Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Geometry and Constructions
Geometry and Constructions
Geometry and Constructions
Constructions
136
137
Angles
An angle is formed by 2 rays or 2 line segments that share the
same endpoint.
D
sides
S
vertex
Naming Angles
The symbol for an angle is . An angle can be named in
two ways:
30
138
30
270
0
24
21
180
15
full-circle protractor
0 10
180 170 1 20 3
60 1 0
50 4
14 0
0
80 90 100
70 100 90 80 110 1
70 20
60 0 110
60 1
2
50 0 1
50 30
13
170 180
60 10 0
01
15 20
0 30
14 0
4
Measuring Angles
The protractor is a tool used to measure angles. Angles are
measured in degrees. A degree is the unit of measure for the
size of an angle.
12
2. Name 3 points: the vertex and one point on each side of the
angle. The angle above can be named angle DSC (DSC ) or
angle CSD (CSD). The vertex must always be listed in the
middle, between the points on the sides.
90
60
33
half-circle protractor
A right angle
measures 90.
An acute angle
measures between
0 and 90.
An obtuse angle
measures between
90 and 180.
A straight angle
measures 180.
Example
A reflex angle
measures between
180 and 360.
For the figure at the right, the following statements are true.
Angles 1 and 3 are vertical angles. They have the same measure.
Angles 2 and 4 are vertical angles. They have the same measure.
There are four pairs of adjacent angles:
1 and 2 2 and 3 3 and 4
3
4
4 and 1
b. 1
c. 3
Check your answers on page 437.
139
Examples
T
B
F
D
parallel lines
AD
BC
parallel segments
FE JK
intersecting lines
intersecting segments
perpendicular lines
TS
XY
perpendicular segments
140
Symbol
C
or C
B
B
B
endpoints
MN
M
endpoint
ST
or TS
S
vertex
T or STP
or PTS
T
P
AB
CD
B
A
D
C
F
C
none
none
BC
EF
B
E
A
B
C
D
B
C
E
F
perpendicular line
segments: Segments that
intersect at right angles
4.
TU
5. P
R
J
K
6. EF
141
Polygons
A polygon is a flat, 2-dimensional figure made up of line
segments called sides. A polygon can have any number of
sides, as long as it has at least three. The interior (inside)
of a polygon is not part of the polygon.
vertex
B
interior
side
4 sides, 4 vertices
3 sides, 3 vertices
7 sides, 7 vertices
Prefixes
Polygons are named after the number of their sides. The prefix
in a polygons name tells the number of sides it has.
142
tri-
quad-
penta-
hexa-
hepta-
octa-
nona-
deca-
10
dodeca-
12
triangle
heptagon
quadrangle
(or quadrilateral)
pentagon
hexagon
octagon
nonagon
decagon
quadrangle
(or quadrilateral)
pentagon
hexagon
equilateral triangle
regular pentagon
square
octagon
regular hexagon
regular octagon
regular nonagon
143
Triangles
Triangles are the simplest type of polygon. The prefix
tri- means three. All triangles have 3 vertices, 3 sides,
and 3 angles.
For the triangle shown here,
B
side
vertex
BC
,
BA
, and C
A
.
the sides are
A scalene triangle is a
triangle whose sides all
have different lengths.
An isosceles triangle is
a triangle that has two
sides of the same length.
An equilateral triangle
is a triangle whose sides
all have the same length.
144
Angle A is formed
by sides that meet
at vertex A.
Quadrangles
A quadrangle is a polygon that has 4 sides. Another name for
quadrangle is quadrilateral. The prefix quad- means four. All
quadrangles have 4 vertices, 4 sides, and 4 angles.
For the quadrangle shown here,
RS
,
ST
,
TU
, and U
R
.
the sides are
No parallel sides
1. Draw and label a quadrangle named QUAD that has exactly one pair
of parallel sides.
2. Is QUAD a parallelogram?
3. Write the seven other possible names for this quadrangle.
Check your answers on page 438.
