Nelsons Pillar

For the similarly named monument in London, see stonework elsewhere, and its memory is preserved in nuNelsons Column.
merous works of Irish literature.
Nelsons Pillar (also known as the Nelson Pillar or simply The Pillar) was a large granite column capped by 1
a statue of Horatio Nelson, in the centre of O'Connell
Street (until 1924 Sackville Street) in Dublin, Ireland. 1.1
Completed in 1809 when Ireland was part of the United
Kingdom, it survived until March 1966, when it was
severely damaged by explosives planted by Irish republicans. Its remnants were later destroyed by the Irish Army.

Background
Sackville Street and Blakeney

The decision to build the monument was taken by Dublin

Corporation in the euphoria following Nelsons victory at
the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. The original design by
William Wilkins was greatly modied by Francis Johnston, on grounds of cost. The statue was sculpted by
Thomas Kirk. From its opening on 29 October 1809
the Pillar was a popular tourist attraction, but provoked
aesthetic and political controversy from the outset . A
prominent city centre monument honouring an Englishman rankled as nationalist sentiment grew, and throughout the 19th century there were calls for it to be removed,
or replaced with a memorial to an Irish hero.
Parts of central Dublin were destroyed during the 1916
Easter Rising, but the Pillar remained unscathed. It remained in the city as Ireland became an independent Free
State in 1922, and a republic in 1949.. The chief legal
barrier to its removal was the trust created at the Pillars
inception, the terms of which gave the trustees a duty in
perpetuity to preserve the monument. Successive Irish
governments failed to deliver legislation overriding the
trust. Although inuential literary gures such as James
Joyce, W.B. Yeats and Oliver St John Gogarty defended
the Pillar on historical and cultural grounds, pressure for
its removal intensied in the years preceding the 50th anniversary of the Rising, and its sudden demise was, on
the whole, well received by the public. Although it was
widely believed that the action was the work of the IRA,
the police were unable to identify any of those responsible.

William Blakeney, whose Sackville Street statue preceded Nelsons

The redevelopment of Dublin north of the River Liey

began in the early 18th century, largely through the enterprise of the property speculator Luke Gardiner.[1] His
best-known work was the transformation in the 1740s of
a narrow lane called Drogheda Street, which he demolished and turned into a broad thoroughfare lined with
large and imposing town houses. He renamed it Sackville
Street, in honour of Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset,
who served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland from 1731 to
1737 and from 1751 to 1755.[2] After Gardiners death
in 1755 Dublins growth continued, with many ne public buildings and grand squares, the citys status magnied by the presence of the Parliament of Ireland for
six months of the year.[3] The Acts of Union of 1800,
which united Ireland and Great Britain under a single
Westminster polity, ended the Irish parliament and pre-

After years of debate and numerous proposals, the site

was nally occupied in 2003 by the Spire of Dublin, a
slim needle-like structure rising almost three times the
height of the Pillar. In 2010 a former republican activist gave a radio interview in which he admitted planting the explosives in 1966, but after questioning him the
police decided not to take action. Relics of the Pillar
are found in Dublin museums and appear as decorative

2 INCEPTION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

saged a period of decline for the city.[4] The historian

Tristram Hunt writes: "[T]he capitals dynamism vanished, absenteeism returned and the big houses lost their
patrons.[4]
The rst monument in Sackville Street was built in 1759
in the location where the Nelson Pillar would eventually stand. The subject was William Blakeney, 1st Baron
Blakeney, a Limerick-born army ocer whose career extended over more than 60 years and ended with his surrender to the French after the Siege of Minorca in 1756.[5]
A brass statue sculpted by John van Nost the younger was
unveiled on St Patricks Day, 17 March 1759.[6][n 1] Donal
Fallon, in his history of the Pillar, states that almost from
its inception the Blakeney statue was a target for vandalism. Its fate is uncertain; Fallon records that it might have
been melted down for cannon,[7] but it had certainly been
removed by 1805.[8]

1.2

Trafalgar

Nelsons death aboard HMS Victory, 21 October 1805

On 21 October 1805, a Royal Naval eet commanded

by Vice Admiral Lord Nelson defeated the combined
eets of the French and Spanish navies in the Battle of
Trafalgar. At the height of the battle Nelson was mortally
wounded on board his agship, HMS Victory; by the time
he died later that day, victory was assured.[9]
Nelson had been hailed in Dublin seven years earlier, after the Battle of the Nile, as defender of the Harp and
Crown, the respective symbols of Ireland and Britain.[10]
When news of Trafalgar reached the city on 8 November, there were similar scenes of patriotic celebration,
together with a desire that the fallen hero should be
commemorated.[11] The mercantile classes had particular reason to be grateful for a victory that restored the
freedom of the high seas and removed the threat of a
French invasion.[12] Many of the citys population had relatives who had fought in the battle: up to one-third of
the sailors in Nelsons eet were from Ireland, including
around 400 from Dublin itself. In his short account of
the Pillar, Dennis Kennedy considers that Nelson would
have been regarded in the city as a hero, not just among

the Protestant Ascendancy but by many Catholics among

the rising middle and professional classes.[13]
The rst step towards a permanent memorial to Nelson
was taken on 18 November 1805 by the city aldermen,
who after sending a message of congratulation to King
George III, agreed that the erection of a statue would
form a suitable tribute to Nelsons memory.[14][15] On 28
November, after a public meeting had supported this sentiment, a Nelson committee was established, chaired by
the Lord Mayor. It contained four of the citys Westminster MPs, alongside other city notables including Arthur
Guinness, the son of the brewery founder.[16] The committees initial tasks were to decide precisely what form
the monument should take and where it should be put.
They had also to raise the funds to pay for it.[17]

