, velocity, density,

etc. at a given time change with respect to time.

Laminar flow :- The flow in which the fluid particles move in layers or lamina with one layer

sliding over the another is called laminar flow.

Turbulent flow :- The flow in which the fluid particles move in zigzag way is called the

turbulent flow.
One dimensional flow :- It is that type of flow in which the flow parameters such as pressure,

velocity and elevation are the function of time and one space coordinates only.
Two dimensional flow :- It is a type of flow in which the flow parameters are the function of

time and two coordinate of space.

Three dimensional flow :- It is that type of flow in which the flow parameters vary in all the
three directions, the stream lines are space curves.

2.3. Venturiemeter
The Venturiemeter was invented by Clements Hershel in 1887 and has been named in the
honour of an Italian Engineer Venturi.
It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe.
The working principle of Venturiemeter is based on Bernoullis equation.

Fig 2.2 Venturiemeter

2.3.1. Uses of venturiemeter

Venturiemeter is used to measure the speed of fluid.

Air flows through a venturie channel of a carburetor in automobiles

At throat, pressure being low, the fluid is sucked in and proper mixture of air and fuel is
made available for combustion.

10

2.3.2. Venturiemeters used in daily life

Fig 2.3 Venturiemeters used in daily life

11

2.4 Orificemeter

Pipe orifice is a device used for measuring the rate for measuring the rate of flow of a
fluid through a pipe.

It is also called orifice meter or orifice plate.

The orifice meter consists of a thin, circular plate with a hole in it.

The plate is held in the pipeline between two flanges.

Pipe orifice is a cheaper device as compared to venturiemeter.

It also works on the same principle as of venturiemeter.

12

Fig 2.4 Orifice meter

13

2.4.1. Orifice meters used in daily life

14

15

Fig 2.5. Orifice meters used in daily life

2.5. Modern orifice meters discovered

16

Fig 2.6 Modern orifice meters discovered

Chapter 3
3.1. APPLICATIONS

Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many areas of engineering and

science. Examples are:
Biomechanics
Blood flow through arteries
Meteorology and Ocean Engineering

17

 Movements of air currents and water currents

Chemical Engineering
Design of chemical processing equipment
Mechanical Engineering
Design of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning equipment, pollutioncontrol equipment, etc.
Civil Engineering
Transport of river sediments
Pollution of air and water
Design of piping systems
Flood control systems
3.2. Description
This is a first course in the great subject of fluid mechanics, which fascinated from Leonardo da
Vinci to every one of the great physicists of modern times. As an engineer, you will most
certainly deal with problems related to fluid behavior, so understanding this behavior is an
essential aspect of being an engineer, regardless of your field of specialization. Topics of this
18

course include fluid statics, Bernoulli equation and applications, fluid kinematics, finite control
volume analysis and applications, conservation of mass, momentum and energy, differential
analysis of fluid flow, viscous flow and the Navier-Stokes equations, dimensional analysis, pipe
flow and pipe systems, flow around immersed bodies and boundary layers. Professor Lorena A
Barba Mechanical Engineering Department Boston University

3.3. Streamlines and Streamtubes

Streamline: A curve that is everywhere tangent to the instantaneous local velocity vector.
Streamlines are useful as indicators of the instantaneous direction of fluid motion throughout the
flow field. For example, regions of recalculating flow and separation of a fluid off of a solid wall
are easily identified by the streamline pattern. Streamlines cannot be directly observed
experimentally except in steady flow fields. Streamlines (solid black curves) for the velocity
field of Example 44; velocity vectors (color arrows) are superimposed for comparison. A
streamtube consists of a bundle of streamlines much like a communications cable consists of a
bundle of fiber-optic cables

.
Fig 3.1. Streamlines and Streamtubes

19

3.4. Plots Of Fluid Flow Data

3.4.1. Profile Plots
A profile plot indicates how the value of a scalar property varies along some desired direction in
the flow field. Profile plots of the horizontal component of velocity as a function of vertical
distance; flow in the boundary layer growing along a horizontal flat plate: (a) standard profile
plot and (b) profile plot with arrows. In fluid mechanics, profile plots of any scalar variable
(pressure, temperature, density, etc.) can be created, but the most common one used in this book
is the velocity profile plot. Since velocity is a vector quantity, we usually plot either the
magnitude of velocity or one of the components of the velocity vector as a function of distance in
some desired direction.

Fig 3.2. Plots Of Fluid Flow Data

20

3.4.2. Vector Plots

A vector plot is an array of arrows indicating the magnitude and direction of a vector property at
an instant in time. Fig. 4-4: Velocity vector plot Fig. 4-14: Acceleration vector plot. Both
generated analytically. Streamlines indicate the direction of the instantaneous velocity field, they
do not directly indicate the magnitude of the velocity (i.e., the speed). A useful flow pattern for
both experimental and computational fluid flows is thus the vector plot, which consists of an
array of arrows that indicate both magnitude and direction of an instantaneous vector property.
Vector plots can also be generated from experimentally obtained data (e.g., from PIV
measurements) or numerically from CFD calculations.

