What is a computer?

Computer is a General purpose machine, commonly consisting of digital

circuitry, that accepts (inputs), stores, manipulates, and generates (outputs)
data as numbers, text, graphics, voice, video files, or electrical signals, in
accordance with instructions called a program.
History of computer:The first electronic digital computers were developed in the mid-20th century
(19401945). Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much
power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).
Generation of Computer:First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes:-The first computers used
vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and
in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which
was often the cause of malfunctions.

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors:-Transistors replaced vacuum

tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was
invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late
1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing

computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more

reliable than their first-generation predecessors.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits The development of the

integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of
computers.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands
of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first
generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The
Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the
computerfrom the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controlson a single chip.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence:-Fifth

generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition,
that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors
is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and
molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in
years to come.

Types of computer:1. Supercomputer and Mainframe:- Supercomputer is a broad term for

one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are

very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that
require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number
crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a
supercomputer. Mainframe was a term originally referring to the
cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame" of a
room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller
"minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron
machines were described as "mainframe computers" and eventually
just as mainframes.

2. Minicomputer:- It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the

distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has

blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers
and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing
system capable of supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.
3. Workstation:- It is a type of computer used for engineering applications

(CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other

types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing
power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations
generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large
amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user
interface.
4. Personal computer:- It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive
computer designed for an individual user. All are based on the
microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire
CPU on one chip. Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s.
One of the first and most popular personal computers was the Apple II,
introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer.
5. III, Personal Computer Types:- Actual personal computers can be
generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis or case is the

metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic

components.
a. Tower model :-The term refers to a computer in which the power supply,
motherboard, and mass storage devices are stacked on top of each other in a
cabinet. The main advantage of tower models is that there are fewer space
constraints, which makes installation of additional storage devices easier.
b. Desktop model:-A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk,
typically with the monitor sitting on top of the computer. Desktop model
computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrow
and tall.
c. Notebook computer:-An extremely lightweight personal computer.
Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough
to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference between a
notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook
computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to
produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook
display screens varies considerably.
d. Laptop computer :-A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can
sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop computers are more frequently called
notebook computers.
e. Subnotebook computer:-A portable computer that is slightly lighter and
smaller than a full-sized notebook computer. Typically, subnotebook
computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are otherwise equivalent
to notebook computers.
f. Hand-held computer :-A portable computer that is small enough to be held
in ones hand. Although extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers
have not replaced notebook computers because of their small keyboards and
screens.
g. Palmtop :-A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to
full-size computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for
certain functions such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen
rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or
PDA.

h. PDA:-Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines

computing, telephone/fax, and networking features. PDAs are also called
palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.
We can classify systems into the following categories :
8-bit, example : 8085 microprocessor
16-bit, example : 8086, 286, 386 processor
32-bit , example : 486
64-bit, example : Pentium -4
This gives us two basic system types or classes of hardware.
8-bit ( PC/XT) class systems
16/32/64 (AT) class systems
Identifying components and their use:PC stands for personal computers,
XT stands for extended PC,
AT stands for an advance technology PC.
The XT basically was a PC system that included a hard disk for storage in
addition to the floppy drive found in the basic PC system. These systems has
an 8-bit processor and an 8-bit INDUSTRY STANDARD ARCHITECTURE
(ISA) bus for system expansion. Bus is the name given to expansion slots in
which additional plug in circuit board can be installed.
16-bit and greater systems are said to be AT class.
16-bit (and latter 32 and 64bit) processors and expansion slots are included.
The first AT class systems had a 16-bit version of the ISA bus which is an
extension of the original 8-bit ISA bus found in the PC/XT class systems.
Afterwards several expansion slots were developed for AT class systems.
Example:- 16/32 bit PS/2 micro channel architecture (MCA) bus.
16-bit PC card (PCMCIA) bus
Fig 1.1.2 ATX Format Fig 1.1.3 PS/2 Port
16 bit ISA bus
16/32 bit Extended ISA (EISA) bus
32/64 - bit card Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus.
The easiest way to identify a PC/XT system is by the 8-bit ISA expansion slots
regardless of the processor present in the system. AT systems can be similarly
identified by having 16-bit of greater slots of any type (ISA, EISA, PCI) slots.

Component needed to assemble a basic modern PC system.

Motherboard
Processor
Memory (Primary)
Hard disk
CD-ROM
Floppy Drive
Keyboard
Mouse
Monitor
Power Supply
Cabinet

Motherboard :-

Motherboard is the important component of the computer as everything else

is connected to it. And it controls everything in the system.
Motherboard are available in several different shapes.
Motherboard usually contain the following individual components:1) Processor slot
2) Processor voltage regulators
3) Motherboard chipset
4) Level 2 cache
5) Memory SIMM or DIMM sockets
6) Bus slots
7) ROM BIOS
8) Clock / CMOS battery
9) Super I/O chips

Processor:-

The processor is often thought as the engine of the computer. Then the
processor reads the commands from the memory and then executes them. the
processor is one of the most expensive parts of the computers and is also one
of the smallest parts.
Primary Memory:-

Memory : Is used to hold programs and data during execution.

Primary memory is often called as RAM(Random Access Memory). It holds
all the programs and data the processor is using at a given time. RAM is
volatile because its contents are erased
when power is switched off.
Hard disk drive:A hard drive consists of spinning platters
made up of aluminum or ceramic that is

coated with magnetic media. The platters

come in various sizes. This is also called
as Secondary memory. There can be
several programs in the system, which
cannot be stored in RAM, so we need a
very huge non-volatile memory, which
can be used for storing all the programs,
and data when the system is not in use
are called as Hard disks.
CD-ROM drive:-

CD-ROM stands for compact disk read only memory. It consists of small
disks similar to the gramophone records to hold digital information. With the
advancement in technology writable CDs are also available.
Floppy Disk Drive:-

Floppy disks are the slowest and the smallest form of secondary storage. They
provide a simple way to carry information from one place to another, and
backup small amount of files.
Keyboard:-

The keyboard is the main input device for most computers. It is used to input
text or enter commands into the PC. Nowadays keyboards with additional
features are available like multimedia keyboard, wireless keyboard.

Mouse:-

With the invention of graphical user interface mouse is used to input

information into the computer. Users simply point and click to enter
information. The main advantage of mouse over keyboard is simplicity.
Monitor:-

The monitor is the specialized high-resolution screen similar to a television.

The actual display screen is made up or red, green and blue dots that are
illuminated by electron beam from behind.
Power supply:-

SMPS(Switch Mode Power Supply): The power supply supplies power to

every single part in the PC. The main function of the power supply is to
convert the 230 V AC into 3.3 V, 5 V and 12 V DC power that the system
requires for the operations.
Cabinet:-

The box or outer shell that houses most of the computers. The cabinet actually
performs several important functions for your PC including protection to the
system components, directing cooling airflow, and allowing installation of and
access to the system components.
Peripheral Devices:Any external device, which is not necessary to perform the basic operation of
computer, is called as peripherals. They provide additional computing
capabilities.
For ex : Printers, Modems, Speakers etc.
Modem:-

Modem (Modulator and Demodulator) is typically used to send digital data

over a phone line. The sending modem converts digital data into analog data,
which can be transmitted over telephone lines, and the receiving modem
converts the analog data back into digital form. This is used to connect to
Internet.
A typical arrangement is shown below:-

Modems are available in different capacities.