2 Inception, design and construction

At its rst meeting the Nelson committee established a
public subscription, and early in 1806 invited artists and
architects to submit design proposals for a monument.[18]
No specications were provided, but the contemporary European vogue in commemorative architecture was
for the classical form, typied by Trajans Column in
Rome.[17] Monumental columns, or pillars of victory,
were uncommon in Ireland at the time; the Cumberland
Column in Birr, County Oaly, erected in 1747, was a
rare exception.[19] From the entries submitted, the Nelson committees choice was that of a young English architect, William Wilkins, then in the early stages of a
distinguished career.[n 2] Wilkinss proposals envisaged a
tall Doric column on a plinth, surmounted by a sculpted
Roman galley.[21]
The choice of the Sackville Street site was not unanimous. The Wide Streets Commissioners were worried
about trac congestion, and argued for a riverside location visible from the sea.[12] Another suggestion was
for a seaside position, perhaps Howth Head at the entrance to Dublin Bay. The recent presence of the Blakeney statue in Sackville Street, and a desire to arrest the
streets decline in the post-parliamentary years, were factors that may have inuenced the nal selection of that
site which, Kennedy says, was the preferred choice of the
Lord Lieutenant.[22]
BY THE BLESSING OF ALMIGHTY GOD, To
Commemorate the Transcendent Heroic Achievements of the Right Honourable HORATIO LORD
VISCOUNT NELSON, Duke of Bronti in Sicily,
Vice-Admiral of the White Squadron of His
Majestys Fleet, Who fell gloriously in the Battle o
CAPE TRAFALGAR, on the 21st Day of October 1805; when he obtained for his Country a VICTORY over the COMBINED FLEET OF FRANCE

AND SPAIN, unparalleled in Naval History. This

rst STONE of a Triumphal PILLAR was laid by
HIS GRACE CHARLES DUKE OF RICHMOND
and LENNOX, Lord Lieutenant General and General Governor of Ireland, on the 15th Day of February in the year of our Lord, 1808. and in the
48th Year of our most GRACIOUS SOVEREIGN
GEORGE THE THIRD, in the presence of the
Committee appointed by the Subscribers for erecting this monument.

Wording of memorial plaque laid with the foundation

stone, 15 February 1808 [23]
By mid-1807, fundraising was proving dicult; sums
raised at that point were well short of the likely cost of
erecting Wilkinss column. The committee informed the
architect with regret that means were not placed in their
hands to enable them to gratify him, as well as themselves, by executing his design precisely as he had given
it.[24] They employed Francis Johnston, architect to the
City Board of Works, to make cost-cutting adjustments
to Wilkinss scheme.[25][n 3] Johnston simplied the design, substituting a large functional block or pedestal for
Wilkinss delicate plinth, and replacing the proposed galley with a statue of Nelson.[24] Thomas Kirk, a sculptor
from Cork, was commissioned to provide the statue, to
be fashioned from Portland stone.[27][28]

view of the city, the country and the ne bay.[34][n 8]

3 History 18091966
3.1 18091916
The Pillar quickly became a popular tourist attraction;
Kennedy writes that for the next 157 years its ascent
was a must on every visitors list.[38] Yet from the beginning there were criticisms, on both political and aesthetic grounds. The September 1809 issue of the Irish
Monthly Magazine, edited by the revolution-minded Walter Watty Cox,[39] reported that our independence has
been wrested from us, not by the arms of France but by
the gold of England. The statue of Nelson records the
glory of a mistress and the transformation of our senate
into a discount oce.[12] In an early (1818) history of the
city of Dublin, the writers express awe at the scale of the
monument, but are critical of several of its features: its
proportions are described as ponderous, the pedestal as
unsightly and the column itself as clumsy.[33] However, the Hibernian Magazine thought the statue was a
good likeness of its subject, and that the Pillars position
in the centre of the wide street gave the eye a focal point
in what was otherwise wastes of pavements.[40]

By December 1807 the fund stood at 3,827, far

short of the estimated 6,500 required to nance the
project.[23][n 4] Nevertheless, by the beginning of 1808 the
committee felt condent enough to begin the work, and
organised the laying of the foundation stone. This ceremony took place on 15 February 1808the day following
the anniversary of Nelsons victory at the Battle of Cape
St Vincent in 1797[30] amid much pomp, in the presence of the new Lord Lieutenant, the Duke of Richmond,
along with various civic dignitaries and city notables.[31]
A memorial plaque eulogising Nelsons Trafalgar victory
was attached to the stone. The committee continued
to raise money as construction proceeded;[30] when the Lower Sackville Street and the Pillar depicted by William Henry
project was complete in the autumn of 1809, costs to- Bartlett in the early 1840s, around the time of Thackerays visit
talled 6,856, but contributions had reached 7,138, proBy 1830, rising nationalist sentiment in Ireland made it
viding the committee with a surplus of 282.[32]
When nished, the monument complete with its statue likely that the Pillar was the Ascendancys last hurrah
it probably could not have been
rose to a height of 134 feet (40.8 m).[n 5] The four sides Kennedy observes that
[41]
Nevertheless, the monument ofbuilt
at
any
later
date.
of the pedestal were engraved with the names and dates
ten
attracted
favourable
comment
from visitors; in 1842
[32][n 6]
A spiral stairway of
of Nelsons greatest victories.
William
Makepeace
Thackeray
noted Nelson
the
writer
168 steps ascended the hollow interior of the column, to a
upon
a
stone-pillar
in
the
middle
of
the
exceedingly
[35]
viewing platform immediately beneath the statue. Acbroad
and
handsome
Sackville
Street:
The
Post Oce
cording to the committees published report, 22,090 cuis
on
his
right
hand
(only
it
is
cut
o);
and
on
his
left, 'Gre3
bic feet (626 m ) of black limestone and 7,310 cubic feet
[42]
A
few
years
later,
shams'
and
the
'Imperial
Hotel'
".
3
(207 m ) of granite had been used to build the column
the
monument
was
a
source
of
pride
to
some
citizens,
who
[36]
and its pedestal. The Pillar opened to the public on 21
Queen
Victoria
visited
dubbed
it
Dublins
Glory
when
October 1809, on the fourth anniversary of the Battle of
[12]
Trafalgar; for ten pre-decimal pence,[32][n 7] visitors could the city in 1849.
climb to a viewing platform just below the statue, and en- Between 1840 and 1843 Nelsons Column was erected in
joy what an early report describes as a superb panoramic Londons Trafalgar Square. With an overall height of 170

