University College London

Anime and Architecture

A Thesis
By
Azizul Hoque
The Bartlett School of Architecture
2016
i

"Now and forever the architect will replace the set designer, film will be the
faithful translator of the architect's boldest dreams"
- Luis Bunuel (1900-1983)

ii

ABSTRACT

Film and architecture have a long standing relationship. As story telling though
film evolved and became more complex, so did the role of architecture in film.
To the point where in recent years, film is returning the favour to architectural
practice as an instrument of expression. Nowadays, through film, television and
internet media a rich variety of themes and genres utilise architectural
knowledge to bolster the spatial aspects of their visual content. The spatial
functions and reasoning of this architecture reside within the world of the
moving image and help communicate cinematic story telling.
Can the analysis of the spatial conditions in Anime film contribute useful
commentary to an architectural discussion, specifically in the area of visual
representation and the communication of Architectural ideation? Due to the
highly intricate level of work that goes into the design and production of
environments and settings in Anime, one is compelled to investigate the
architectural merit of this filmic style.
By interrogating the technical aspects of creating space in Anime, and
deconstructing the environments in specific Anime case studies, one can start to
understand the impact architectural elements have on the purpose of cinematic
storytelling.
Furthermore reveal what these carefully constructed story worlds can teach us
about the value of architecture in Anime and how the perception and
understanding of animated spatial environments can be an interesting way to
perceive representations of Architecture.
The Thesis aims to draw a conclusion on the merits of Japanese Animation as a
design tool in the practice of architectural representation.

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CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................ iii

NOMANCLATURE ............................................................................................ v
CHAPTER 1: Introduction ................................................................................... 3
Defining Anime ............................................................................................... 5
Brief history .................................................................................................... 8
The Anime Effect .......................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2: constructing anime ...................................................................... 17
Dimension 1: Art ........................................................................................... 18
Dimension 2: Compositing ............................................................................ 24
Dimension 3: Editing .................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER 3: the plastic city ............................................................................. 35
Case Study 1: Akira (1988) ........................................................................... 36
Case Study 2: Cannon Fodder (1995) ........................................................... 44
Case Study 3: Tekkonkinkreet (2006) ........................................................... 52
CHAPTER 4: application................................................................................... 61
Application in Design Studio ........................................................................ 62
Application in Architecture Practice ............................................................. 67
CHAPTER 5: Conclusion .................................................................................. 73
Found Merits of Architectural Value ............................................................ 74
The Plastic City and Beyond ......................................................................... 76
NOTES............................................................................................................... 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 83
Figures ........................................................................................................... 84
Bibliography .................................................................................................. 86
Books ........................................................................................................ 86
Essays ....................................................................................................... 86
Journal Articles ......................................................................................... 86
Websites ................................................................................................... 86
Film .......................................................................................................... 86

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NOMANCLATURE
2D
3D
CGI
Cel

CHAPTER 1: Introduction

Defining Anime

Figure 1.1 Animation

What is animation?

"Is it a technique? A style? Is it a way of seeing a world or expressing a world

that has little relation to our own lived experience? Or a way to other cinematic
experiences." 1

Animation can be all of the above and Anime is Japan's version of it. By
deconstructing the spatial language of Anime, certain qualities emerge that help
establish a relationship between Anime and architecture. Due to the rich variety
of media used in animation, there is value in engagement with other fields.
However, a precondition for this is a solid understanding of what animation is.
Animation can be described as a time based visual medium2 and a way to
understand it is to draw a distinction to live action cinema that captures life
through the lens whereas animation brings to life through the frame.

"Animation is a film made by hand, frame by frame, providing the illusion of

movement."3 (p63, Swale)

The five most common forms of animation are: traditional4, digital 3D5 (CGI),
digital 2D6 (flash), motion graphics and stop motion. (Figure 1.2) In order to
build a premise for Japanese Anime, stop motion and motion graphics can be
eliminated from the conversation because they have little relationship to the
Anime form. Motion graphics can be technically sophisticated however it is
mainly used for communicating data in a graphical way rather than an
instrument of spatial design. Stop motion does have a spatial quality but
different to that of Anime. Physical modelling is used in Stop motion and exists
in a real world environment. The perception of that space is similar to the
experience of space in live action film. A live action camera records the already
inherent volumetric properties of the world whereas Anime generates an
emotionally driven interpretation of it.

