CABIN PRESSURIZATION is the active pumping of compressed air into an

aircraft cabin when flying at altitude to maintain a safe and comfortable environment
for crew and passengers in the low outside atmospheric pressure.
Pressurization is essential over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) to protect crew and
passengers from the risk of hypoxia and a number of other physiological problems
(see below) in the thin air above that altitude and increases passenger comfort
generally. "The outflow valve is constantly being positioned to maintain cabin
pressure as close to sea level as practical, without exceeding a cabin-to-outside
pressure differential of 8.60 psi." At a cruising altitude of 39,000 feet (FL 390), a
Boeing 767's cabin will be pressurized to an altitude of 6,900 feet.[1]
THE NEED FOR CABIN PRESSURIZATION
Flights above 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) in unpressurized aircraft put crew and
passengers at risk from four separate sources, hypoxia, altitude sickness,
decompression sickness and barotraumas as follows:
HYPOXIA.
The low partial pressure of oxygen at altitude reduces the alveolar oxygen
tension in the lungs and subsequently in the brain leading to sluggish thinking,
dimmed vision, loss of consciousness and ultimately death. In some individuals,
particularly those with heart or lung disease, symptoms may begin as low as 1,500
metres (4,900 ft) above sea level although most passengers can tolerate altitudes of
2,500 metres (8,200 ft) without ill effect. At this altitude, there is about 25% less
oxygen than there is at sea level.[2] Hypoxia may be addressed by the administration
of supplemental oxygen, usually through an oxygen mask sometimes through a nasal
cannula.
ALTITUDE SICKNESS.
The low local partial pressure of carbon dioxide (CO2) causes CO2 to out-gas
from the blood raising the blood pH and inducing alkalosis. Passengers may
experience fatigue, nausea, headaches, sleeplessness and on extended flights even
pulmonary oedema. These are the same symptoms that mountain climbers experience
but the limited duration of powered flight makes the development of pulmonary
oedema unlikely. Altitude sickness may be controlled by a full pressure suit with
helmet and faceplate, which completely envelopes the body in a pressurized
environment; this is clearly impractical for commercial passengers.
DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS.
The low local partial pressure of gases, principally nitrogen (N2) but including
all other gases, may cause dissolved gases in the bloodstream to precipitate out
resulting in gas embolism or bubbles in the bloodstream. The mechanism is the same
as for compressed air divers on ascent from depth. Symptoms may include the early
symptoms of the diver's bends: tiredness, forgetfulness, headache, stroke, thrombosis
subcutaneous itching but rarely the full symptoms of the bends. Decompression
sickness may also be controlled by a full pressure suit as for altitude sickness.

Barotraumas. As the aircraft climbs or descends passengers may experience

discomfort or acute pain as gases trapped within their bodies expand or contract. The
most common problems occur with air trapped in the middle ear (aerotitus) or paranasal sinuses by a blocked Eustachian tube or sinuses. Pain may also be experienced
in the gastrointestinal tract or even the teeth (barodontalgia). Usually these are not
severe enough to cause actual trauma but can result in soreness in the ear that persists
after the flight and can exacerbate or precipitate pre-existing medical conditions such
as pneumothorax (collapsed lung).
PRESSURIZED FLIGHT
An empty water bottle which was closed during a commercial transatlantic
flight with a cabin pressure equivalent to an altitude in the range of 6,000 to 8,000 ft,
photographed when back on the ground, showing that the higher pressure compressed
it during the descent (Cabin pressure decreases as the aircraft climbs, and cabin
pressure increases as the aircraft descends).Maintaining the cabin pressure altitude to
below 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) generally avoids significant hypoxia, altitude sickness,
decompression sickness and barotraumas. Emergency oxygen systems are installed,
both for passengers and cockpit crew, to prevent loss of consciousness in the event
that cabin pressure rapidly rises above 10,000 feet MSL. Those systems contain more
than enough oxygen for all on board, to give the pilot adequate time to descend the
plane to a safe altitude, where supplemental oxygen is not needed. FAA regulations
mandate that the cabin altitude may not exceed 8,000 feet at the maximum operating
altitude of the airplane under normal operating conditions.
Prior to 1996, approximately 6,000 large commercial transport airplanes were
type certificated to fly up to 45,000 feet, without being required to meet high altitude
special conditions.[3] In 1996, the FAA adopted Amendment 25-87, which imposed
additional high altitude cabin pressure specifications, for new type aircraft designs.
For aircraft certified to operate above 25,000 feet (FL 250), it "must be designed so
that occupants will not be exposed to cabin pressure altitudes in excess of 15,000 feet
after any probable failure condition in the pressurization system."[4] In the event of a
decompression which results from "any failure condition not shown to be extremely
improbable," the plane must be designed so that occupants will not be exposed to a
cabin altitude exceeding 25,000 feet for more than 2 minutes, nor exceeding an
altitude of 40,000 feet at any time. [5] In practice, that new FAR amendment imposes
an operational ceiling of 40,000 feet on the majority of newly designed commercial
aircraft.[6][7]
However, companies that build the newer designed aircraft can apply for
exemption from that more restrictive rule. In 2004, Airbus successfully petitioned the
FAA to allow cabin pressure of the A380 to reach 43,000 feet in the event of a
decompression incident, and to exceed 40,000 feet for one minute. This special
exemption allows the A380 to operate at a higher altitude than other newly designed
civilian aircraft, which have not yet been granted a similar exemption.[8]
The pressure maintained within the cabin is referred to as the equivalent
effective cabin altitude or more normally, the cabin altitude. Cabin altitude is not
normally maintained at average mean sea level (MSL) pressure (1013.25 mbar, or
29.921 inches of mercury) throughout the flight, because doing so would cause the