300 bps - 1960s through 1983 or so
1200 bps - Gained popularity in 1984 and 1985
2400 bps
9600 bps - First appeared in late 1990 and early 1991
19.2 kilobits per second (Kbps)
28.8 Kbps
33.6 Kbps
56 Kbps - Became the standard in 1998
10 Computer Hardware
ADSL, with theoretical maximum of up to 8 megabits per second (Mbps)
- Gained popularity in 1999
Printers:-

The capability to produce a printed version often called a hard copy of a

document is the primary function of a printer.
Different types of printers are 1) Laser 2) Inkjet 3) Dot-Matrix.

Planning and Designing your Computer

There are many factors to be considered when assemble a computer. The most
important among these are:
Cost
First step in planning your new PC should be to set a budget -- decide how much
you can afford to spend on the entire project. What do you plan on doing with the
machine?
On the other hand, if you are into gaming, audio or video editing, music
composition, or other high-resource computing, you will want to get as close to the
bleeding edge as your budget allows you when choosing a CPU, RAM,
motherboard, etc.

Operating System
pretty much any computer part you buy will come with drivers for most recent
versions of Windows (but check the box anyway, just to make sure).
Consider a Kit
If you've never built a computer before, you may want to consider a computer kit.
Kits come with pre-selected parts that (usually) have been tested to work with each
other. They usually also include fairly detailed assembly instructions.
Compatibility
If you decide to design your computer yourself check the newsgroups and
message boards to see if anyone's had problems with the particular combinations
you've selected. Some components simply don't play nicely with each other.
While you're fantasizing about all of those great parts you want to put in your new
computer, let's look at the tools that you'll need.
Assembling your own PC: Getting Ready
Before beginning to assemble your new computer, gather everything you need
(your computer, components and manuals) together in one place.
Tools You Need to Build Your Own Computer
You don't need an expensive toolkit to build your own computer, but there are a
few simple tools that you absolutely must have. All of these can be easily obtained
at almost any computer store or online, usually in a little case that contains
everything you need. You can also buy most of them at ordinary hardware stores.
As with all tools, you should buy the best quality computer tools that you can
afford. Good tools last longer and make the job easier. All computer tools should
be non-magnetized.
You will need, at a minimum, the following simple tools:

Screwdrivers and nut drivers.

You should have available, at a minimum, small- and medium-sized Phillips and
flat screwdrivers and a 1/4" nut driver.

Needle-Nosed Pliers
Very small needle-nosed pliers are very handy for removing and inserting jumpers
on motherboards and hard drives. (A pair of tweezers or surgical forceps also
works well for this purpose.)
Cable Ties
Plastic cable ties are useful for neatly bundling wires and cables away from fans
and other components inside the computer. If you can't find them, electrical tape is
an acceptable substitute.
Anti-Static Wrist Strap
This is a little elastic strap connected to a wire with an alligator clip on the other
end. The alligator clip is attached to a metal part of the computer chassis, and the
elastic band slipped around your wrist.

Heat Sink Compound

This is usually included with processor fans, but may be purchased separately. It is
applied neatly to the area where the processor contacts the heat sink to improve
cooling efficiency. (Some heat sinks have the compound "built-in" behind a little
peel-off label.) I like Arctic Silver.
Pill Bottle
You'll need a pill bottle or other small container to hold the various screws,
jumpers, and other small parts used to assemble and configure a homebuilt
computer.
Choosing a Computer Case and Power Supply
It may not seem too exciting, but selecting a case for your homebuilt computer is
one of the most important steps in the planning process. The case you select will
determine what form factor motherboard you will need, how many drives you can
install, and many other things.
Choosing a case wisely can save you many hours of annoyance and expense later
on. Here are some of the things you should consider:

Form Factor
The form factor is the first thing you must consider when selecting a case for your
new computer. The most common form factors as of this writing are still ATX and
micro-ATX, which differ mainly in their size. They are electronically identical.
Number of Drive Bays
Another important factor affecting the size of case you choose is the
number of drives you plan to install. Almost all PC cases have
internal bays for at least one hard drive, and front-accessible bays
for at least one optical drive (CD-ROM, CD-RW, DVD-ROM, or
DVD-RW) and a floppy drive.

Power Supply
Power supplies are usually (but not always) included and pre-installed in computer
cases. But sometimes a perfectly good case may come with a crappy power supply
and the power supply is not a part you want to skimp on. A bad power supply
can fry your whole system. In fact, sometimes I find a computer case that I like,
but which comes with a power supply that I don't; so I just remove the included
power supply and install a better one.
Make sure the power supply you use is of high quality and is adequate for your
needs and has the correct connectors for the type of system you are building.
The following are our minimum power supply recommendations based on the
combined number of drives (floppy, optical, tape, and hard drives) in a Pentium D,
Core2 Duo, or Athlon 64 X2 system:

Three drives: 400 Watts

Four or five drives: 500 Watts
Six to eight drives: 650 Watts
More than that: You really should consider dual power supplies.

Also remember that many USB and Firewire devices draw their power from the
computer's power supply, so you'll want to leave plenty of headroom when
calculating wattage requirements.
Cooling
Excess heat is one of your computer's worst enemies. Select a case that has at least
one place to mount a chassis fan. Without a chassis fan, the heat thrown by the
power supply fan, CPU fan, chipset fan, and video card fan will rapidly raise the
temperature inside the case. A simple case fan will help bleed this heat off and
keep your computer cool and happy.

Ease of Assembly and Maintenance

Finally, when selecting a computer case, consider how the case design will affect
the ease of assembling and maintaining the computer. Look at things such as how
easy the case is to open and whether the drive cages are easily removable (which
makes drive installation and replacement easier).
Installing the Motherboard in your Computer
Installing the motherboard in your homebuilt computer usually is pretty easy
(though sometimes knuckle-busting). Basically, you just line up the board with the
mounting holes and rear-panel openings, and then screw it in.
Read the Manual!
Before actually installing the motherboard, be sure to
thoroughly read the motherboard manual (that's that
paper thing that came in the box) to familiarize
yourself with the board's layout and connections, to
make absolutely sure that it is compatible with the
processor and RAM that you will be using, to make
sure that the jumper settings, if any, are correct, and to check for any other
warnings or instructions.

Determine Which Mounting Holes You will be

Using
About the only difficult part of installing a
motherboard is matching up the mounting holes in the
mobo with the ones on the case.
In theory, the mounting hole locations are standardized
within a given form factor; but in practice, it's a rare thing to find a case and
motherboard whose mounting holes exactly correspond. More often, you will have
to look at the mounting holes in the motherboard to determine which mounting
holes on the case you will be using.

Installing the Standoffs

Once you have determined which mounting holes you
will be using, you will need to insert standoffs in the
corresponding holes in the computer case. Chances are
that some of them will already be installed, and you
will have to install the rest.
There are several types of standoffs, with the ones on
the right being the most common. The purpose of standoffs is to separate the back
of the motherboard from the metal case. You install the standoffs in the mounting
holes in the case that correspond to the holes in your motherboard.
If you don't install the standoffs, then you will most likely damage your
motherboard when you try to install it.
Finally, don't over-tighten the standoffs. Hand-tight plus a smidgen is enough.
Most cases are made of thin metal that can strip if you over-tighten the standoffs.