From a technical origins perspective, Japanese Anime falls under traditional

animation. Its interpretation of the worlds dynamic properties is hand drawn
into the frame and bought life in the transitional moment between two frames.

There are distinct qualities in Anime that allow it to communicate space

differently to other forms of animation. Over the past 25 years however, the
medium has gone through changes as an industry and as a style, adopting
production techniques from the technological advances in animation. This is
important to establish because it changed the way Anime communicates its
spatial aspects. Similarly the representation of architecture has gone through a
transition from pen and paper to computer based rendering.

Figure 1.2 Types of

Animation

Brief history
Early forms of Japanese Anime looked and felt more like Disney films than they
do today. This happened because post war Japanese animators in the 50's were
influenced by the works of Walt Disney and studied publications with western
animation ideologies.7

Figure 1.3 Panda and the

Magic Serpent (1958)

Panda and the Magic Serpent (

) was the first Anime feature film to be released in Japan. Observations of this
film reveal that the motion and style to be similar to Disney's, where smooth and
realistic movement occur by using fully animated sequences at 24 frames per
second. For every one second of film, 24 separate hand drawings were produced
to convey the motion. The nature of this production is expensive and time
8

consuming, however, was very normal for big budget, feature length Anime
films at that time.

With the advent of television Anime shows, the medium began to develop its
own style. In order to produce episodes faster and more cheaply, Japanese
studios established animation techniques based on a cost effective 12 frames per
second platform. This would gradually lead to the iconic Anime style. The lack
of frames depicting movement was compensated by the quality of the art,
composition and editing techniques. In the absence of expensive full animation
capabilities, backgrounds and constructed environments were prioritised as vital
tools for creating atmosphere and bringing Anime to life. (Figure 1.5)

Figure 1.4 Example of

anime backgrounds

Another important factor that influenced the development of Anime was the
socio-political conditions of Japan in the 1960s. Social upheaval was common
during this period, involving student protests and demonstrations against the
government. Many Japanese animators at the time were sympathetic and active
in such social movements. Out of these conditions, came animators who were
willing to challenge traditional animation and experiment with motion in ways
that was radically different to Disney.8 (Figure 1.5Figure 1.6) This is when the
Anime Aesthetic was born and over the next few decades, studios would slowly
refine not only the stylistic aspects of Anime but also push the limits of what can
be achieved spatially through their unique set of technical conventions. Fast
forward 30 years and digital technology begins to emerge, changing the way
Anime communicates spatial environments.

Hand drawn Anime production is labour intensive and Japan is one of the last
places where these techniques are practiced.9 The style would go through
changes in the presence of 90's technology to keep up with the evolving world of
animation. The production was streamlined by incorporating computers and
repetitive jobs like colouring cels and drawing in-between key frames were
digitalised to speed up the process. In recent years, these tasks are outsourced to
cheaper labour in countries like Vietnam and India. 10

10

Figure 1.5 Disney Art

Style

Figure 1.6 Television

Anime show - Astro Boy
(1963)

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The Anime Effect

Anime is a channel that conveys a cinematic experience, evoking an emotional response from
response from its audience in a way that is unique to live action cinema and other forms of
other forms of animation. A distinction is revealed through its Japanese origins and technical
and technical mechanisms. Anime has evolved in parallel to western cinema and animation,
animation, and for many decades has exclusively engaged Japanese people by exploring
exploring themes and ideas that respond to the unique cultural conditions of their country. For
their country. For example, the surge in popularity of Mecha11 themed Anime in the 70's and
the 70's and 80's such as Mobile Suit Gundam (Figure 1.7) reflects the strong relationship the
Japanese have with robots and technology. However, there have been moments in Animes
recent history that have contributed to its international recognition and appeal. (

Figure 1.7 Mobile Suit Gundam (1979)

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Figure 1.8 The History of Anime Time Line

13

The Anime Style is recognised for its artistic and iconic characters that have
developed to satisfy a taste for 'Big Eyes, Big Hair, Big Breasts, and Big
Robots'12 However, there is more to the art form than meets the eye. There is
something in the aesthetic language and animation process of these overly
cartoonish cues that gives the style its distinctive vital energy and colour. The
'Anime Worlds'13 that essentially serve as the theatrical stages for the stories that
unfold have many overlooked nuances in spatial language. There is an emphasis
on environments and world-building assets that help immerse the audience into
a cinematic experience, whether or not they are consciously aware of it.