145
rhombus
square
kite
other
146
Geometric Solids
Polygons and circles are flat, 2-dimensional figures. The surfaces
they enclose take up a certain amount of area, but they do not
have any thickness and do not take up any volume.
Three-dimensional shapes have length, width, and thickness.
They take up volume. Boxes, chairs, books, cans, and balls
are all examples of 3-dimensional shapes.
face
face
face
\
[]
curved
surface
face
[]
curved
surface
curved
surface
face
A cone has 1 circular face
and 1 curved surface. The
circular face is called its base.
147
edges
edges
edges
edges
A cone has 1 edge and 1 vertex. The vertex opposite the circular
base is called the apex.
vertices
vertex
(apex)
vertices
A cube has 12 edges and
8 vertices.
edge
The pyramid shown here has 8 edges and 5 vertices. The vertex
opposite the rectangular base is called the apex.
apex
edges
vertices
edges
vertices
edge
A sphere has no
edges and no vertices.
Eulers Theorem is a
formula that tells how
the number of faces,
edges, and vertices in a
polyhedron are related. Let
F, E, V denote the number
of faces, edges, and
vertices of a polyhedron.
Then F + V E = 2.
(Polyhedrons are defined
on page 149.)
edge
148
Polyhedrons
A polyhedron is a geometric solid whose surfaces are all
formed by polygons. These surfaces are the faces of the
polyhedron. A polyhedron does not have any curved surfaces.
Two important groups of polyhedrons are shown below. These
are pyramids and prisms.
Pyramids
triangular pyramids
rectangular pyramids
pentagonal pyramid
hexagonal pyramid
Prisms
triangular prisms
rectangular prisms
hexagonal prism
To find out why these are neither pyramids nor prisms, read
pages 150 and 151.
149
Prisms
All of the geometric solids below are prisms.
base
ba
se
base
ba
se
base
base
base
base
triangular
prism
rectangular
prism
pentagonal
prism
hexagonal
prism
The other faces connect the bases and are all shaped
like parallelograms.
The shape of its bases is used to name a prism. If the bases are
triangular shapes, it is called a triangular prism. If the bases
are rectangular shapes, it is called a rectangular prism.
Rectangular prisms have three possible pairs of bases.
Note
Notice that the edges
connecting the bases of
a prism are parallel
to each other.
Example
The triangular prism shown here has 5 faces3 rectangular faces and
2 triangular bases. It has 9 edges and 6 vertices.
edges
vertices
edges
vertices
150
Pyramids
All of the geometric solids below are pyramids.
base
triangular
pyramid
base
square
pyramid
base
base
pentagonal
pyramid
hexagonal
pyramid
The polygon that forms the base can have any number of sides.
The faces that are not a base all have a triangular shape.
The faces that are not a base all meet at the same vertex.
The shape of its base is used to name a pyramid. If the base is a
triangle shape, it is called a triangular pyramid. If the base is
a square shape, it is called a square pyramid.
The great pyramids of Giza were built near Cairo, Egypt around
2600 B.C. They have square bases and are square pyramids.
The number of faces, edges, and vertices that a pyramid has
depends on the shape of its base.
Example
apex
151
Regular Polyhedrons
A polyhedron is regular if:
regular tetrahedron
cube
regular dodecahedron
Name
regular octahedron
regular icosahedron
Shape of face
Number of faces
regular tetrahedron
equilateral triangle
cube
square
regular octahedron
equilateral triangle
regular dodecahedron
regular pentagon
12
regular icosahedron
equilateral triangle
20
152
Circles
center
interior
The center is not part of the circle. The interior is not part of
the circle.
The compass is a tool used to draw circles.
am
di
radius
et
er
n.
6 in.
6i
6 in.
6i
n.
Examples
A 12-inch pizza
153
Spheres
A sphere is a geometric solid that has a single curved surface.
It is shaped like a ball, a marble, or a globe. All of the points on
the surface of a sphere are the same distance from the center
of the sphere.
All spheres have the same shape, but all spheres do not have the
same size. The size of a sphere is the distance across its center.
diameter
center
154
Congruent Figures
It sometimes happens that figures have the same shape and
size. They are congruent. Figures are congruent if they match
exactly when one figure is placed on top of the other.