4
feet (52 m) it was taller than its Dublin equivalent and, at
47,000, much more costly to erect.[43][n 9] It has no internal staircase or viewing platform.[44] The London column
was the subject of an attack during the Fenian dynamite
campaign in May 1884, when a quantity of explosives was
placed at its base but failed to detonate.[43]
In 1853 the queen attended the Dublin Great Industrial
Exhibition, where a city plan was displayed that envisaged the removal of the Pillar.[12] This proved impossible, as since 1811 legal responsibility for the Pillar had
been vested in a trust,[45] under the terms of which the
trustees were required to embellish and uphold the monument in perpetuation of the object for which it was
subscribed.[46] Any action to remove or resite the Pillar, or replace the statue, required the passage of an Act
of Parliament in London; Dublin Corporation (the city
government) had no authority in the matter.[47] No action
followed the city plan suggestion, but the following years
saw regular attempts to remove the monument.[12] A proposal was made in 1876 by Alderman Peter McSwiney,
a former Lord Mayor,[48] to replace the unsightly structure with a memorial to the recently deceased Sir John
Gray, who had done much to provide Dublin with a clean
water supply. The Corporation was unable to advance
this idea.[49]

3 HISTORY 18091966
lar attempt, with the same result, was made in 1891.[12]
Not all Dubliners favoured demolition; some businesses
considered the Pillar to be the citys focal point, and the
tramway company petitioned for its retention as it marked
the central tram terminus.[51] In many ways, says Fallon, the pillar had become part of the fabric of the
city.[52] Kennedy writes: A familiar and very large if
rather scruy piece of the citys furniture, it was The Pillar, Dublins Pillar rather than Nelsons Pillar ... it was
also an outing, an experience.[53] The Dublin sculptor
John Hughes invited students at the Metropolitan School
of Art to admire the elegance and dignity of Kirks
statue, and the beauty of the silhouette.[54]
The year 1894 saw some signicant alterations to the Pillars fabric. The original entry on the west side, whereby
visitors entered the pedestal by a ight of steps taking
them down below street level, was replaced by a new
ground level entrance on the south side, complete with a
grand porch. The whole monument was surrounded by
heavy iron railings.[32][n 10] In the new century, despite
the growing nationalism within Dublin80 per cent of
the Corporations councillors were nationalists of some
descriptionthe pillar was liberally decorated with ags
and streamers to mark the 1905 Trafalgar centenary.[57]
The changing political atmosphere had long been signalled by the arrival in Sackville Street of further monuments, all celebrating distinctively Irish heroes, in what
the historian Yvonne Whelan describes as deance of
the British Government, a challenge in stone. Between the 1860s and 1911, Nelson was joined by monuments to Daniel O'Connell, William Smith O'Brien and
Charles Stewart Parnell, as well as Sir John Gray and the
temperance campaigner Father Matthew.[58] Meanwhile,
in 1861, after decades of construction, the Wellington
Monument in Dublins Phoenix Park was completed, the
foundation stone having been laid in 1817.[59] This vast
obelisk, 220 feet (67 m) high and 120 feet (37 m) square
at the base,[60] honoured Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of
Wellington, Dublin-born and a former Chief Secretary
for Ireland.[61] Unlike the Pillar, Wellingtons obelisk has
attracted little controversy and has not been the subject
of physical attacks.[62]

3.2 Easter Rising, April 1916

Design for the new 1894 entrance porch

On Easter Monday, 24 April 1916, units of the Irish Volunteers and the Irish Citizen Army seized several prominent buildings and streets in central Dublin, including the
General Post Oce (GPO) in Sackville Street. They set
up headquarters at the GPO where they declared an Irish
Republic under a provisional government.[63] One of the
rst recorded actions of the Easter Rising occurred in
the vicinity of the Pillar when lancers from the nearby
Marlborough Street barracks, sent to investigate the disturbance, were red on from the GPO. They retired in
confusion, leaving four soldiers and two horses dead.[64]

In 1882 the Moore Street Market and Dublin City Improvement Act was passed by the Westminster parliament, overriding the trust and giving the Corporation authority to resite the Pillar, but subject to a strict timetable,
within which the city authorities found it impossible to
act. The Act lapsed and the Pillar remained;[50] a simi- During the days that followed, Sackville Street and partic-

3.3

In an independent Ireland

5
Senate, favoured its re-erection elsewhere, but thought it
should not, as some wished, be destroyed, because the
life and work of the people who built it are part of our
tradition.[12]

Sackville Street after the Rising, with the intact Pillar in the background

ularly the area around the Pillar became a battleground.

According to some histories, insurgents attempted to
blow up the Pillar. The accounts are unconrmed and
were disputed by many that fought in the Rising,[65] on
the grounds that the Pillars large base provided them
with useful cover as they moved to and from other rebel
positions.[66] By Thursday night, British artillery re had
set much of Sackville Street ablaze, but according to the
writer Peter De Rosas account: On his pillar, Nelson
surveyed it all serenely, as though he were lit up by a
thousand lamps.[67] The statue was visible against the
ery backdrop from as far as Killiney, 9 miles (14 km)
away.[68]
By Saturday, when the provisional government nally
surrendered, many of the Sackville Street buildings between the Pillar and the Liey had been destroyed or
badly damaged, including the Imperial Hotel that Thackeray had admired.[69][70] Of the GPO, only the faade remained; against the tide of opinion Bernard Shaw said
the demolition of the citys classical architecture scarcely
mattered: What does matter is the Liey slums have not
been demolished.[71] An account in a New York newspaper reported that the Pillar had been lost in the destruction
of the street,[72] but it had sustained only minor damage,
chiey bullet marks on the column and statue itselfone
shot is said to have taken o Nelsons nose.[73]

3.3

In an independent Ireland

After the Anglo-Irish war of 191921 and the treaty that

followed, Ireland was partitioned; Dublin became the
capital of the Irish Free State, a Dominion within the
British Commonwealth of Nations.[74] From December
1922, when the Free State was inaugurated, the Pillar became an issue for the Irish rather than the British government. In 1923, when Sackville Street was again in
ruins during the Irish Civil War,[75] The Irish Builder and
Engineer magazine called the original siting of the Pillar
a blunder and asked for its removal,[76] a view echoed
by the Dublin Citizens Association.[77] The poet William
Butler Yeats, who had become a member of the Irish