Install the Motherboard

Once you have the correct standoffs inserted, lay the
motherboard into the case, line up the mounting holes
and the rear-panel connectors, and screw it down.
Usually, the easiest way to install a motherboard is to
lay the motherboard over the standoffs slightly forward
of the rear panel connectors, then slide it back into the rear panel connectors until
the mounting holes line up. Make sure that you're not snagging any wires, then
screw the board down.
Don't over tighten-the screws! You will crack the motherboard if you do, and then
it will be useless! The screws should be snug, not excessively tight. Use a standard
screwdriver, not an electric one. This is delicate stuff we're doing here.

Attach the Power Connectors

Finally, connect the ATX power connector from the
power supply to the motherboard. Do this now. If you
forget about it and later fire up your computer while
the ATX connector is not connected to anything, then
you will fry your computer's power supply.
Installing the Processor in Your Computer

The microprocessor is often both the most delicate and the most expensive part of
a homebuilt computer. As such, it deserves and requires special care. Handle
processors gingerly, and never touch the pins or conductors with your fingers.

Anti-Static Precautions
Processors are extremely sensitive to static charges and
physical shock. A static charge that's too small for a
human being to even feel can completely destroy a
processor. In addition, processors can be damaged by
rough handling or being dropped.
So never handle a processor roughly, never touch the pins, and never handle it
unless you are using proper anti-static precautions.
Handle the processor carefully, holding it only by the edges. Set it down only on an
anti-static mat or on the foam pad that it was shipped in. Be kind to your processor,
and your processor will be kind to you.
Factors Affecting CPU Performance
There are several factors that affect processor performance. Understanding these
factors will help you make the proper choices when designing your homebuilt
computer.
The most important factors affecting processor performance are:

Instruction Set
This is the processor's built-in code that tells it how to execute its duties.
You really have no control over the instruction set. It is built-in to the CPU. But
together with processor architecture, it does affect performance across a given line
of CPU's; and so it is mentioned here just for the sake of accuracy.
Clock Speed
The clock speed is stated in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz), and is a measure
of how many instructions the processor can execute in one second.
Bandwidth
Measured in bits, the bandwidth determines how much information the processor
can process in one instruction. If you were to compare data flow to the flow of
traffic on a highway, then clock speed would be the speed limit, and bandwidth
would be the number of lanes on the highway.
Front Side Bus (FSB) Speed
The FSB is the interface between the processor and the system memory. As such,
the FSB speed limits the rate at which data can get to the CPU, which in turn limits
the rate at which the CPU can process that data. The CPU's FSB speed determines
the maximum speed at which it can transfer data to the rest of the system.
Other factors affecting data transfer rates include the system clock speed, the
motherboard chipset, and the RAM speed.
On-Board Level-2 (L2) Cache
The on-board (or "on-die") cache is a little bit of high-performance RAM built
directly into the processor. It enables the CPU to access repeatedly used data
directly from its own on-board memory, rather than repeatedly requesting it from
the system RAM. L2 Cache is very critical to applications such as games, video
editing, and 3-D applications such as CAD/CAM programs. It's less important for
activities such as web surfing, email, and word processing.
Most low-cost CPU's have as little as 128K of L2 cache. Higher-end CPU's have
up to 4 MB.

Heat and Heat Dissipation

When processors run too hot, they can start doing funky things like cause errors,
lock, freeze, or even burn up. Installing an inadequate cooling system can cause
your homebuilt computer project to go sour in a big (and possibly expensive) way.
So don't skimp on the cooling.
Choosing a CPU
Choosing a CPU for your homebuilt computer is probably one of the first things
you will want to do during the planning stage. When choosing a CPU for a
desktop, there are several factors to consider. The most important of these are
speed, form factor, architecture, L2 cache, and reputation. Increasingly, computer
builders are also concerned about power consumption and energy conservation.
CPU Speed
The speed of a CPU determines how many computations it can perform per
second. Obviously, a faster chip can perform more computations. If you plan to use
your computer for pretty routine, low-resource applications like surfing the web,
word processing, and checking email, you can save yourself some money by
buying a chip in the 4,000 MHz neighborhood.
Form Factor
The form factor of a CPU refers to several things, most important of which for the
do-it-yourself computer builder is what socket it fits. You must purchase a
motherboard that supports your processor's form factor.

Architecture
Architecture refers to such things as the number of cores, the bandwidth, and the
chip's internal circuitry. In general, multi-core processors outperform single-core
processors, and some CPUs have internal circuitry that makes them perform better
than other chips running at the same clock speed.
L2 Cache

The L2 (or Level 2) cache bridges the gap between the very fast CPU and the
much slower system RAM bus (and the even slower hard drive) by anticipating
and storing data right on the CPU itself. This dramatically increases performance at
a given clock speed. With L2 cache, more is always better. Look for a chip with at
least 1 MB of L2 cache per core. Although this significantly increases the cost of
the CPU, it's worth the investment.

Reputation
As with any major purchase, do your homework before buying. Check Internet
message boards to see how satisfied other users have been with the chips you are
considering, and read the reviews often posted on retailers' sites.
64-Bit CPU's
Once upon a time, this page included a discussion about 32-bit CPUs. From
feedback I've received, it seems that practically no one is interested in building 32bit machines anymore, so I've decided to discuss only 64-bit chips.
AMD 64-bit Chips
As of this revision, 64-bit processors have pretty much become the norm. Among
the most popular among do-it-yourself computer builders are AMD's Athlon
64 series.
Because all new operating system and application releases are expected to require
or be optimized for 64-bit within the next year or so, it doesn't seem to make much
sense not to choose 64-bit for your computer-building project.
Intel 64-bit Chips
AMD actually led the pack in the development of 64-bit processors, leaving Intel
in the unfamiliar position of having to play catch-up. But catch up they did, with a
dazzling selection of multi-core 64-bit chips with generous amounts of L2 cache.
These chips, of which the Core2 Quad is my personal favorite, have quickly gained
a reputation for speed, stability, and durability.

Inserting the Processor Correctly

Processor sockets are keyed to prevent improper
installation. But because they're so delicate and the
pins so fine, it's really, really easy to permanently
damage them if you're not careful.
Notice in the picture on the right that both the
processor and the socket have two corners without
pins. This is to prevent the processor from being installed the wrong way. All
processors have some system to prevent improper insertion, but they're not all the
same. Sometimes you have to look at the pins, and sometimes you have to line up
an arrow. Whatever the case, look carefully before you insert the processor to
make sure that you're inserting it correctly. If your processor came with a manual,
read it.
Modern processor sockets have a ZIF (Zero Insertion Force) design. If the
processor is aligned properly with the socket, gravity alone should cause it to drop
right into the socket. Some processors have no pins. Instead, they have little bumps
that make contact with the CPU socket. They look like pimples and dimples.
Once you are absolutely certain that the processor is seated properly, gently close
the bail to secure the processor.
Installing the CPU Cooler
today's fast processors generate a tremendous amount of heat. Without a CPU
cooler, a processor would burn out in mere seconds.
Inadequate cooling also can result in data errors, performance problems, and
reduced processor life. CPU manufacturers typically provide lists of "approved"
coolers for their chips. These coolers may or may not be any better than other
coolers, but using a non-approved cooler might void the CPU's warranty.
Parts of a CPU Cooler
Most CPU coolers are composed of three parts: A fan,
a heat sink, and a mounting device that attaches the
cooler assembly to the motherboard directly over the
processor. A fourth element of the cooling system is

something called "heat sink compound" or "thermal jelly," which is applied

between the heat sink and the die of the processor to improve heat transfer from the
processor to the heat sink.
If your heat sink doesn't have pre-applied compound,
you will need to apply a thin coating of heat sink
compound directly to the processor die. This also
applies if, for some reason, you have removed and are
replacing the heat sink.