Example
E
F
EF and C
D
are both 3 centimeters long. They have the same
shape and the same length. These line segments are congruent.
Example
Angle R and angle N are both right angles. They have the same
shape, and they each measure 90. The angle openings match
exactly when one angle is placed on top of the other.
Example
D
C
The circles here each have 2-inch diameters. They have the
same shape and the same size. The three circles are congruent.
Example
If you cut out the copy, it will match exactly when placed on top
of the original. The sides will match exactly. All the angles will
match exactly. The original figure and the copy are congruent.
B
A
D
E
original
D
E
copy
Which of these methods could you use to make a congruent copy of this square?
a. Use a copy machine to copy the square.
b. Use tracing paper and trace the square.
c. Cut out the square and trace around it.
d. Measure the sides with a ruler, then draw the sides
at right angles to each other using a protractor.
Check your answers on page 439.
155
Similar Figures
Note
Figures that have exactly the same shape are called similar
figures. Usually, one figure is an enlargement or a reduction
of the other. The size-change factor tells the amount of
enlargement or reduction. Congruent figures are similar
because they have the same shape.
Examples
original copy
Exact copy
Copy machine set to 100%.
Size-change factor is 1X.
Example
original
copy
Enlargement
Copy machine set to 200%.
Size-change factor is 2X.
original copy
Reduction
Copy machine set to 50%.
1
Size-change factor is 2 X.
Example
O
N
is
A
6 cm
G
6 cm
8 cm
O
12 cm
1
as long as
BC
.
OP
is 3 as
1
size-change factor is 3X.
So, M
N
must be
1
3
? M
AD
and
MP
are corresponding sides.
1
M
P
is 3 as long as
AD
and equals 7 feet.
So, A
D
must be 21 feet long.
one hundred fifty-six
7'
* 15 = 5 feet long.
4 cm
4'
O
15'
So, the
AB
and
MN
are corresponding sides.
AB
is 15 feet long.
156
T
3 cm
P
6'
12'
C
D
18'
reflection
Flip the F.
translation
Slide the F.
An approximate reflection
is shown here. The line of
reflection is the waters
edge, along the bank.
rotation
Turn the F.
line of reflection
matching points
preimage
(original figure)
image
(reflected figure)
157
vertical translation
diagonal translation
preimage
(original figure)
90 clockwise
270 counterclockwise
Rotations
When a figure is rotated, it is turned a certain number of
degrees around a particular point.
270 clockwise
90 counterclockwise
horizontal translation
180 clockwise
180 counterclockwise
.
1. Copy the figure and reflect it over AB
A
158
Line Symmetry
A dashed line is drawn through the figure at the right. The line
divides the figure into two parts. Both parts look alike, but are
facing in opposite directions.
The figure is symmetric about a line. The dashed line is
called a line of symmetry for the figure.
line of symmetry
Examples
flag of Jamaica
butterfly
human body
ellipse
rectangle
square
1. Trace each pattern-block (PB) shape on your Geometry Template onto a sheet
of paper. Draw the lines of symmetry for each shape.
2. How many lines of symmetry does a circle have?
Check your answers on page 439.
159
Tessellations
A tessellation is a pattern formed by repeated use of polygons
or other figures that completely cover a surface.
overlap
gap
160
3
1
polygon vertex.
The example at the right is a
semiregular tessellation made
up of squares and equilateral
triangles. As you move around
any vertex point, in order,
there are 2 triangles, 1 square,
1 triangle, and then 1 square.
vertex
point
161
Notice the tiny holes near the 0-, 4-, 4-, and 4-inch marks of the
inch scale and at each inch mark from 1 to 7. On the centimeter
side, the holes are placed at each centimeter mark from 0 to 10.
These holes can be used to draw circles of various sizes.
