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Spatial Distribution, Source Apportionment and Ecological Risk Assessment of Residual Organochlorine Pesticides (Ocps) in The Himalayas
Spatial Distribution, Source Apportionment and Ecological Risk Assessment of Residual Organochlorine Pesticides (Ocps) in The Himalayas
DOI 10.1007/s11356-015-5237-5
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Received: 19 May 2015 / Accepted: 11 August 2015 / Published online: 25 August 2015
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Introduction
productions and consumptions of DDTs and HCHs for domestic and agricultural purposes (Yadav et al. 2015)
Soil media act as reservoir of OCPs because of their long
time retention capabilities (Wang et al. 2012; Miglioranza
et al. 2003). Over the span of time, they can gradually be
changed from a major sink to an important emission source
of OCPs to food and drinking water. Substantial amounts (between 20 and 70 %) of OCPs and their degradation products
can remain in soil after their application. Today, majority of
pesticides used in agricultural fields are synthetic organic
compounds which may pass into the soil by missing their
intended target, released during spraying in plants or through
surface and subsurface runoff from agricultural field (Yadav
et al. 2015). The movement and accumulation of OCP in the
soil are governed by soil properties, chemistry of the OCP
compound, cropping system, irrigation pattern and climatic
conditions (Agnihotri et al. 1994). The physicochemical properties of the soil such as organic carbon, porosity, texture,
structure and moisture contain appear to control the fate and
persistence of the organochlorine compounds in soil (Backe
et al. 2004; Hippelein and Mclachlan 2000). Globally, organic
carbon present in soil plays a major role in the distribution and
persistence of OCPs in surface soil (Yang et al. 2012; Jiang
et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2013).
Himalayas is the highest mountain range in the world and
has 9 out of 10 of the worlds highest peaks including Mount
Everest. The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is one of the
important mountain ecosystems among the global mountain
system (Singh 2006). Geologically, these are young mountains and are significant from the perspective of climate and
as a life support, providing water to a large part of the Indian
subcontinent (Bahadur 2004). Physiographically, it starts from
foothill of south mountain range to Tibetan plateau in north,
since IHR is very high altitude and is strongly influenced by
seasonal fluctuation (Wang et al. 2007, 2010; Chen et al.
2008; Chatterjee et al. 2010; Liu et al. 2010; Gong et al.
2014; Liu et al. 2014). Hence, there is much possibility that
the organic pollutants may get transported and accumulated in
IHR during monsoon especially Indian monsoon through
LRAT mechanism (Wania and Westgate 2008; Qiu 2013;
Gong et al 2014; Liu et al. 2014). Summer Indian monsoon
starts from July through September and enter India from
south-west part (Krishnamurthy and Kinter 2002). Hence,
the air mass filled with great amount of moisture brought by
both monsoon as well as indigenous moisture cause snow fall.
After September, as the sun start receding to south, the north
land mass in Indian subcontinent gets cool fast. This brings
cold wind from north part (Himalayas and Indo-Gangetic
Plain) to the greater part of South Deccan peninsula including
Indian Ocean (Nagarajan 2010). Long range transport and
atmospheric deposition of OCPs get seriously affected by
such Indian monsoon changes (Wania and Westgate 2008;
Chatterjee et al. 2010; Qiu 2013). Hence, understanding the
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Table 1
Compounds
Minimum
-HCH
Maximum
Mean
Std. Dev.