Anime takes form in a variety of themes and stories that connect to a wide
spectrum of people presented through "tropes and stylistic flourishes that come
from common stock inspiration."14 (p62, Swale)This common stock is animated
into the Anime Worlds and portrays realms of cinematic experience that can
only be realised through the capabilities of Anime production. The popularity of
animation signifies something about the human condition that wants to
experience cinematic spaces and feel material objects (that would otherwise be
lifeless in the real world) being bought to life through the special abilities of
animation techniques.15 (p19, Buchan)

There is an academic discussion on Japanese Animation though the literature

has a focus towards a cinematic discourse. 16 (p2, walker) An attempt to create a
critical dialogue between Anime and Architecture can be thought of as novel.
However, the thesis will not take Anime and force it to fit architectural
conventions, or assume that the spatial aspects of Anime are built off
architectural drawings. What will be revealed is an unusual and radically
14

different architecture. When the environments in Anime are deconstructed, the

spatial language will appear plastic and mutable in terms of scale, perspective
and depth, and by extension, offer architectural representation a new lens of
observation.

Chapter 2 - The fabric of the Anime World will be deconstructed into three
dimensions and queries will drive out the spatial merits of the techniques that
produce these dimensions:
Dimension 1 - the form of the Art.
Dimension 2 - the compositing of the sequence.
Dimension 3 - editing the final edit.

Chapter 3 - A filmic analysis of three Anime films that sit on different sides of
the digital fence. The method will be to interpret the environments of the films
base on the idea of the plastic city to reveal how the referential understanding of
a city merges with the elastic image of Anime.

As a result, the role of

architecture in Japanese Anime and how the communication of space in Anime

has evolved over two decades.

Chapter 4 - Evaluation of the found merits of Japanese Anime as a design tool

through direct application and hypothetical application within architectural
practice of representation and the communicating of spatial ideas.

15

16

CHAPTER 2: Constructing Anime

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Dimension 1: Art

The efforts that that go into this stage are visible in the aesthetics, design, detail
and so forth. It is the manifestation of the Anime World as a single image.

What are the immersive qualities of the Anime Image and what is it about the
human condition that the artwork demonstrates a distinct capacity to
articulate?17

The drawing power of the Anime Aesthetics sits in a two bird one stone
situation. As the art requires excessive amounts of time to transform into
comprehensive animations, specific colour codes and shading principals are
utilised to make the process efficient. In parallel, this procedure fundamentally
drives the immersive quality of Anime.

Cel animation tend to use principals of composition, scale and perspective which
suggest an analogy with the world we live in. 18 ( p20,21S.Buchan) it uses these
principals in order to make visual sense of the spaces being communicated.
However, does not do so to simulate a photorealistic rendition of it. Anime seeks
to harness an emotional representation of our world by mixing the mundane with
the uncanny. By exaggerating the measures of scale, colour and proportion,
platforms of emotional associations can be created. The visual language though
is not difficult to understand because of its spatial and cultural cues - there is
18

enough information in the references to visualise what the animation is trying to

communicating.19(p19,Swale)

The human condition has an imbedded universality in identifying with the abstractions of
abstractions of itself, which in turn enables relation to and understanding of communicated
communicated ideas. By removing detail from the portrayal of a person, focus is put on
put on specific details that universally relates to more people.20 In Anime, the focus is put on
focus is put on characters and their visual representation is achieved by omitting unnecessary
unnecessary detail. The purpose of abstraction or cartooning a subject in Anime is to draw
is to draw identification with them and mentally transform into the spaces they occupy. On one
occupy. On one hand, physical features are omitted to make the subject more attractive and on
attractive and on the other hand limiting the features enables the concept of universal
universal identification. (