Sackville Street was renamed O'Connell Street in

1924.[78][n 11] The following year the Dublin Metropolitan
Police and the Dublin Civic Survey demanded legislation
to allow the Pillars removal, without success.[77] Pressure continued, and in 1926 The Manchester Guardian
reported that the Pillar was to be taken down, as it was
a hindrance to modern trac.[79] Requests for action
removal, destruction or the replacement of the statue with
that of an Irish herocontinued up to the Second World
War and beyond; the main stumbling blocks remained
the trustees strict interpretation of the terms of the trust,
and the unwillingness of successive Irish governments to
take legislative action.[77][80] In 1936 the magazine of the
ultra-nationalist Blueshirts movement remarked that this
inactivity showed a failure in the national spirit: The conqueror is gone, but the scars which he left remain, and the
victim will not even try to remove them.[81]
Man and boy I have lived in Dublin, on and o, for 68
years. When I was a young fellow we didn't talk about
Nelsons Column or Nelsons Pillar, we spoke of the Pillar, and everyone knew what we meant.
Thomas Bodkin, 1955[82]
By 1949 the Irish Free State had evolved into the Republic
of Ireland and left the British Commonwealth,[83] but
not all Irish opinion favoured the removal of the Pillar.
That year the architectural historian John Harvey called
it a grand work, and argued that without it, O'Connell
Street would lose much of its vitality.[84] Most of the
pressure to get rid of it, he said, came from trac maniacs who ... fail to visualise the chaos which would result
from creating a through current of trac at this point.[84]
In a 1955 radio broadcast Thomas Bodkin, former director of the National Gallery of Ireland, praised not only
the monument, but Nelson himself: He was a man of
extraordinary gallantry. He lost his eye ghting bravely,
and his arm in a similar fashion.[82]
On 29 October 1955, a group of nine students from
University College Dublin obtained keys from the Pillars custodian and locked themselves inside, with an assortment of equipment including ame throwers. From
the gallery they hung a poster of Kevin Barry, a Dublin
Irish Republican Army (IRA) volunteer executed by the
British during the War of Independence. A crowd gathered below, and began to sing the Irish rebel song "Kevin
Barry". Eventually members of the Garda (Irish police)
broke into the Pillar and ended the demonstration. No action was taken against the students, whose principal purpose, the Garda claimed, was publicity.[85]
In 1956, members of the Fianna Fil party, then in opposition, proposed that the statue be replaced by one of
Robert Emmett, Protestant leader of an abortive rebellion in 1803. They thought that such a gesture might

DESTRUCTION

inspire Protestants in Northern Ireland to ght for a reunited Ireland.[86] In the North the possibility of dismantling and re-erecting the monument in Belfast was raised
in the Stormont parliament, but the initiative failed to gain
the support of the Northern Ireland government.[87]

eventual demise; King William of Orange, King George

II and Viscount Gough in the Phoenix Park had all fallen
victim to republican bombings, while Queen Victoria had
been rather unceremoniously dumped from her vantage
point in Leinster House, removed on her back through
In 1959 a new Fianna Fil government under Sean the front gates.
Lemass deferred the question of the Pillars removal on Donal Fallon: Dispelling the myths about the bombing
the grounds of cost; ve years later Lemass agreed to of Nelsons Pillar[92]
look at the question of replacing Nelsons statue with The absence of the pillar was regretted by some who
one of Patrick Pearse, the leader of the Easter Rising, felt the city had lost one of its most prominent landin time for the 50th anniversary of the Rising in 1966.[88] marks. The Irish Literary Association was anxious that,
An oer from the Irish-born American trade union leader whatever future steps were taken, the lettering on the
Mike Quill to nance the removal of the Pillar was not pedestal should be preserved; the Irish Times reported
taken up, and as the anniversary approached, Nelson re- that the Royal Irish Academy of Music was considermained in place.[87]
ing legal measures to prevent removal of the remaining

Destruction

stump.[12] Reactions among the general public were relatively light-hearted, typied by the numerous songs inspired by the incident. These included the immensely
popular "Up Went Nelson", set to the tune of "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" and performed by a group
of Belfast schoolteachers, which remained at the top of
the Irish charts for eight weeks.[93] An American newspaper reported that the mood in the city was one of gaiety, with shouts of Nelson has lost his last battle!"[94]
Some accounts relate that the Irish president, amon de
Valera, phoned The Irish Press to suggest the headline:
British Admiral Leaves Dublin By Air[95] according
to the senator and presidential candidate David Norris,
the only recorded instance of humour in that lugubrious
gure.[96]

The pillar on the morning of 8 March 1966

Shortly after 1:30 on the morning of 8 March 1966, a

powerful explosion destroyed the upper portion of the Pillar and brought Nelsons statue crashing to the ground
amid hundreds of tons of rubble.[89] O'Connell Street
was almost deserted at the time, although a dance in
the nearby Hotel Metropole's ballroom was about to
end and bring crowds on to the street.[12] There were
no casualtiesa taxi-driver parked close by had a narrow escapeand damage to property was relatively light
given the strength of the blast.[90] What was left of the
Pillar was a jagged stump, 70 feet (21 m) high.[12]
Lettering from Nelsons Pillar in the Butler House Walled Garden
In the rst government response to the action the Justice
minister, Brian Lenihan, condemned what he described
as an outrage which was planned and committed without
any regard to the lives of the citizens.[91] This response
was considered tepid by The Irish Times, whose editorial deemed the attack a direct blow to the prestige of the
state and the authority of the government.[91] Kennedy
suggests that government anger was mainly directed at
what they considered a distraction from the ocial 50th
anniversary celebrations of the Rising.[89]

in 2009

The Pillars fate was sealed when Dublin Corporation issued a dangerous building notice. The trustees agreed
that the stump should be removed.[12] A last-minute request by the Royal Institute of the Architects of Ireland
for an injunction to delay the demolition on planning
grounds was rejected by Justice Thomas Teevan.[97] On
14 March the Army destroyed the stump by a controlled
explosion, watched at a safe distance by a crowd who, the
press reported, raised a resounding cheer.[98] There was
There was an air of inevitability about Horatio Nelsons a scramble for souvenirs, and many parts of the stonework