ND
0.33
0.21
0.09
-HCH
ND
0.29
0.06
0.08
-HCH
-HCH
ND
ND
1.28
0.89
0.73
0.13
0.33
0.20
HCH
o,p-DDE
ND
ND
2.79
1.97
1.12
0.56
0.71
0.64
p,p-DDE
ND
78.8
15.9
28.4
o,p-DDD
o,p-DDT
ND
ND
10.5
484
1.60
36.9
2.61
115
p,p-DDD
p,p-DDT
ND
0.28
103
1448
13.6
148
30.4
355
DDT
0.28
2127
217
532
-Endo
-Endo
ND
ND
0.54
1.26
0.22
0.20
0.16
0.29
Endosulfansulfate
Endos
ND
ND
1.03
2.83
0.19
0.62
0.28
0.73
Heptachlor
ND
1.46
0.75
0.45
Aldrin
Heptachlor-epoxide
trans-Chlordane
cis-Chlordane
ND
ND
ND
ND
2.12
0.27
2.79
0.50
0.60
0.08
1.02
0.14
0.59
0.08
0.72
0.13
trans-Nonachlor
Dieldrin
Endrin
HCB
OCP
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.28
0.97
1.81
1.21
0.27
2144
0.10
0.11
0.31
0.03
221
0.23
0.40
0.30
0.06
537
ND not detected
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Country
DDT
HCH
Reference
Ruoergai highland
China
0.315.72
0.4310.6
Gai et al 2014
India
0.495.68
0.012.85
Location
High mountain area
China
0.156.69
0.394.56
Xing et al 2010
CzechRepublic
8.801908
0.261.66
Holoubek et al 2009
Mount Legnone
Italy
0.1811.0
0.011.88
Tremolada et al 2008
Mt. Qomolangma
China
0.396.06
ND
Wang et al 2007
Wolong
China
1.238.81
ND3.20
Zhang 2006
Pyrenees
Europe
1.703.40
0.080.19
Grimalt et al 2004
Pico de Teide
Spain
0.0140.0
ND1.00
Ribes et al 2002
IHR
India
0.282127
ND2.70
Present study
Hanoi
Vietnam
ND171
ND20.5
Hissar
India
0.0066.0
0.0051.0
Guangzhou
China
7.60663
0.20104
KS Kaku
Chihuahua
Pakistan
Mexico
ND1538
1.00788
ND119
Kurushetra
India
0.5037.0
0.608.50
Korba
India
2.10315
0.9016.0
Other location
ND not detected
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from Guwahati. This is because of famous tea crops and vegetables production in this region which relatively uses high
OCPs (Muraleedharan 2006; Gurusubramanian et al. 2008).
State of Assam including Guwahati is the worlds largest tea
growing region, producing more than 400 million
kilogrammes of tea annually (Asopa 2011). Highest concentration of HCHs (2.12 ng/g) was detected at GS4 site also in
Guwahati and lowest (0.08 ng/g) at DS5 site in Dibrugarh.
The concentration of HCH ranged from 0.52 to 2.12 ng/g
(mean 0.93 ng/g), 0.51 to 1.67 ng/g (mean1 17 ng/g), 0.08
1.44 ng/g (mean 0.91 ng/g) and 0.30 to 2.02 ng/g (mean
1.31 ng/g) in Guwahati, Tezpur, Dibrugarh and Itangar,
respectively.
Endosulfan is an organochlorine insecticide that was extensively used around the world to protect vegetables and fruits,
cotton and ornamental plants. It is banned in India because of
its high toxicities. The total concentration of endosulfan in the
soil samples ranged between 0.37 and 2.81 ng/g (mean
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Fig. 5 Loading plot of first three major components (PC1, PC2 and PC3)
of PCA showing distribution of individuals OCPs
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Conclusions
In the present study, high concentration of OCPs compounds
was detected in the soil samples. The concentration of OCPs
ranged from 0.28 to 2143.9 ng/g, which was higher than the
OCP residues reported in plain region of India; hence, indicating accumulation of OCPs in IHR. The concentration of DDTs
(mean 216.6 ng/g) was mostly dominated among all OCPs.
Elevated concentration of DDTs in IHR suggested the current
use of DDT because of an exemption allowed for DDT use in
public health. Spatial distributions of OCPs suggested the
prevalence of DDTs at Guwahati (mean 2502.2 ng/g), while
Itanagar detected maximum concentration of HCHs. TOC
content in soil samples was strongly and positively correlated
with -HCH (r=0.765) and -HCH (r=0.612) indicating the
role of organic carbon in accumulation of OCP in soil. Diagnostic ratio of DDT metabolite suggests the source of DDT
contamination in IHR due to recent use of technical DDT and
dicofol. The PCA analysis confirms the HCH pollution in the
IHR due to mixture of technical HCH and lindane. The ecological risk of the OCPs in soil samples was assessed based on
soil quality guidelines recommended by Chinese government,
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Canada government and NOAA. Based on NOAA and Canada government guidelines, the residual OCPs (DDT and
HCHs) in IHR may be classified as slightly contaminated
making them somewhat suitable for agricultural production.
However, the DDTs residue level in soil of Guwahati
exceeded the Chinese governments soil quality guideline indicating the severe contamination of soil.
Acknowledgement NLD is thankful to University Grant Commission
(UGC), New Delhi for financial assistance in the form of Dr. D.S. Kothari
Postdoctoral Fellowship.
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