Mounting the CPU Cooler

The CPU cooler assembly is positioned over the
processor and is usually secured to the motherboard by
metal clips that hold the heat sink down tightly against
the processor.
Notice that on bail-type sockets, both the socket and
the heat sink are offset from center a little to accommodate the bail. Make sure you
install the cooler with its offset on the same side as the offset on the socket.
Use a slotted screwdriver to gently, but firmly, hook the retaining clips under the
tabs on the processor socket. Be very careful not to let the screwdriver slip. If it
scratches the surface of the motherboard, the mobo
could be ruined.
Don't forget to plug in the fan! In most cases, it will
plug into a three-pin connector on the motherboard that
is (appropriately enough) labeled "CPU Fan" in teensyweensy letters.
Chipset Coolers
Most modern motherboards also have a chipset cooler,
at least on the Northbridge chipset. These are almost always factory-installed and
are adequate for all but the most spinning or starts making noises.

Installing the RAM (Memory) Modules

Random Access Memory
What is RAM?
Simply stated, Random Access Memory is a name
applied to microchips designed to store and address
information while a computer is actually using it.
RAM is volatile, which means that it needs a constant
current in order for it to retain information. Once the current is removed, the
information disappears. This is why you have to save a document that you're
working on before you shut off your computer. When you hit "save," the document
is transferred from the RAM (temporary storage), to permanent storage (hard drive,
floppy disk, CD-RW, etc.).
Types of RAM
RAM comes in different types and flavors to suit different needs and budgets.
There are many specialized types of RAM, but some of the more common
types are:

SRAM. Static Random Access Memory is very fast and very expensive. It is
primarily used for memory caching (such as on processor chips).
Architecturally, it has multiple transistors for each memory cell. It does not
need to be refreshed. It is rarely encountered except as a component of other
devices.
DRAM. Dynamic Random Access Memory is slower than SRAM and needs
to be refreshed many times every second. Each memory cell consists of a
capacitor and a transistor. DRAM is much less expensive than SRAM.
SDRAM. Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory is a special type
of DRAM that is synchronized to the system clock. Each chip contains
internal registers that accept requests from the CPU, thus freeing the CPU to
do other things while the data is assembled.
DDR-SDRAM. Double-Data Rate SDRAM works the same way as does
ordinary SDRAM, except it works twice as quickly by synchronizing to both
the rising and falling of the clock pulse (which makes it twice as fast as
ordinary SDRAM). DDR-SDRAM can also be installed in dual-channels if

the motherboard supports this arrangement. There is no difference in the

actual RAM modules used for dual-channel DDR, but the two sticks of
RAM in each channel must be a matched pair (same size and speed). DDR3
is the latest evolution in DDR RAM.
RDRAM. RAMBUS Dynamic Random Access Memory is a very fast type
of RAM in which the chips work in parallel to produce very fast speeds.
However, because it is proprietary and very expensive, RDRAM has been
slow in catching on.

Pictures of Selected RAM Form Factors

SIMM (Single-Inline Memory

Module).Used mainly in older
computers; now considered obsolete.
Its contacts were along only one face
of the edge, hence the word "single."

DIMM (Dual-Inline Memory

Module).The most common RAM
form factor in use today.
SDRAM and DDR-SDRAM are
examples of two types of RAM
using the DIMM form factor.

SO-DIMM (Small-Outline Dual-Inline Memory

Module).Used primarily in laptop computers and other
compact computing devices.

Choosing RAM

What type of RAM Should I Choose?

You must decide what type of RAM your homebuilt
computer will use before you buy a motherboard. This
is because most motherboards are able to use only one
type of RAM.
When using dual-channel DDR, pairs of identical
RAM modules work in tandem to greatly improve performance. Both the size and
the speed (and preferably, the manufacturer, in my experience) of each RAM
module in a dual-channel pair must be identical.
If you're building a machine around the Intel Core i7 processor, then you'll
certainly want to use DDR3 RAM, which is capable of data transfer rates twice
those of DDR2.
How Much RAM do I Need?
Windows 98/Me: 256 to 512 MB
Windows 2000/XP: 1 GB to 4 GB
Windows Vista / Windows 7 32-bit: 2GB to 4 GB
Windows Vista / Windows 7 64-bit: 6 GB to 16 GB
Ubuntu (or other Linux with X-Server) 32-bit: 1 GB to 4 GB
Ubuntu (or other Linux with X-Server) 64-bit: 4 GB to 16 GB

Finally, if you're using a 32-bit operating system, then don't bother installing any
more than 4 GB of RAM. A 32-bit system can only address about 3.5 GB, so
buying anything above that is just wasted money.
RAM Speed
The speed of RAM you will need depends mainly on the motherboard. You
generally should choose the highest speed of RAM that the motherboard supports.
Make sure that you check the motherboard documentation to find this out. Just
because a stick of RAM fits in a motherboard doesn't mean it will work.
Sometimes, inserting the wrong RAM and powering up the mobo can damage the
board, the RAM, or both.
Proper Insertion of the RAM Modules
RAM modules are keyed with little notches that fit
over corresponding tabs in the RAM slots. We've
circled them in the picture on the right (click the
picture for a close-up).
Before inserting the RAM module, make sure that the
notches and tabs are correctly lined up. If there are more notches than there are
tabs (or vice-versa), then you have the wrong RAM for your motherboard. Same
thing goes for if the notches and tabs don't match up. You have the wrong RAM,
and all the force in the world won't make it the right RAM.
Once you're sure you have the right RAM, to actually insert it, simply push it
firmly, straight down into the slot, and push the retainer clips inward. That's it.

Integrated Video
Some motherboards come with integrated (built-in) audio and/or video cards.
Depending on the quality and price range of the board, on-board video processors
can range from absolutely horrible to quite good.
For word processing and checking email (or for use on a file server), almost any
decent integrated video chip probably will do. But for most other users who are
considering a board with integrated video, it should be evaluated according to the

same factors you would use when deciding upon an add-on video card. You also
should inquire as to whether the on-board video processor has its own dedicated
RAM or shares a portion of the system RAM. (Dedicated video RAM is definitely
a plus in terms of performance and stability.)
Finally, even if the motherboard you are considering has integrated video, make
sure it also has expansion slots in case the on-board video fails, or in case you later
decide to disable the on-board video and upgrade to an aftermarket video card.
Factors Affecting Video Card Performance
To a newbie shopping for a video card, the long list of specifications and features
on the card's packaging may seem like a foreign language. But hidden somewhere
in all that geekspeak are important facts that can help you estimate how well the
card will work for you.
The most important factors affecting video card performance include:

Type of Interface

PCI-Express. The PCI-E bus is the current standard, replacing the AGP bus
as the interface of choice for high-end video cards due to its phenomenal
data speed.
AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port). AGP is a dedicated, high-bandwidth
interface that is custom-tailored to video cards. AGP speeds of up to 8X are
still available. The card's speed should match the speed of the motherboard's
AGP interface.
PCI. PCI video cards are still available, but are used mainly as replacements
or upgrades for pre-AGP motherboards.