Figure 2. 1)

"The cartoon is a vacuum into which our identity and awareness are pulled. An
empty shell that we inhabit which enables us to travel into another realm. We do
not just observe the cartoon we become it."21 [p36 Understanding Comics - Scott
McCloud]
19

Abstraction as a visual technique can be applicable in other platforms of

representation. Although not as naturally occurring, conceptual and visual
connections can be made with the abstraction of architecture.() Through the
principal of referencing, one can mentally interpret and reconstruct the spatial
signifiers to reach a point of understanding about the idea being communicated.
This happens because there is enough precedence in our lived experience to
distinguish and catalogue spatial elements so that when the abstraction of a door
is presented, you know it is a door a not a window. The aesthetics of Anime
however, does not represent its architecture in a minimalistic way, it
dramatically does the opposite to achieve spatial emersion. Architectural
abstractions do communicate ideas about space but lack the appeal of wanting to
inhabit them.

Figure 2. 1 Subtracting detail from the human form to create universal identification Understanding Comics, S. McCloud

20

Figure 2. 2 Abstractions of architectural elements

The aesthetic language communicated by Anime can be defined and understood

by the categorisation of object and subject. By establishing the artistic choices
that go into the subjectivity of the characters and their extensions, an
understanding of the spatial context and its objectification can be made. This
type of visual communication is known as Masking. This is communicated by
way of a simple artistic approach that connects logically with human perception.

"The brain does not perceive what we see directly as a whole, but processes
shape, colour, and action separately and integrate them later, 22

When watching Anime, the first thing the brain perceives is the black iconic
outlines of the characters. Even though lines like this do not appear in real life,
there is an instinctive awareness of it because it represents the barrier to our
fragile bodies and so are conscious of this invisible edge that is meant to shields
us from collision with external objects.23 The brain then recognises colour and
shade which together with the outlines, work towards distinguishing the
subjective character from the objective environments.

Cel Shading is the colouring technique that is applied to the animated subjects.
The process involves applying a two colour shading scheme with a third for
highlights and or strong shadows.(Figure 2. 3) This limited scheme helps create

21

the illusion of depth by the way it sits in contrast against the background.
Elements like the highlights and shadows respond to a fabricated lighting system
to further enhance the perception of space. This shading technique is applied to
the characters and subjective extensions. Depending on the number of frames in
the animation sequence, would have to be applied multiple times in an almost
copy paste manner which is essentially how it is applied nowadays, digitally
using colour fill techniques.

Figure 2. 3 Types of Cel Shading

In comparison, the colour and shading scheme of the backgrounds and spatial
elements has a more congealed realism to them. They are hand painted with
blended gradients and have detailed texturing to create a feeling that is both
natural and uncanny. The combination of the simple coloured abstractions
allows readers to mask themselves in a character and comfortably engage with
the illusion of the stimulating world.24 (p44, S. Buchan) The artistic detailing of
the spatial aspects makes them feel more immersive. As there is no reason to
identify with the inanimate objects, brick walls, furniture and buildings tend to
be more realistic.25[p42] We start to believe that the environment can be
occupied because we recognise cues from our own lived spaces, it makes sense
in our heads and so we use the iconic character as a vessel to enter and inhabit
those environments. Due to the volumetric limitations and the absence of a
physical camera, effort is put towards creating as much depth and
dimensionality in the image before animation has even occurred.

22

23

24

Dimension 2: Compositing

The nature of work that defines this layer happens in the way of key animation,
planar compositing, motion and so forth. It is the manifestation of the Anime
world as a sequence of moving images.

What happens during the compositing process that brings Anime to life and
gives it spatial dimensionality?

In drawn animation, the moving figures and sense of space they inhabit can
only be experienced through projection. The art work is planar

26

( p19,

S.Buchan )

Early 1900's animation compositing comprised of a background plane and a

character layer. With the exception of horizontal scrolling of the background
depicting lateral space, all notions of perspective, depth and movement had to be
drawn by hand, into the character layer. So for example if the subject is walking
away from the audience and into the background, the movement would be
drawn frame by frame, depicting the subject gradually getting smaller. This was
how the illusion of depth was created. But once the subject has completely left
the scene, any sense of depth had left with it because the background layer is
just a flat drawing.