Example
162
Hold this
pencil steady.
percent circle
ellipse
sc
al
en
tri
an
gl
regular
octagon
rectangle
kite
right
triangle
isosceles
triangle
ring-binder holes
circle
right triangle
equilateral triangle
us
b
om
rh
parallelogram
bus
trapezoid
rhom
regular
hexagon
square
regular
pentagon
full-circle protractor
half-circle protractor
Wright Group/McGraw-Hill
163
Compass-and-Straightedge Constructions
Many geometric figures can be drawn using only a compass and
straightedge. The compass is used to draw circles and mark off
lengths. The straightedge is used to draw straight line segments.
Compass-and-straightedge constructions serve many purposes:
Architects drawing
of a house plan
on a computer.
In addition to a compass and straightedge, the only materials
you need are a drawing tool (a pencil with a sharp point is the
best) and some paper. For these constructions, you may not
measure the lengths of line segments with a ruler or the sizes
of angles with a protractor.
Draw on a surface that will hold the point of the compass (also
called the anchor) so that it does not slip. You can draw on a
stack of several sheets of paper.
Method 1
Method 2
164
A'
B'
165
Copying a Triangle
C
A'
B'
A'
B'
C'
B'
C'
B A'
166
B'
Constructing a Parallelogram
Follow each step carefully. Use a clean sheet of paper.
167
Step 2: Place the compass anchor on the mark you just made.
Make another mark with the pencil point on the circle.
168
C
E
C
E
Check with your compass that all four line segments are the
same length. Check with the corner of your straightedge or
another square corner that all four angles are right angles.
The square is inscribed in the circle because all vertices
of the square are on the circle.
169
N
. Label the point where
MN
intersects
AB
Step 4: Draw M
as O.
We say that line segment MN bisects line segment AB
at point O. The distance from A to O is the same as the
distance from B to O.
Draw a line segment. Use a compass and a straightedge to bisect it. Measure to
check that the line segment has been divided into two equal parts.
170
D B
Step 4: Draw Q
P
.
Q
P
is perpendicular to
AB
.
D B
Use a compass and straightedge. Construct a line segment through point R that
is perpendicular to the segment you drew.
Use a protractor to check that the segments are perpendicular.
171
172
Copying an Angle
Follow each step carefully. Use a clean sheet of paper.
Step 1: Draw an angle B.
Step 2: To start copying the angle, draw a ray. Label the
endpoint of the ray as B'.
B'
B'
A'
C'
B'
A'
C'
B'
A'
Draw an angle. Use a compass and straightedge to copy the angle. Then measure
the two angles with a protractor to check that they are the same size.
173
Copying a Quadrangle
Before you can copy a quadrangle with a compass and straightedge,
you need to know how to copy line segments and angles. Those
constructions are described on pages 165 and 173.
Follow each step carefully. Use a clean sheet of paper.
Step 1: Draw a quadrangle ABCD. Copy
BAD. Label the vertex of the
new angle as A'. The sides of
your new angle should be longer
than
AB
and A
D
.
A'
B'
A'
D'
B'
A'
Step 5: Draw B
'C
' and
D'C
'.
Quadrangle ABCD is congruent to quadrangle ABCD.
The two quadrangles are the same size and shape.
174
C'
D'
175
Ancient Architecture
We cannot be sure when architecture began, but there are many
structures still standing from the ancient world that show us
about the mathematical abilities of the people who designed them.
Many ancient mathematicians
were also astronomers.
When Stonehenge was built
nearly 5,000 years ago, it
was oriented to track the
movements of celestial bodies.
Stonehenge may have even
been used to forecast eclipses
of the sun and moon.
Mayan astronomers of
Central America designed
their observatories for
mathematical studies of
stars and planets. The
Spaniards called this
structure El Caracol.
176
The Greeks developed three architectural stylesthe Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian.
The Parthenon in
Athens, Greece was
built around the
time of Pythagoras.
The ratio 2:3 and
its square, 4:9 can
be seen in its
construction.
177
178
Kings College at
Cambridge University,
England was built in
the 15th century.
Detailed patterns
and gold artwork on
the Grand Palace
179
What do you think the buildings of the next 100 years will
look like?
180