Amount and Type of Video RAM

All video cards have at least some RAM on the card. The amount and speed of the
onboard RAM has a major effect on the card's performance.
For typing documents in Word, any old video card with any old RAM will suffice.
But for image manipulation, video editing, watching DVD movies, gaming,

watching HDTV, or running CAD/CAM applications, more and faster RAM is

needed. For these uses, you should consider an AGP or PCI-E card with at
least 512 MB of fast RAM (like DDR-SDRAM). For high-end gaming or video
editing, 1024 MB would be even better

3-D/Open GL Support
All but the very lowest-end video cards come with 3D and Open GL support. Open
GL is the industry standard for high-performance video, and is supported on
Windows, Mac, and Unix machines, as well as on many industrial and other
specialized devices.
Cooling
Most high-end and many mid-range video cards now come with their own onboard
cooling fans. This little feature can make a big difference when using the computer
for video, gaming, or other graphics-intensive applications.
Aftermarket coolers are also available quite inexpensively for many video cards
that don't come with them. (They're usually the same fans that are used as
motherboard chipset coolers.) But installation of a fan on a video card can be a
little tricky, so be careful.
Video Card Inputs and Outputs
One simple but important feature to be considered in selecting a video card is the
type of inputs and outputs it has. The types of inputs and outputs will determine
what type of monitor and other video peripherals (video cameras, editing consoles,
etc.) you can attach to your homebuilt computer.
So think ahead to what you may want to use your computer for a year or so down
the road. Maybe you'll want to make videos of your family, for example.

Outputs
In the recent past, almost all computers used standard SVGA analog monitors that
connected via a standardized connector; and in the past, all video cards had an
SVGA output.
Nowadays, the VGA-style monitor connector is slowly being replaced by the DVI
connector. In addition, an increasing number of video cards come equipped with
special connectors for specialized purposes. It's vital to choose a card that has the
correct connectors for whatever it is you want to attach it to.
For most users, all this means is that the video card has to match the monitor. But
some users will also want outputs for DV, NTSC, S-Video, RF, HDTV, or other
specialized connections.
There also are "dual-head" video cards that can feed two monitors.
Inputs
Some high-end video cards also are designed to allow input from video sources.
These cards are used for video production, editing, capture, and many other
purposes that involve transferring images from external devices onto a computer.
Some of the more popular input connectors found on video cards include:

NTSC, PAL, and SECAM. These are "old" television video standards used
in various parts of the world (the United States uses NTSC). These
connections combine the red, green, and blue video channels, sync pulses,
and so forth into a "composite" video signal. All three of these standards are
expected to fade into history as HDTV (High-Definition Television)
becomes the norm.

RGB handles the video signal as separate red, green, and blue components.
RGB is used primary for video processing equipment, television projectors,
and professional-quality video monitors and recorders.
S-Video offers higher definition than the NTSC, PAL, or SECAM
composite standards, but less definition than HDTV. Many high-end video
cards offer S-Video inputs and outputs.
YPrPb is the HDTV equivalent of an S-Video connector. It allows direct
connection of a video card to High-Definition televisions and other HDTV
devices
RF (Radio Frequency) inputs are used on cards (such as the ATI All-inWonder series) that accept input from standard broadcast or cable television
signals. These cards have built-in TV tuners that allow the computer to be
used as a television or to be connected to VCR's, certain security cameras,
and other devices that use a modulated RF output.
HDTC inputs allow High-Definition television signals to be viewed on the
computer, subject to the limitations of the monitor.

Hardware DVD Players

Many high-end video cards include hardware DVD players. Hardware DVD
players decode and process most of the DVD data on the video card itself. By
contrast, software DVD-viewing programs use the computer's resources to process
the DVD data and present it to the user as audio and video. Hardware DVD players
usually produce better playback quality while utilizing far fewer system resources.
(Of course, to play DVD's on your computer, you will also need a DVD-ROM
drive.)

Vidcap Features
Vidcap (short for "video capture") means making a still image from a video and
saving it, usually as a JPEG file. It can also refer to a card that is able to capture a
video from an external source (like a DVD player or camcorder) and save it as a
file on the computer for later viewing or editing.

Audio Capabilities
Some video cards include their own audio inputs and outputs, as well as audio
processors that allow sound signals to be decoded from (or encoded into) mixedmedia audio/video files or television signals.

Specialized Video Systems

Finally, a few video cards are specially designed to work as part of a dedicated
audio/video editing system.
These systems used to cost tens of thousands of dollars and were used solely by
professionals in the broadcasting or motion picture industries. Nowadays, however,
very sophisticated systems capable of producing broadcast-quality video are
available to amateur video enthusiasts for less than a thousand dollars (not
including the cost of the computer itself).
Integrated Audio
Many motherboards come with integrated (built-in) audio cards. Depending on the
quality and price range of the motherboard itself, on-board audio processors can
range from truly horrible to quite excellent.
If you are considering a motherboard with integrated audio, we suggest you also
make sure that it has expansion slots in case the on-board audio fails, or in case
you later decide to disable the on-board audio and upgrade to an aftermarket sound
card.
Finally, as we have stated before, bear in mind that most on-board audio cards are
designed with Windows in mind. If you plan on installing a different operating
system, make sure that the onboard sound will work with that OS before you spend
any money on the board.
Network Cards and Modems
Network Cards
A network card (also known as a Network Interface Card, NIC, Network Adapter,
or Ethernet card) is used to connect a computer to a high-speed network. If your

homebuilt computer will be on a local network (or if you ever plan to use cable,
FIOS, satellite, or DSL Internet service) then you should install a NIC if one isn't
built into the mobo.
High-quality networks cards are inexpensive enough that it really doesn't pay to
skimp. The five bucks or so that you may save by using an el-cheapo NIC isn't
worth having to drive (or ride your bike) to the computer store, buy a new one, reopen your computer case, and install new drivers when the cheap NIC fails.
Most NIC's today still use the 10/100 Mbps Fast Ethernet protocol, but the 1000
Mbps Gigabit Ethernet standard is catching on. Right now, Gigabit Ethernet cards
are still a bit more expensive (no pun intended) than 10/100 Mbps cards; but as
their prices continue to fall, Gigabit Ethernet will become the new standard. Most
new mobos have them built in.
Modems
The word "modem" is short for "modulator/demodulator." A modem converts your
computer's digital data to analog data that can be sent over a POTS (plain-old
telephone service) line, and converts incoming analog data to digital data that the
computer can work with.
Better-quality modems have built in controllers that do the work right on the card.
They produce a faster, more stable, and more reliable connection than do cheap
software modems. External modems that connect to a computer's serial or USB
port are also available.
Integrated NIC's and Modems
Many motherboards have integrated (built-in) network cards and/or modems
(although modems are becoming less common as fewer people are using dialup
Internet service). The quality of these built-in adaptors range from truly horrible to
quite good, depending on the quality and price range of the board.
If you select a motherboard with a built-in modem or NIC, make sure that there are
expansion slots available for an aftermarket card, just in case the on-board device
ever fails or doesn't work to your satisfaction. And yes, once again, remember that
on-board devices are designed with Windows in mind, and they may not work with
other operating systems.