designed differential pressure limits of the fuselage to be exceeded. An aircraft

planning to cruise at 40,000 ft (12,000 m) is programmed to rise gradually from takeoff to around 8,000 ft (2,400 m) in cabin pressure altitude, and to then reduce gently
to match the ambient air pressure of the destination. That destination may be
significantly above sea level and this needs to be taken into account; for example, El
Alto International Airport in La Paz, Bolivia is 4,061 metres (13,320 ft) above sea
level.
PRESSURIZATION is achieved by the design of an airtight fuselage engineered to
be pressurized, a source of compressed air and an environmental control system
(ECS). The most common source of compressed air for pressurization is bleed air
extracted from the compressor stage of a gas turbine or turboprop propulsion engine,
usually the second or third last compressor ring. By the time the cold outside air has
reached this part of the compressor it has been adiabatically heated to around 200 C
(392 F) and is at a very high pressure. It is then expanded and cooled to a suitable
temperature by passing it through a heat exchanger and air cycle machine ('the packs
system'). There is no need to further heat or refrigerate the air. Typically, compressed
air is bled from at least two propulsion engines each system being fully redundant.
Compressed air is also obtained from the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU), if fitted, in the
event of an emergency and for cabin air supply on the ground before the main engines
are started. Most modern commercial aircraft today have a fully redundant, duplicated
electronic controller for maintaining pressurization along with a manual back-up
system.
All exhaust air is dumped to atmosphere via a valve, usually at the rear of the
fuselage. This valve controls the cabin pressure and also acts as a safety relief. In the
event that the automatic pressure controllers fail, the pilot can manually control the
cabin pressure valve, according to the backup emergency procedure checklist. The
automatic controller normally maintains the proper cabin pressure altitude by
constantly adjusting the outflow valve position, so that the cabin pressure is as near to
sea level pressure as practical, without exceeding the maximum differential limit of
8.60 psi. At FL 390, the cabin pressure would be automatically maintained at about
6,900 feet (450 feet lower than Mexico City), which is about 11.5 psi (76 kPa).[9]
Some aircraft, such as the Boeing 787 have re-introduced the use of electric
compressors previously used on piston-engined airliners to provide pressurization.
[citation needed] The use of electric compressors increases the electrical generation
load on the engines and introduces a number of stages of energy transfer, therefore it
is unclear whether this increases the overall efficiency of the aircraft air handling
system. It does, however, remove the danger of chemical contamination of the cabin,
simplifies engine design, avoids the need to run high pressure pipework around the
aircraft and provides greater design flexibility.
Cabin altitudes are maintained at up to 2,500 metres (8,200 ft), so
pressurization does not eliminate all physiological problems. Passengers with
conditions such as a pneumothorax are advised not to fly until fully healed; pain may
still be experienced in the ears and sinuses by people suffering from a cold or other
infection; SCUBA divers flying within the 'no fly' period after a dive may risk
decompression sickness because their dive tables are calibrated to sea level.

LOSS OF PRESSURIZATION
Uncontrolled decompression
Rapid decompression of commercial aircraft is a rare, but dangerous event
with American Airlines Flight 96 being an example. People seated close to a very
large hole may be forced out by explosive decompression or injured by exiting debris
and unsecured cabin objects that may become projectiles. However, contrary to
Hollywood myth, as in the James Bond film Goldfinger, people just a few feet from
the hole are more at risk from hypoxia or hypothermia than from being forced out.
Floors and internal panels have deformed in previous incidents. Consequently all
modern commercial jets now have blow-out panels or vents between pressurized
compartments of the plane, such as between the passenger and cargo spaces, to
equalize destructive internal pressure differentials.
Gradual or slow decompression, sometimes caused by a failure to pressurize the cabin
with an increase in altitude, is dangerous because it may not be detected. The Helios
Airways 2005 accident is a good example.[13] Warning systems may be ignored,
misinterpreted or fail and self-recognition of the subtle effects of hypoxia really
depends upon previous experience and hypoxia familiarization training.
Unfortunately, in most countries this has been largely restricted to military hypobaric
chamber training with its risk of decompression sickness and barotrauma. Newer
reduced oxygen breathing systems[14] are more accessible, safer and provide
valuable practical experience.[15] Adding such practical training to knowledge
required by regulatory authorities is likely to increase hypoxia awareness and aviation
safety.
Hypoxia may result in loss of consciousness without emergency oxygen. The Time of
Useful Consciousness varies depending on the altitude. Additionally, the air
temperature will plummet to the ambient outside temperature with a danger of
hypothermia or frostbite.
Failure of cabin pressurization above 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) for whatever reason
requires an emergency descent to below 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) and the deployment
of an oxygen mask above each seat. In almost all pressurized jet airliners passenger
oxygen masks are automatically deployed when the cabin altitude exceeds 14,000
feet.[16] The Boeing 737 emergency equipment is typical.
It is generally impossible to lose pressurization through opening a cabin door in flight,
either accidentally or intentionally. The plug door design ensures that when the
pressure inside the cabin exceeds the pressure outside the doors are forced shut and
will not open until the pressure is equalised. Cabin doors, including the emergency
exits, but not all cargo doors, open inwards, or must first be pulled inwards and then
rotated before they can be pushed out through the door frame because at least one
dimension of the door is larger than the door frame.