25

The issue was how to take a flat image of an environment and give the
properties of how a live environment behaves as you move around it. For
example, moving a camera through a room, the perception of objects in the
room would adjust independently of each other giving a sense volume and space
between objects. (Figure 2. 4) However, if you take a camera and move it
towards an image of that same room with the intention of revealing spatial
qualities, a false effect will be perceived because the image has no volume or
depth to it. The Multiplane camera (Figure 2. 5) was invented to overcome this
and create a sense of three-dimensional space.

Figure 2. 4 Live room effect vs. Image of room effect

26

The Multiplane camera is a tool popularised by Disney Studios. Walt Disney

described it as a super cartoon camera designed to make animations more
realistic and enjoyable.27 The consequence of this instrument is that it enables
spatial cues that resemble our real life experience of space by introducing depth
and perspective to graphic animation. 28 ( p20, S.Buchan ) The Multiplane
camera should not be confused with live action camera. Although the name
implies, the Multiplane camera is not a camera in the traditional sense, It could
be thought of like an obsolete scanner.
The drawing is split up into layers according to the varying distance of each
element from the spectators point of view. The layers would then be slotted into
a vertical rack, on top of which would be placed a fixed, frame capture camera.
With the image divided into layers, it was possible to control the direction and
speed each layer moved towards and away from the camera. This manoeuvring
of layers is done to mimic the movement of a live camera to add depth and
realism. With the Multiplane camera, animators were able to create the illusion
of depth and space through effects such as Parallax scrolling.

27

Figure 2. 5 Multiplane camera

Parallax is the visual phenomena of objects moving at varying speeds according to the distance
to the distance from which it is viewed from. In our world this effect can be strongly felt in
strongly felt in transportation. On a train for example (

Figure 2. 6), one can experience the parallax effect by noticing how the objects
closest to the train like poles, signs and platforms shift past the window faster
than the objects in the far distance such as hills, fields and buildings. The
environment is not actually moving; rather the illusion is enabled by the moving
train and in turn perceived by the eye. In live action film, the camera behaves
like eyes on a train and any motion that occurs, the camera records will result in
the perception of naturally occurring visual effects such as motion blur, focus
shift and parallax. In animation however, these visual effects have to be reverse
engineered into the compositing process and the Multiplane camera enables this.

28

Figure 2. 6 Parallax effect

Anime takes reference from 3D world logic to create its own spaces but behaves
completely unique to it. The behaviour of a live camera is interpreted into the
choreography of 2D composited planes. What becomes apparent is a noticeable
set of peculiarities in the visual effects and the way in which space unfolds in
the Anime format.
The Multiplane camera had a maximum of four mountable racks. One for
foreground objects, one for character animation, and two for background
objects. In order to achieve higher complexity in spatial movements additional
compositing technology would be needed which before the 90s were not
commonplace. During this transitional period, Anime studios were able to
experiment with techniques that would enable compositions of increased
density. By pre-composing a sequence on the Multiplane camera and then
superimposing it digitally onto another set of composited layers for the same
sequence, a higher level of spatial complexity could be achieved. The
significance of this is the sheer possibilities of emergence into an Anime world.
Depth is deepened, spaces are skewed, scale is stretched, and the world that is
shown in the frame becomes ever more plastically real.

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Dimension 3: Editing
This layer takes shape in the way the spatial aspects are represented through
editing. The process renders the depiction of the Anime World complete.

How does Editing enhance the experience of space in Anime ?

Editing in Anime entails joining different animated sequences together to form

the scenes of the film. The aim is to build a complete version of the Anime so
that it will be suitable and ready for viewership. The following points are
motivations to consider when editing. 29

Does the cut:

Influence what the audience should be feeling at that particular
moment?
Progress the narrative?
Appear rhythmically interesting and appropriate?
Control the spectators point of interest within the frame?