5.2

Replacements

were taken from the scene. Some of these relics, including Nelsons head, eventually found their way into
museums;[n 12] parts of the lettered stonework from the
pedestal are displayed in the grounds of the Butler House
hotel in Kilkenny, while smaller remnants were used to
decorate private gardens.[100] Contemporary and subsequent accounts record that the armys explosion caused
more damage than the rst, but this, Fallon says, is a
myth; damage claims arising from the second explosion
amounted to less than a quarter of the sum claimed as a
result of the original blast.[101][102]

5
5.1

5.2 Replacements
On 29 April 1969 the Irish parliament passed the Nelson
Pillar Act, terminating the Pillar Trust and vesting ownership of the site in Dublin Corporation. The trustees received 21,170 in compensation for the Pillars destruction, and a further sum for loss of income.[109] In the debate, Senator Owen Sheehy-Skengton argued that the
Pillar had been capable of repair and should have been
re-assembled and rebuilt.[110]

Aftermath
Investigations

It was initially assumed that the monument was destroyed

by the IRA. The Guardian reported on 9 March that six
men had been arrested and questioned, but their identities were not revealed and there were no charges.[103][104]
An IRA spokesman denied involvement, stating that they
had no interest in demolishing mere symbols of foreign
domination: We are interested in the destruction of the
domination itself.[105] In the absence of any leads, rumours suggested that the Basque separatist movement
ETA might be responsible, perhaps as part of a training
exercise with an Irish republican splinter group; in the
mid-1960s the explosives expertise of ETA was generally
acknowledged.[106]
No further information was forthcoming until 2000, when
during a Raidi Teilifs ireann interview a former IRA
member, Liam Sutclie claimed he had placed the bomb
which detonated in the Pillar.[95][107] In the 1950s Sutclie was associated with a group of dissident volunteers
led by Joe Christle (192798), who had been expelled
from the IRA in 1956 for recklessness.[108] In early
1966 Sutclie learned that Christles group was planning
Operation Humpty Dumpty, an attack on the Pillar, and
oered his services. According to Sutclie, on 28 February he placed a bomb within the Pillar, timed to go o
in the early hours of the next morning.[107] The explosive was a mixture of gelignite and ammonal.[95] It failed
to detonate; Sutclie says that he returned early the next
morning, recovered the device and redesigned its timer.
On 7 March, shortly before the Pillar closed for the day,
he climbed the inner stairway and placed the refurbished
bomb near to the top of the shaft before going home. He
learned of the success of his mission the next day, he says,
having slept undisturbed through the night.[107] Following
his revelations, Sutclie was questioned by the police but
not charged. He did not name others involved in the action, apart from Christle and his brother.[95]

The Spire of Dublin, erected in 2003, viewed from Henry Street

For more than twenty years the site stood empty, while
various campaigns sought to ll the space. In 1970 the
Arthur Grith Society suggested a monument to Arthur
Grith, founder of Sinn Fin, and Pearse, whose centenary would fall in 1979, was the subject of several proposals. None of these schemes were accepted by the Corporation. A request in 1987 by the Dublin Metropolitan Streets Commission that the Pillar be rebuiltwith a
dierent statuewas likewise rejected.[111] In 1988, as
part of the citys 1,000th anniversary celebrations, the
Smurt Millennium Fountain was erected close to the
site. This was commissioned by a Dublin businessman
Michael Smurt in memory of his father; it incorporated a bronze statue of a woman, sculpted by amonn
O'Doherty. The monument, known colloquially as the
Anna Livia, was not universally appreciated; O'Dohertys
fellow-sculptor Edward Delaney called it an atrocious
eyesore.[112][n 13]
1988 saw the launch of the Pillar Project, aimed at encouraging artists and architects to bring forward new
ideas for an appropriate permanent memorial to replace
Nelson. Suggestions included a 110 metres (360 ft) agpole, a triumphal arch modelled on the Paris Arc de Triomphe, and a Tower of Light with a platform that would
restore Nelsons view over the city.[115] In 1997 Dublin
Corporation announced a formal design competition for
a monument to mark the new millennium in 2000. The
winning entry was Ian Ritchie's Spire of Dublin, a plain,
needle-like structure rising 120 metres (390 ft) from the
street.[116] The design was approved; on 22 January 2003
it was completed, despite some political and artistic op-

position. During the excavations preceding the Spires

construction, the foundation stone of the Nelson Pillar
was recovered. Press stories that a time capsule containing valuable coins had also been discovered fascinated the
public for a while, but proved illusory.[117]

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1957 poem Nelsons Pillar, Dublin scorns the various

schemes to remove the monument and concludes Let
him watch the sky/ With those who rule. Stone eye/ And
telescopes can prove/ Our blessings are above.[126][125]

7 See also
6

Cultural references

Before Nelsons Pillar trams slowed, shunted, changed

trolley, started for Blackrock, Kingstown and Dalkey,
Clonskea, Rathgar and Terenure ... Sandymount Green,
Rathmines, Ringsend and Sandymount Tower, Harolds
Cross. The hoarse Dublin United Tramway Companys
timekeeper bawled them o.

Monuments and memorials to Horatio Nelson, 1st

Viscount Nelson
List of public art in Dublin

8 Notes and references

James Joyce: Ulysses. Section 7: In the Heart of the

Hibernian Metropolis.[118]
8.1
The destruction of the Pillar brought a temporary glut
of popular songs, including "Nelsons Farewell", by The
Dubliners, in which Nelsons airborne demise is presented as Irelands contribution to the space race.[93] During its more than 150 years, the Pillar was an integral
if controversial part of Dublin life, and was often reected in Irish literature of the period. James Joyce's
novel Ulysses (1922) is a meticulous depiction of the city
on a single day, 16 July 1904. At the base of the Pillar trams from all parts of the city come and go; meanwhile the character Stephen Dedalus fantasises a scene
involving two elderly spinsters, who climb the steps to the
viewing gallery where they eat plums and spit the stones
down on those below, while gazing up at the one-handled
adulterer.[119]
Joyce shared Yeatss view that Irelands association with
England was an essential element in a shared history,
and asked: Tell me why you think I ought to change
the conditions that gave Ireland and me a shape and a
destiny?"[120] Oliver St John Gogarty, in his literary memoir As I Was Going Down Sackville Street, considers the
Pillar the grandest thing we have in Dublin, where the
statue in whiter stone gazed forever south towards Trafalgar and the Nile.[121] That Pillar, says Gogarty, marks
the end of a civilization, the culmination of the great
period of eighteenth century Dublin.[121] Yeatss 1927
poem The Three Monuments has Parnell, Nelson and
O'Connell on their respective monuments, mocking Irelands post-independence leaders for their rigid morality
and lack of courage, the obverse of the qualities of the
three old rascals.[122] A later writer, Brendan Behan,
in his Confessions of an Irish Rebel (1965) wrote from
a nationalist perspective that Ireland owed Nelson nothing and that Dublins poor regarded the Pillar as a gibe
at their own helplessness in their own country.[123] In
his poem Dublin (1939), written as the remaining vestiges of British overlordship were being removed from
Ireland, Louis MacNeice envisages Nelson on his pillar/
Watching his world collapse.[124][125] Austin Clarke's