Proper Insertion of Expansion Cards

Like RAM, expansion cards and slots are keyed. They
have little notches with corresponding tabs in the slot
that are designed to prevent you from installing the
wrong card.
So if the card doesn't seem to fit, check those notches
and tabs. Don't break out a hammer and try to pound it in. You probably are trying
to insert the wrong kind of card (or insert the card in the wrong kind of slot).
Notice in the picture on the right that the AGP video slot is set back from the rest
of the slots and is of a different size. In addition, the various ridges, tabs, and so
forth on the card and the slot are intended to help prevent incorrect insertion or
incompatible cards. You should read the documentation for your motherboard and
cards to make sure they are compatible.

The card shown in this picture is a network card that fits into the PCI slot. Notice
that it is keyed to the slot. (Also note that the card is only slanted to make it easier
for you to see the slot. Expansion cards, like RAM, are pushed straight down into
their slots, like in the next picture down.)

You may have to use some oomph here. If the card doesn't seat itself using
fingertip pressure, place your palm over the card and push down firmly and evenly
until you feel the card pop into place. But first check the slots, notches, and tabs to
make sure you're not trying to install the card in the wrong slot.

Finally, secure the card into place by screwing the card's metal bracket into the
screw hole over the expansion slot opening on the back of the case. Some cases
don't use screws, and instead have some sort of metal or plastic clip that holds the
card (or all of them, sometimes) in the motherboard. Usually this is obvious, but
check the manual that came with the case if you're confused.

Installing Auxiliary Drives in your Computer

There are several different types of auxiliary drives available for your homebuilt
computer, such as CD-RW and DVD-RW drives, ZIP drives, tape drives, and
drive-like devices such as card readers. The installation procedures for all of these
devices are quite similar.
For this demonstration, we will be installing a CD-RW drive on an EIDE interface.
Other types of interfaces also are available (SATA and SCSI). The process is
exactly the same for installing a device like a card reader, except that there may be
an additional connection to the USB header on the motherboard, or to an add-on
card.
Like any other EIDE device, the first step in installing a CD-RW drive is to decide
where it will be positioned in your particular drive configuration (that is, as a
master or a slave), and to set the jumpers accordingly.
Choosing a Hard Drive

What, Exactly, is a Hard Drive?

A hard drive is a stack of magnetic disks that spin at
very high rates of speed (7200 RPM for a modern
EIDE or SATA drive, and 10,000 RPM for a SCSI
drive) and are used to store your computer's data.
Unlike RAM, the hard drive is a semi-permanent
storage device. It is non-volatile. That means it
continues to hold data even when power to the drive is turned off (or even if the
drive were removed from the computer, for that matter). A properly functioning
hard drive will retain data until the user or a program instructs it to delete or
modify that data.
Types of Hard Drives
There are several different types of hard drives available for desktop computers,
distinguished mainly by the interface, or type of connection, between the drive and
the computer.

Very high-end computers often use SCSI (pronounced "skuzzy" and

standing for "Small Computer Simplified Interface") drives, which are
capable of higher data transfer rates. But for most home computer users,
SCSI drives are prohibitively expensive. They also require special
controllers and are a bit complicated for most beginners to configure.
Until recently, most home and small office computers used EIDE (Enhanced
Integrated Drive Electronics) drives, which were commonly known
as ATA (short for ATAPI) drives. Nowadays they're called PATA (Parallel
ATA) drives, to distinguish them from SATA (Serial ATA) drives. The
designation ATA is followed by a number (33, 66, 100, or 133) that gives
the drive's maximum data transfer rate in MB/second. ATA-33 and ATA-66
hard drives are now obsolete. ATA-100 and ATA-133 are still available, but
are rapidly being replaced by SATA drives.
Almost all new desktop and laptop computers use Serial ATA
(SATA) drives. SATA replaced the EIDE hardware interface while
maintaining the ATA command set, enabling much faster data transfer rates
than EIDE drives, but with fewer compatibility and configuration issues than
SCSI drives. SATA drives also are less expensive than SCSI drives of
comparable capacity.

Master Drives and Slave Drives

One of the more confusing aspects of EIDE hard drive configuration for those new
to computer building is the master/slave relationship. It's actually not very hard to
understand, however.
Traditionally, most motherboards had two EIDE interfaces (primary and
secondary). Each interface could support two devices, making a total of up to four
drives. Newer motherboards may have only one EIDE interface, or none at all, as
SATA has become the new drive standard. If you plan to use EIDE (PATA) drives,
make sure you buy a motherboard that supports PATA. (You also can buy an addin PATA controller.)
The primary EIDE connection will be labeled on the
motherboard as either IDE-0 or IDE-1, depending on
the mood of the person who made up the stencil. If
they chose to use IDE-0 and IDE-1 for the two
channels, then the primary is IDE-0. But if they are
labeled IDE-1 and IDE-2, then IDE-1 is the primary.
(They may also be labeled as EIDE or ATAPI, rather
than IDE, on some boards. It all means the same
thing.)
Because modern IDE controllers are integrated into the drives, not mounted on the
motherboard, the drives have to decide for themselves how to share the same IDE
interface.
To accomplish this, one drive on each interface is assigned as the "master," and the
other drive (if present) is assigned as the "slave." The controller on the master
drive also controls data transfer in and out of the slave drive. When the master
drive is idle, the slave drive may transfer data. But if the master drive is
communicating with the computer, then it instructs the slave drive to wait.
By convention, the master drive is attached to the connector
on the IDE cable that is farthest from the motherboard (that
is, the one at the very end of the cable) and closest to the offcenter middle connector. On an 80-conductor cable, the
connectors are also color-coded: The master gets connected
to the black connector, the slave to the gray, and the blue to the motherboard.

Using Cable Select

Many drives also offer a "cable select" (CS) option. When using cable select, each
drive is jumpered to the "CS" setting. A special signal is sent to pin 28 of the drive
attached to the master drive connector, which instructs that drive to become the
master drive and to assume the duties of controlling data transfer on that EIDE
channel. Conversely, because this signal is absent on the drive connected to the
slave connector, that drive assumes the slave mode. Pretty smart, huh?
We suggest you use the CS setting on all PATA drives. Why? Because it saves you
the aggravation of having to remove existing drives to look at the little label and
see how to reset the jumpers if you change the drive assignment or add a drive later
on.
IDE and Floppy Drive Cables

IDE Ribbon Cables

IDE/EIDE cables are used to connect older-style PATA hard
drives and other PATA devices to the computer's
motherboard.
Traditionally, IDE cables were flat, gray, ribbon-type connectors. Older (ATA-33)
IDE cables had 40 conductors and forty pins. Newer ATA-133 EIDE cables have
80 conductors, but still have forty pins. The colored stripe along one edge of the
cable aligns with pin number one on the device and motherboard connectors.
80-conductor EIDE cables have color-coded connectors:

The blue connector gets attached to the motherboard.

The black connector attaches to the master drive or device.
The gray connector attaches to the slave drive or device.

The drive positions on older, 40-conductor IDE cables can be determined by their
relative positions along the cable:

The off-center middle connector gets attached to the slave device.

The connector closest to the middle connector gets attached to the master
device.
The connector farthest from the middle connector gets attached to the
motherboard.