30

The most common type of edit is the 'straight cut' from one shot to another. This
technique is unnoticeable and the affect is a change in image. It is the simplest
way to transition through space. Another type of common edit is the dissolve. A
gradual transition from one scene to another that usually emphasises a
development in the story by illustrating the passage of time. This can be used
spatially to show how an environment has changed over time, or a changed
environment can be used as the visual cue that represents the passage of time.
For example, the processes of construction, building decay or spatial
displacement.

The effects of editing create a visual constructiveness of a story. It defines how

you move through a certain environment or how you move from one location to
another. The pieces of plastic architecture become legible and immersive when
they are connected and presented in a specific order. An understanding of the
Anime world is solidified through the cuts and transitions that occur in the
editing process. In live action, it is common for scene to have footage taken
from various geographical locations and through editing, create the illusion of
one coherent space.

In Anime, the principals of editing are the same as live action film. However
because the space is not limited to any physical restrictions,

opens the

possibilities to take these rudimentary editing principals and apply them to

playfully distort and subvert the audiences perception of space.

31

The late Shatoshi Kon is regarded as one of the greatest Japanese Anime film
makers of the last 20 years. In Kon's films, there is a noticeable trajectory of a
tendency to subvert the understanding of three-dimensional space.30 The
experience of these spaces are carried through by themes and narratives that
depict modern people who cope with living multiple lives - private/public
(Perfect

Blue),

off-screen/on-screen

(Millenium

Actress)

and

waking/dreaming(Paprika).

Kon's style of editing was highly creative and unusual in achieving the spatial
uncanny of the different realities depicted in his films. One of his most
noticeable techniques was match cut transitions. This happens when two scenes
are connected with some form of visual gesture in the way of appearance,
position, action or eye line that carries through from the one scene to the next.
Cuts like this are common but they are not something most film makers use to
build a signature style out of. More often the match cut is used as a one off
effects. Kon however would use the technique in wave like combinations that
manifest in portal like movements from space to space, carried out in a manner
that was both exciting and distorting at times.

Kons inspiration for this type of edit can be seen in the live film Slaughterhouse
Five. In this film there are three types of matching scene transitions. An action
match cut, graphical match and cross cutting between two scenes that mirror
each other compositionally. He uses all of these in his films but also implements
more unorthodox methods of matching such as; crossing the frame into a new
scene, zoom out from a TV screen, use black frames to jump cut, use objects to
wipe the frame and even have the upcoming scene framed within the current
32

scene.31 An example of Kon's intense layering use of match cutting is evident in

his final feature Paprika.(2006)

In the opening scenes of Paprika, there are five different dream sequences that
are revealed in less than four minutes but are all interconnected using match
cuts.() Because of the number of spaces revealed in such a short amount of time,
the matching cuts enable spatial continuity. Intentional or not, Kon is exploring
a grammar of engagement with space that subverts the indexical topography of
building interiors.32 The matching scene transitions act as stabilisers so the
audience can subconsciously keep up with the pace of movement through the
different environments. Without the match cuts, it would be close to impossible
to make sense of the spatial narrative in this sequence.

33

Satoshi Kon's editing style also highlights the ability to cut really fast in Anime
and still be able to communicate the narrative. By removing visual information
and drawing less detail into the shot, the eye can read the sequences faster. The
faster the cut, the more subliminal the information becomes. This style of
editing was not used to cut costs either. Kon felt that we each experience space,
time, reality and fantasy at the same time as individuals but also collectively as a
society. His style was an attempt to depict this through image. Kon pushed his
ideas in ways that made Anime stand out to other visual mediums, not just
through elastic images but elastic editing, a unique way of moving from space to
space.33

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35

CHAPTER 3: The Plastic City

36

Case Study 1: Akira (1988)

A traditionally made Japanese animation that was produced in a time before CGI
was commonplace. It was a pioneering film that pushed the genre to new heights
in the early 90s.34 The film takes place in the fictional city of Neo Tokyo.