Notes

[1] Most unusually for the subject of a statue, Blakeney was

still alive at the timehe died in September 1761.[6]
[2] In his later career Wilkins was responsible for the design of numerous major London buildings, including the
National Gallery and University College London, and of a
number of colleges of the University of Cambridge.[20]
[3] Johnstons later Dublin commissions included the General
Post Oce and additions to the Vice-regal Lodge.[26]
[4] 6,500 in 1805 equates to about 500,000 in 2016, using
the GDP deator for capital projects.[29]
[5] The recorded heights (rounded) of the various components were: pedestal 30 ft 1 in.; column and capital 78 ft
3 in.; epistilion (the base for the statue) 12 ft 6 in.; statue
13 ft; total 134 ft 3 in.[33]
[6] The inscriptions on each side were as follows: ST. VINCENT XIV FEBRUARY MDCCXCVII (west); THE
NILE I AUGUST MDCCXCVIII (north); COPENHAGEN II APRIL MDCCCI (east); TRAFALGAR
XXI OCTOBER MDCCCV (south). These refer to the
following battles and their dates: Battle of Cape St Vincent (14 February 1797); Battle of the Nile (13 August
1798); Battle of Copenhagen (2 April 1801); and Battle
of Trafalgar (21 October 1805).[34]
[7] 10 pre-decimal pence in 1809 equates to 2.70 in 2016,
based on retail price index.[29]
[8] At almost the same time as the Dublin pillar was being completed, the city of Montreal in Canada erected a
column and statue of Nelson. Although largely Frenchspeaking, the inhabitants of Montreal detested the French
Revolution and Napoleon and regarded Nelson as a hero.
In more recent times the Montreal monument has survived
attempts by Quebec separatists to have it removed.[37]
[9] 47,000 in 1843 equates to about 5.3 million in 2016,
using the GDP deator for capital projects.[29]

8.2

Citations

[10] These changes were made by Dublin architect George

Palmer Beater (18501928).[55] The porch, with Nelsons
name over the entrance, was made from chiselled granite lined internally with white enamelled brick. Gilding
was added to the incised inscriptions on the pedestal and
to Nelsons name.[56]

[21] Kennedy 2013, p. 6.

[11] The change had rst been proposed by Dublin Corporation in 1884, but had been rejected at the time by the
streets residents.[78]

[25] Murphy 2010, p. 11.

[12] About ten days after the initial explosion Nelsons head
was stolen from a corporation yard by students from the
National College of Art and Design, as a fund-raising
stunt. The head was exhibited, for a fee, at various locations including stage performance by The Dubliners and
The Clancy Brothers. It crossed the Irish Sea, and was
rented for display in a London antique shop. It was returned to Ireland in September 1966, ultimately nding a
home in the Dublin City Library and Archive in Pearse
Street.[99][95]

[27] Henchy 1948, p. 59.

[13] A popular name for the Anna Livia was the oozie in the
jacuzzi. In 2001, during regeneration work in O'Connell
Street, the fountain was demolished and the statue removed, eventually to be re-sited in the Croppies Acre
Memorial Park.[113][114]

[22] Kennedy 2013, pp. 68.

[23] Kennedy 2013, p. 15.
[24] Kennedy 2013, pp. 1011.

[26] Cust and Bagshaw 2008.

[28] Kilfeather 2005, p. 260.

[29] MeasuringWorth 2016.
[30] Kennedy 2013, pp. 1617.
[31] Murphy 2010, p. 9.
[32] Henchy 1948, pp. 5657.
[33] Warburton, Whitelaw and Walsh 1818, pp. 110203.
[34] Warburton, Whitelaw and Walsh 1818, p. 1101.
[35] Fallon 2014, p. 33.
[36] Fallon 2014, p. 32.
[37] Kennedy 2013, pp. 2021, 2930.

8.2

Citations

[38] Kennedy 2013, p. 20.

[1] Andrews and Coleman 2009.

[39] Webb: A Compendium of Irish Biography 1878.

[2] Hopkins 2002, p. 114.

[40] Henchy 1948, p. 60.

[3] Kilfeather 2005, p. 54.

[41] Kennedy 2013, p. 30.

[4] Hunt 2014, p. 137.

[42] Thackeray 1911, pp. 2223.

[5] Stephens and Harding 2008.

[43] Fallon 2014, p. 40.

[6] Fallon 2014, pp. 58.

[44] Kennedy 2013, p. 13.

[7] Fallon 2014, p. 8.

[45] Kennedy 2013, p. 18.

[8] Kennedy 2013, pp. 78.

[46] Kennedy 2013, p. 47.

[9] Rodger 2009.

[47] Kennedy 2013, p. 37.

[10] Pakenham 1992, p. 337.

[48] Dublin Council (Lord Mayors).

[11] Fallon 2014, p. 24.

[49] Fallon 2014, p. 42.

[12] Riain 1998.

[50] Kennedy 2013, p. 38.

[13] Kennedy 2013, pp. 2527.

[51] Henchy 1948, p. 61.

[14] Henchy 1948, p. 53.

[52] Fallon 2014, p. 44.

[15] Fallon 2014, p. 26.

[53] Kennedy 2013, p. 41.

[16] Henchy 1948, p. 54.

[54] Murphy 2010, p. 12.

[17] Kennedy 2013, pp. 34.

[55] Dictionary of Irish Architects.

[18] Fallon 2014, pp. 2728.