Floppy Cables
Floppy drive cables look a lot like IDE cables except that
they are a little narrower, have only 34 conductors, and have
a twist at the end of the cable that attaches to the drives. They
may have from two to five connectors: one to attach to the motherboard, and as
many as four drive connectors.
Why as many as four? Well, prior to the advent of hard drives, most PC's had two
floppy drives (A: and B:), both of which were connected to a single controller by
the same cable. When the ancient 5.25-inch floppy drives were replaced by 3.5inch drives (which have different connectors), cable manufacturers began
including both types of connectors on floppy drive cables. So the same cable could
have one connector for the motherboard, two connectors for 5.25-inch drives, and
two connectors for 3.5-inch drives. But the total number of floppy drives is still
limited to two; the "wrong" connectors simply go unused.
Since few computers today have two floppy drives (most don't even
have one anymore), and most of us haven't seen a 5.25-inch drive in years, most
floppy cables manufactured in this century have only two connectors: one end gets
attached to a 3.5-inch floppy drive, and the other end gets attached to the
motherboard.

Round EIDE and Floppy Cables

Nowadays, ribbon cables are being replaced by newer, round
cables. They are available in all sorts of colors to suit any
taste or decor. But the real advantage to round cables is that
they don't block airflow inside the case as much as flat cables
do.

As computers become more and more powerful, they generate more and more heat;
and the added airflow that round cables allow can make a big difference in a
computer's stability and performance.
SATA and SCSI Cables

SATA Cables
SATA (Serial ATA) cables are used to connect highspeed SATA hard drives and optical drivesto the
motherboard. SATA cables have only seven conductors and
are therefore much thinner than ribbon-type IDE cables,
which improves airflow and makes them easier to route
inside the case. There are also eSATA cables that can be used to connect external
SATA drives to a computer.
SATA cables can be as long as one meter in length and are more rugged than IDE
cables, which provides for more flexibility in choosing where to mount hard
drives. They're also capable of very high data transfer rates -- as high as 300
MB/sec.

PATA Drive Jumper Settings

Note: Much of the information provided on this page is obsolete as SATA has
replaced PATA as the standard drive on new computers. SATA drives have no
master / slave relationship, and therefore don't need to be jumpered.
So if you are building an all-SATA system, then none of the information on this
page applies to you, and you can skip this page if you like. If you're building a

system that uses SATA hard drives and PATA auxiliary drives, then the information
on this page applies only to the PATA auxiliary drives, not to the SATA hard
drives.

Setting the Drive Jumpers

Once you decide on the drive positions and assignments in your new computer, the
jumpers must be set accordingly.
At this point, let's mention again that all devices attached to the IDE channels -hard drives, optical drives, tape drives, ZIP drives, and whatever other IDE/ATA
devices may someday exist -- must be configured either as masters, slaves, or
cable-select devices. If there is only one device on the channel, then it is the
master. (Note: Some drives have a separate jumper setting for "single" drive.)
You can't have two masters or two slaves on the same IDE channel. This is one of
the most common mistakes made by new home computer builders, so double check
your assignments and jumpers before firing the machine up for the first time.
The diagram below shows the jumper assignments for one popular line of EIDE
hard drives. Your drive's jumper settings may be different and can be found in
the drive's documentation and/or on a label attached to the drive. (Diagram
courtesy of Maxtor Corporation.)

The blue boxes represent the little jumpers that came

in that little plastic bag that came with the drive. The
jumpers usually are white, black, or blue in color. The
pin settings are printed on the drive's label, on its logic
board (as in the picture on the right), or both.
To bridge a connection, you slide a jumper over the
corresponding pins as in the picture on the right.
Plastic tweezers come in handy for this. If you use metal tweezers, be careful not to
touch the metal pins. (Or better yet, just use your fingernails.)
If you dropped the jumpers in the carpet, good luck finding them!

The Cylinder Limitation Jumper

Some hard drives include a cylinder limitation jumper (CLJ) to work around the
limitations of older BIOS's that are not able to support larger drives. Unless you are
using a motherboard that was built the year of the flood, this is not likely to be an
issue for you; so most likely you will leave the CLJ off.
(Once again, if you are using all SATA drives, then none of this stuff applies to
you.)
Auxiliary Storage Devices

In addition to your hard drive(s), you will undoubtedly want to install other drives
on your homebuilt computer. We're calling these "auxiliary drives" to distinguish
them from the hard drive. Auxiliary drives include:

Optical Drives
Optical drives include CD-ROM drives, CD-RW drives
("burners"), DVD-ROM drives, and DVD+/-RW drives.
They use lasers to read and/or write data. Some optical

drives combine various features; for example, there are drives that will read DVD's
as well as write CD-R's or CD-RW's.
Unless you are planning on doing a network install, you will need at least one
optical drive to install the operating system and other software on your new
computer. Most optical drives available nowadays have aSATA interface. If you
need an EIDE (PATA) drive, you may have a hard time finding one.

Floppy Drives
The venerable floppy drive has seen better days. Most new
computers don't even come with floppy drives any more. But I
still like installing them because they are useful for running bootable diagnostic
programs. They're also important in dual boot Windows / Linux machines because
sometimes a Windows upgrade will wipe out the Linux boot loader, which can be
backed up in advance to a floppy in case that happens.
Finally, I like floppy drives because, like the unappreciated floppy drive, I am
getting old...

Installing Auxiliary Drives in your Computer

There are several different types of auxiliary drives available for your homebuilt
computer, such as CD-RW and DVD-RW drives, ZIP drives, tape drives, and
drive-like devices such as card readers. The installation procedures for all of these
devices are quite similar.
Like any other EIDE device, the first step in installing a CD-RW drive is to decide
where it will be positioned in your particular drive configuration (that is, as a
master or a slave), and to set the jumpers accordingly.

Once you have decided on the drive configuration and have put the jumpers where
they belong, you can begin to physically install the drives. When deciding where to
place the drives, keep both convenience of use and cable routing in mind.
In most cases, You'll have to remove both a plastic cover and a metal plate from
the drive bay where you will be installing the drive. Most often, you do this by
removing the plastic cover, and then prying the metal plate from the rest of the
case using a screwdriver.
Also be careful that the drive, once inserted, doesn't come too close to fans or push
up against motherboard components. Some drives are slightly longer than average,
and if you push them in fully without looking first, you may damage something on
the motherboard.

Finally, secure the drive into place with the mounting screws, and connect the data
and power cables.

Some optical drives also have a legacy audio connector that connects to the sound
card. It's obsolete technology and chances are that you don't need it. But it does no
harm to connect it if your sound card or motherboard has a connector for it.

Installing the Cabinet Fan

While we're at it, let's also install the cabinet fan. On our case, the
cabinet fan is mounted in a fan shroud, which is in turn snapped
into the computer case. Other cases simply have holes for the fan
to be directly mounted to the case using special screws that come
with the fan.
Some people always mount the cabinet fans to blow the air outward, to avoid
sucking dust into the computer. Others say you should install the front panel fan to
draw the air inward, and the rear panel fan to blow the air outward. We say it
depends. If the computer is going to be used in a dusty place, point the fan to blow
the air out to avoid dust. If not, then point it in to increase airflow.
Either way, a cabinet fan or two will go a long way towards keeping your
computer cool and comfy.
Installing the Front Panel Connectors
We're almost finished!
One somewhat tedious but vital step in assembling your
homebuilt computer is to connect all those little wires for the

front-panel switches and LED's from the case to the motherboard.