Fig 3.3. Vector Plots

21

3.4.3. Contour Plot

A contour plot shows curves of constant Contour Plots values of a scalar property (or magnitude
of a vector property) at an instant in time. Contour plots of the pressure field due to flow
impinging on a block, as produced by CFD calculations; only the upper half is shown due to
symmetry; (a) filled gray scale contour plot and (b) contour line plot where pressure values are
displayed in units of Pa gage pressure. Contour plots (also called isocontour plots) are generated
of pressure, temperature, velocity magnitude, species concentration, properties of turbulence, etc.
A contour plot can quickly reveal regions of high (or low) values of the flow property being
studied. A contour plot may consist simply of curves indicating various levels of the property;
this is called a contour line plot. Alternatively, the contours can be filled in with either colors or
shades of gray; this is called a filled contour plot.

Fig 3.4. Contour Plot

22

3.5. Vorticity And Rotationality

If the vorticity at a point in a flow field is nonzero, the fluid particle that happens to occupy that
point in space is rotating; the flow in that region is called rotational. Likewise, if the vorticity in
a region of the flow is zero (or negligibly small), fluid particles there are not rotating; the flow in
that region is called irrotational. Physically, fluid particles in a rotational region of flow rotate
end over end as they move along in the flow.

Fig 3.5. Vorticity And Rotationality

23

Chapter 4
4.1. Advantage
Lube manufacturers have discovered that kinematic methods offer several advantages, including
precision. Coupled with a high-precision thermostatically controlled bath and a timing device
with an accuracy better than +/-0.001 second, kinematic viscometers are typically ten times more
precise than other viscosity measuring devices such as dynamic rotational and differential
pressure instruments.
A second advantage is intrinsic to the measurement method. Kinematic viscosity relies on gravity
and the density of the fluid to provide the motivational force for movement of the liquid in the
viscometer. Consequently, kinematic viscometers test the liquid under a low and relatively
narrow band of shear rates. Shear rate is an important instrument parameter when comparing
results between two or more laboratories using different instruments. Correlation errors can
result when comparing measurements of non-Newtonian fluids measured with other techniques
where shear rates may be orders of magnitude higher than kinematic viscometers and perhaps

24

even variable across the instruments measuring range. While lubricant base oils are typically
regarded as being Newtonian fluids, when formulated into todays engine oils with additives and
VI improvers, they can become non-Newtonian fluids. In-service oils with soot and other
contaminates provide less predictable viscosities under variable or undefined shear rates.
Kinematic methods also offer an economic advantage. Within the last several years, there have
been new advancements in the manufacture of automated kinematic viscometers that meet D445
test requirements. These new instruments have a lower cost than earlier models, require less
bench space and can provide measurement cycle times of three to five minutes. These attributes
lead to a reduced cost per test while providing higher accuracy and better correlation of a
standardized test.

4.2. Historic Challenges

In the past, operating cost pressures drove many laboratories to seek the quickest test cycle time
and the lowest cost of instrument ownership and individual test measurement. The labor
intensive manual kinematic viscometer procedure or the high capital expense associated with
automated kinematic viscometers forced labs to look for alternative instruments or even modified
D445 instruments. Additionally, little guidance was provided by traditional kinematic viscosity
methods such as D445 on how to properly test in-service lubricants and limited industry support
for developing improved standardized methods for these fluids.

4.3. New Directions for Used Oil

Fortunately, these issues are being resolved due to the establishment of the ASTM Committee
D02.96 to standardize in-service lubricant testing and condition monitoring services. This
committees charter includes, in part, evaluating viscosity testing and making recommendations
for revisions to existing test methods to cover the scope of testing in-service lubricants. Some of
25

their work has culminated in the development of new kinematic viscosity test methods (Houillon
viscosity) and the recent decision to add precision for in-service engine lubricants to D445.
At the June D02 meeting in Toronto, Ontario, Subcommittee 7 Section A held a meeting in which
new provisions to the D445 method were discussed and approved, including more detailed
provisions in Section 6.1.2 for the use of automated instruments.
Because the current D445 precision statement was derived using materials with older
formulations, the subcommittee is planning a new round-robin study of precision and bias for
manual and automated instruments measuring newer petroleum-based products including used
engine oils.

4.4. Disadvantage

The solution of the equations presents appreciable mathematical difficulties except

certain special cases and therefore, the method is rarely suitable for practical applications.
Determining the pressure drop (or head loss) when the pipe length and diameter are given

for a specified flow rate (or velocity)

Determining the flow rate when the pipe length and diameter are given for a specified

pressure drop (or head loss)

Determining the pipe diameter when the pipe length and flow rate are given for a

specified pressure drop (or head loss)

And a tracer injected continuously into a flow.
same as pathline and streamline for steady flow.
A streakline is the locus of fluid particles that have passed sequentially through a

prescribed point in the flow.

Easy to generate in experiments like dye in a water flow, or smoke in an
Steady flow : the streamlines are fixed in space for all time.
Unsteady flow : the streamlines are changing from instant to instant.

26

airflow.

A streakline consists of all fluid particles in a flow that have previously passed through a
common point. Such a line can be produced by continuously injecting marked fluid

(smoke in air, or dye in water) at a given location.

For steady flow : The streamline, the pathline, and the streakline are the same.

27

Chapter 5
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