[56] archiseek: Lost Buildings of Ireland.

[19] Contae Ubh Fhail County Council, February 2009.

[57] Fallon 2014, pp. 4546.

[20] Liscombe 2009.

[58] Whelan 2014, p. 94.

10

NOTES AND REFERENCES

[59] Garnett 1952, pp. 54 and 61.

[96] O'Riordan 2016.

[60] Casey 2005, p. 308.

[97] The Guardian 15 March 1966.

[61] Fallon2014, p. 51.

[98] The Irish Times 14 March 1966.

[62] Independent.ie. 26 August 2003.

[63] Fallon 2014, pp. 5354.

[99] Fallon 2014, pp. 10711.

[64] Townshend 2006, p. 184.

[100] Fallon 2014, pp. 10613.

[65] Fallon 2014, pp. 5556.

[101] Fallon 2014, p. 99.

[66] Kennedy 2013, pp. 4344.

[102] A colonel writes... 19 March 2006.

[67] De Rosa 1990, p. 350.

[103] The Guardian 9 March 1966.

[68] De Rosa 1990, p. 351.

[69] Townshend 2006, p. 266.
[70] De Rosa 1990, pp. 35859.

[104] Kennedy 2013, p. 52.

[105] Fallon 2014, p. 100 (quoted from The Irish Independent,
9 March 1966).

[71] Shaw 1916, p. 6.

[72] Fallon 2014, p. 61.

[106] Myles 2009, p. 312.

[73] Fallon 2014, p. 57.

[107] Fallon 2014, pp. 10103.

[74] The Partition of Ireland.

[108] White 2009.

[75] Fallon 2014, p. 65.

[109] Nelson Pillar Act, 1969.

[76] The Irish Builder and Engineer 30 June 1923, p. 497.

[110] Seanad ireann Debate 23 April 1969.

[77] Kennedy 2013, pp. 4445.

[78] Casey 2005, p. 212.

[111] Fallon 2014, pp. 11819.

[79] The Manchester Guardian 26 March 1926, p. 9.

[112] Fallon 2014, p. 120.

[80] Fallon 2014, pp. 6869, 7172.

[113] Dublin City Council Press Statement September 2011.

[81] Fallon 2014, pp. 7071, quoting from The Blueshirt, 1 [114] TheJournal.ie 25 February 2011.
March 1935.
[82] Fallon 2014, p. 77.

[115] Fallon 2014, pp. 12022.

[83] De Rosa 1990, p. 505.

[116] Kennedy 2013, p. 53.

[84] Harvey 1949, p. 31.

[117] Fallon 2014, pp. 12426.

[85] Fallon 2014, pp. 8789.

[118] Joyce 2002, p. 112.

[86] Fallon 2014, p. 72.

[87] Fallon 2014, pp. 7475.

[119] Kilfeather 2005, p. 60.

[88] Kennedy 2013, pp. 4748.

[120] Kennedy 2013, p. 62.

[89] Kennedy 2013, pp. 5051.

[121] Gogarty 1937, p. 259.

[90] Fallon 2014, p. 94.

[122] Steinman 1983, p. 86.

[91] The Irish Times 9 March 1966.

[123] Behan 1991, p. 221.

[92] Fallon 2016.

[93] Fallon 2014, pp. 11416.

[124] RTE: A Poem for Ireland.

[94] Fallon 2014, p. 96.

[125] Fallon 2014, pp. 7879.

[95] Fleming 2016.

[126] Dodsworth 2001, p. 484.

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Down Sackville Street. New York: Reynal & Hitch- 8.3.2 Newspapers and journals
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Editorial note. The Irish Builder and Engineer:

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Hunt, Tristram (2014). Ten Cities That Made an

Empire. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-1-84614325-0.

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Testimonial. Dublin Historical Record (Old Dublin
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Joyce, James (2002). Ulysses. Mineola, NY: Dover

Publications. ISBN 0-486-42444-8.

Henchy, Patrick (1948). Nelsons Pillar. Dublin

Historical Record (Old Dublin Society) 10 (2): 53
63. (subscription required)

Kennedy, Dennis (2013). Dublins Fallen Hero.

Belfast: Ormeau Books. ISBN 978-0-9572564-15.
Kilfeather, Siobhn Marie (2005). Dublin: a Cultural History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-518201-9.
Murphy, Paula (2010). Nineteenth-Century Irish
Sculpture: Native Genius Rearmed (PDF). New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300-15909-7.
Myles, Franc (2009). Admiral Nelson: My part
in his downfall. In Fenwick, Joe. Lost and Found
II: Rediscovering Irelands Past. Dublin: Wordwell.
ISBN 978-1-905569-26-7.

Hickman, Baden (9 March 1966). Guards on Monuments after Dublin Explosion. The Guardian. p.
6. (subscription required)
Lenihan Condemns Pillar Outrage"". The Irish
Times. 9 March 1966. p. 1.
Nelson to Leave Sackville Street. The Manchester
Guardian. 26 March 1926. p. 9. (subscription required)
Riain, Michel (Winter 1998). Nelsons Pillar.
History Ireland 6 (4). Retrieved 5 March 2016.
O'Riordan, Billy (7 March 2016). The Fall of Nelsons Column Recalled...50 Years On. The Irish
Examiner. Retrieved 12 March 2016.

12

Shaw, G. Bernard (26 July 1916). Some Neglected

Morals of the Irish Rising. Maoriland Worker
(New Zealand) 7 (284). (This article rst appeared
in The New Statesman, 6 May 1916)
8.3.3

Online

1894 Design for entrance and railings, Nelsons

Pillar, Dublin. archiseek. 2015. Retrieved 13
March 2016.
A Poem for Ireland: 'Dublin'". Raidi Teilifs ireann. 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2016.

EXTERNAL LINKS

Nelson Pillar Act, 1969. electronic Irish Statute

Book (eISB). Oce of the Attorney General. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
Nelson Pillar Bill, 1969: Committee and Final
Stages. Houses of the Oireachtas: Seanad ireann
Debate Vol. 66 No. 11. 23 April 1969. Retrieved
14 March 2016.
Rodger, N.A.M. (2009). Nelson, Horatio. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online edition. Retrieved 3 March 2016. (subscription required)

Anna Livia monument oats to a new home. TheJournal.ie. 25 February 2011. Retrieved 13 March
2016.