If you purchased a "barebones" computer with the motherboard already mounted,
then this was probably done for you already. Otherwise, you'll have to do it
yourself. Hopefully, you have good eyes and can read the tiny lettering on both the
connectors and the motherboard. Otherwise, break out the bifocals!

Each switch and LED on the front panel has a

connector attached to it that must be connected to the
appropriate pins on the motherboard.
Some of the connectors (especially the LED's) are
polarized, meaning that they have to be connected in
the correct polarity. Polarized connectors have a little
arrow or a plus sign by the positive wire, but no
keyway to prevent you from attaching them backwards.

The basic front panel headers found on most motherboards are those for the PC
speaker (the one built into most cases that beeps when the computer passes POST),
the power switch, the reset switch, the hard drive activity LED, the power LED,
and sometimes a few others. Of these, the leads for the LEDs must be connected in
the proper polarity in order to work properly. The rest should be connected in the
proper polarity just for the sake of doing things professionally, but they will work
even if they're attached backwards.

Time to Double-Check
Before firing up your new computer, take a few moments to double check the
following items:

Check all the fans to make sure they are

properly connected. Starting up your computer
with the CPU fan disconnected will likely kill
your processor!

Make sure that all wires and cables are safely tied away from the fans.
Neatness counts. Use plastic cable ties, not metal twist-ties. If you can't get
plastic cable ties, then use electrical tape.
Check that all of the power and data cables are securely connected and are
attached in the correct polarity.
Make sure that there are no tools, screws, or jumpers floating around in the
case.
Check that all expansion cards and RAM modules are securely seated.

Power and Panel Cables and Connectors

The AC Power Cord

The cord that connects your computer to the AC power
source has the distinction of being just about the only
thing on your computer that has remained relatively
unchanged since the early days of the PC.
It actually has a name, by the way: It's officially called a NEMA 5-15P to IEC320-C13 cable. So have some fun. Go to a computer shop and tell them you want
to order a NEMA 5-15P to IEC-320-C13 cable. Just don't blame me if they slap
you.

Internal Power Connectors

Molex Connectors
PATA hard drives and most other IDE devices use a
standardized, 4-conductor power connector like the one
shown at the right, which is called a Molex or P5 connector.
This connector is becoming a lot less common as SATA
displaces PATA as the drive interface standard for desktop
computers.
The connector is shaped in such a way as to prevent accidentally attaching it
backwards, so don't force it. If you apply voltage with reverse polarity to an IDE
drive for so much as a moment, you will permanently destroy the drive.

Floppy Drive Power Connectors

Floppy drives and some older CD-ROM drives and other IDE
devices connect using an even smaller power connector called
a P7, which is shown on the right. Although the connector is
keyed, it's very easy to force it on the wrong way. Even a
skinny-armed geek can do it. So if it doesn't slip on easily, you probably have it on
backwards. Don't force it! Think brains, not brawn.
As with hard drives, if you connect a floppy drive's power cable backwards for so
much as a moment, you will destroy the drive. So be sure that you don't have the
power connector reversed.

ATA Power Connectors

And as if the existing assortment of power connectors weren't enough,
SATA drives use yet another type of power connector that's specially
designed to enable "hot-swapping" the drives.
If your power supply doesn't have SATA connectors (pretty much all new ones
will), you can purchase inexpensive adapters that will convert a Molex connector
to a SATA connector (or voce-versa, depending on which kind of power connector
you're short of).

P1 Connector
The main power to the motherboard is provided by something
called the P1 connector, appropriately enough. The P1
connector is keyed to help prevent incorrect insertion and is
held tight on the motherboard by a little plastic clip. If it
doesn't fit, don't force it. You're probably trying to attach it backwards.

Never plug an ATX power supply into AC power unless the P1 connector is
connected either to a motherboard or to a test load. Plugging an ATX power supply
into AC power while the P1 connector is not connected to a load will destroy the
power supply.

P4 Connector
Intel Pentium 4 and some AMD Athlon computers also
require a special connector known, appropriately enough, as
the P4 connector. This is located on the motherboard, usually
(but always) somewhere near the CPU. On computers that don't need the P4
connector, it is unused. Just tie it off out of the way of fans, other components, and
metal parts.
Some other components, such as certain high-end video cards, also have a P4
connection.

Fan Power Leads

Most motherboards have a connector for the leads for the CPU
fan and at least one case fan. These provide both power and, in most cases, RPM
monitoring and thermal control. If your motherboard has a header labeled CPU
FAN, that's what it's for. Some motherboards also have headers for the chassis fan
and/or the chipset cooler, as well.

Front Panel Leads

Every computer case comes with a set of wires that connects
the motherboard to the LED's and switches on the front panel.
These connectors include those for the power and reset
switches, the power LED and hard drive activity LED, and the

system speaker. They connect to a bus block on the motherboard.

Unfortunately, there's no standardization regarding the exact location of the panel
headers. You'll just have to read the mobo manual to find the correct positions.

Firing Up Your Homebuilt Computer

Before starting your computer for the first time, take a moment to check
the computer parts yet again, making sure everything is properly connected and
seated inside the box. Make sure the wires aren't blocking the fans. Makes sure
there are no screws rattling around, and that you didn't leave any tools inside the
machine.
Otherwise, take a look on the back of the computer at
the power supply. Chances are that you will see a little
slider switch. Make sure that this switch is set to the
correct voltage for your part of the world.
In the United States, the correct power setting will be
110 - 120 volts. In your part of the world, well, I have
no idea. Ask someone local if you are unsure.
Plug the power cord into the power supply, and the other end into a surge-protected
AC power source or a battery backup. Hook up the keyboard, monitor, and mouse
to their appropriate connectors, and press the power button.
And pray.
The CMOS Setup Screen
If you have done everything correctly, after a few
seconds you will hear a delightful beep as the
computer passes its very first POST (Power-On-SelfTest), and you may be greeted by a screen that looks
something like the one on the right. (You may have to
press DELETE, F2, or some other key to get to this
screen, depending on your motherboard. Read the manual.)

What you are seeing is something called the CMOS setup screen (or the BIOS
setup screen). This is all your computer is capable of doing until you install an
operating system on it, and the settings you select will affect the way your OS
performs. Most computers come with CMOS settings designed for Windows, so
you may not need to do anything at all.
But here are a few basic suggestions:
1. Start with the default settings. You can tweak them later if you like. Just
check to make sure that the time and date are correct. You can use local time
or Coordinated Universal Time (Greenwich time). Most Windows machines
use local time, and most Unix and Linux machines use Greenwich time; but
either will work either way.
2. If you don't know what something means, leave it alone. Use the default
settings unless you know what you are doing.
3. Make sure that all of your drives are showing up. If not, then shut down the
machine, unplug it, and check all your drive connections and jumper settings
again.
4. Before installing your operating system, make sure that the CD-ROM drive
is set as a bootable device (unless you will be booting from a floppy for the
installation, in which case make sure the floppy drive is set as a bootable
device). You can usually find the settings for the boot sequence in a section
of the CMOS screen called, appropriately enough, Boot Sequence.
5. Make sure the date and time are correct before installing the OS. Incorrect
dates and times can cause all sorts of problems.
Once you've finished CMOS setup, saved the settings, and rebooted, you're ready
to install the operating system.