Stephens, H.M.; Harding, Richard (2008).

Blakeney, William. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online edition. Retrieved 3 March
2016. (subscription required)

Anna Livia Moves To The Croppies. Dublin City

Council. September 2011. Retrieved 14 March
2016.

The Partition of Ireland. Borderlands. Queen

Mary College, University of London. Retrieved 9
March 2016.

A Colonel Writes.... Independent.ie. 19 March

2006. Retrieved 11 March 2016.

Webb, Alfred. Walter Cox. Library Ireland from

A Compendium of Irish Biography, Dublin 1878.
Retrieved 6 March 2016.

Andrews, H.; Coleman, J. (2009). Luke Gardiner.

Dictionary of Irish Biography. Retrieved 3 March
2016. (subscription required)
Beater, George Palmer. Dictionary of Irish Architects. Irish Architectural Archive. Retrieved 13
March 2016.
Cust, L.H.; Bagshaw, Kaye (2008). Johnston,
Francis. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
Online edition. Retrieved 3 March 2016.(subscription required)

White, L.W.W . (2009). Joseph Christle. Dictionary of Irish Biography. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
(subscription required)
Why some want to give Wellington statue the
boot. Independent.ie. 26 August 2003. Retrieved
16 March 2016.

9 External links

Fallon, Donal (March 2016). Dispelling the myths

about the bombing of Nelsons Pillar. TheJournal.ie. Retrieved 11 March 2016.

Nelson Pillar, 50th anniversary commemoration account, including numerous Pillar images taken before and after the bombing (Old Dublin Town)

Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a

UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present. MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 4 March 2016.

Head in the Sand, personal eyewitness account of

the students with the head of the Pillars Nelson
statue at Kilkenny Strand (Pl Duibhir)

Fleming, Diarmaid (12 March 2016). The Man

who Blew Up Nelson. BBC Magazine. Retrieved
12 March 2016.

The night Nelsons Pillar fell and changed Dublin,

includes photograph of the controlled demolition
(The Irish Times)

Howley Hayes Architects (February 2009). The

Cumberland Column, Birr, Co. Oally: Conservation Report (PDF). Contae Ubh Fhail County
Council. Retrieved 4 March 2016.

Nelson Monument Blasted, 10 March 1966 news

reel report (British Path)

Liscombe, R. Windsor (2009). Wilkins, William.

Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online
edition. Retrieved 3 March 2016. (subscription required)
Lord Mayors of Dublin 16652015 (PDF).
Dublin City Council. Retrieved 6 March 2016.

Nelson Pillar Remains Demolished, 14 March 1966

news reel report (British Path)

13

10
10.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Nelsons Pillar Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson{}s_Pillar?oldid=716840650 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Michael

Hardy, Jtdirl, Deadstar, CatherineMunro, Timwi, Wik, Astrotrain, Itai, Warofdreams, Oaktree b, Jason M, Hajor, Robbot, Dale Arnett, ChrisO~enwiki, Wally, Brian Kendig, Angmering, Varlaam, LarryGilbert, Duncharris, Djegan, Attila the Pooh, R. end, Quadell,
MakeRocketGoNow, Demiurge, Miborovsky, O'Dea, Rich Farmbrough, Mashford, Thuresson, Cmdrjameson, JW1805, Cavrdg, Man vyi,
Merenta, Guy Harris, Ricky81682, Craigy144, DLJessup, Giano, Zsero, Woohookitty, ScottDavis, Carcharoth, Ardfern, Lapsed Pacist,
GraemeLeggett, Graham87, Descendall, Angusmclellan, Tim!, Edbrims, Vegaswikian, Funnyhat, Wareq, Bmpower, Bgwhite, YurikBot,
Spleodrach, CambridgeBayWeather, Wwilly, Mmccalpin, Awiseman, Rwxrwxrwx, Petri Krohn, 2fort5r, X3210, SailorAlphaCentauri,
SmackBot, Navillus, Verne Equinox, Ian Rose, Tiddy, Andy M. Wang, Djln, El Gringo, Salmar, Rhollenton, Writtenright, MJBurrage,
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Asarla, Samrica~enwiki, Truthanado, Red Hurley, Kingbird1, Phe-bot, Brian Geppert, Kotniski, Icarusgeek, Silverblaster, Mattgirling,
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JaconaFrere, JamKaftan, IrishSpook, FGSephton, PatrickGuinness, FACBot, Jason.nlw, DylanMcKaneWiki, ScratchClubYoutube, Paddywagon73, Lwilslll and Anonymous: 72

10.2

Images

File:1stBaronBlakeney.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/1stBaronBlakeney.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?search=ss&sText=Baron&LinkID=mp57687&rNo=2&role=sit Original artist: James Macardell, after Sir George Chalmers
File:Butler_House_gardens,_Kilkenny_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1537832.jpg Source:
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commons/2/29/Butler_House_gardens%2C_Kilkenny_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1537832.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From
geograph.org.uk Original artist: Eirian Evans
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Fall_of_Nelson.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Fall_of_Nelson.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: National Maritime Museum Original artist: Denis Dighton
File:Nelson{}s_Pillar_destroyed.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/eb/Nelson%27s_Pillar_destroyed.jpg License: Fair use Contributors:
National Library of Ireland Original artist:
Michael S. Walker (per NLI records)
File:Nelson{}s_Pillar_porch_design_1894.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/
Nelson%27s_Pillar_porch_design_1894.jpg
License:
Public
domain
Contributors:
http://archiseek.com/2015/
1894-design-for-entrance-and-railings-nelsons-column-dublin/ (Original source The Irish Builder, April 15 1894) Original artist:
Design by George Palmer Beater (1850-1928)
File:Open_street_map_central_dublin.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Open_street_map_central_
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artist: ?
File:Sackville_St_Dublin_1842.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/46/Sackville_St_Dublin_1842.jpg License:
PD Contributors:
The scenery and antiquities of Ireland, Vol 2 by J. Stirling Coyne. Published: London, G. Virtue
Original artist:
engr. by Bartlett, W. H. (William Henry), 1809-1854
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BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: me stesso

10.3

Content license

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