"set in a' dystopian background of civil chaos, religious revivalism, and

government oppression that forms the core of the films narrative."35 (p42. S.J.
Napier)

Neo Tokyo is like a reflection of the real Tokyos entanglement with urban
design and master planning. The city could be inspired by endurances of
historical events that have shaped and reshaped the urban fabric in Japan. In
1872, the great fire of Ginza Tokyo burned down much of the areas buildings
and infrastructure. As a result, the government at the time made Ginza a model
of modernisation leading to the construction of buildings that were made from
fireproof bricks with wider and safer connecting streets.36 Damages of the
Second World War and ultimately the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
would not only flatten those cities but also have residual impact on everything in
Japan from then on. Reoccurring earthquakes and tsunami have consistently
tested Japan's ability to fortify its built environments in order to live with these
harsh natural conditions. However, an even closer premise for Akira is that
Tokyo bay has in the past been the focus of archived plans to extend the city,
based on pressures bought on by rapid post war population growth.
37

Figure 3. 1 Plan for Tokyo 1960 - Kenzo Tange Architects

Figure 3. 2 Plan of Neo Tokyo - Akira (1988)

38

The year is 2019AD, Neo Tokyo is a man-made metropolis island built in the
Tokyo Bay. The 21,451,800 population of Neo Tokyo is said to be living in a
geographic area of 410.32 m2 making it the most densely populated city in the
world.37 This pre-condition provides logic for the urban design of Neo Tokyo.
The first few scenes gradually reveal the layers of the elastically charged
architecture, depicting a strong sense of how the city it put together

Akira begins with a basement bar that sits in the context of rundown neighbourhood. (
neighbourhood. (

Figure 3. 3) The bar is part of a six storey detached building complex. This is
important because it defines the nature of the bar's interior and its relationship to
the rest of the building. (Figure 3. 4) A stairway leads to the entrance of the bar.
The scene indicates the stairway to be flush against the right hand wall which
should signify the end of the of the buildings structure. However, upon entering
the bars interior, shots from different angle reveal distortions in the spatial
consistency.

If the bar is following the wall line of the building, the wall on the right inside
the bar should follow down from the wall shown in the stair well. But this is not
the case. (Figure 3. 5) The shot of the inside wall where the entrance door sits
indicates around two meters of extended space, suggesting the load of the right
wall is not directly being supported by anything. The point is not to highlight
flaws in the architectural accuracy of the film, but rather to exemplify how
Anime bends the representation of a space to communicate an idea and in doing

39

so generates its own architectural rules. This language gets more elaborate as the
city is revealed on a larger scale.

Figure 3. 3 Opening scene from Akira

Figure 3. 4 Stairway to entrance of the bar

40

Figure 3. 5 Stretching the internal wall

There is a pre conceived understanding about the constructed-ness of the Anime

style that allows an immersion into the action. In Akira, there is chase scene that
involves motorcycles and changing city backdrops. This sequence provides an
understanding of the narrative motives for the vastness and scale variations in
Neo Tokyo. But what is interesting is the transition in size and density the
further back into the layered spaces, the relative proportions reduces in
sensibility. The buildings in the background become warped and highly
exaggerated, towering and stretching over everything.

41

Figure 3. 6 Chase scene from Akira

There is the presence of a subjective motivation in the form of the motorcycles

that act as a lens to which the city can be observed through. Fluid movement of
the motorcycle serves as a kinetically communicated distinction to the unmoving
structure of power and authority, represented by the enormous massed buildings
that rise threateningly in the face of bikers charge. 38 (p41. S.J. Napier) The
military hospital is one of these buildings and a closer look reveals just how
enormous it is made out to be.

According to Akira wiki, the hospital is at least one kilometre tall. 39 To put that
into perspective, the Burj Khalifa in Dubai is 830m tall. And these buildings are
packed into the Neo Tokyo's skyline. To emphasis this, the windows on the
buildings are drawn in a peculiar way. Almost like smears of tiny dotted lines
that lash across the building walls, wave after wave, indistinguishable from one
another. Also because the perspective does not follow any particular line, the
buildings do not vanish, they just warp vertically and fill the frame.

42

Figure 3. 7 Military Hospital

The four layer system of the Multiplane camera was used to animate Akira and
the dynamics of moving through the films environments would have been
dictated by that. In Akira, the architecture is revealed with considerable control
and subtlety because of the mechanics of the instrument that imitates camera
movement. There is a feeling of a well oiled machine smoothly grinding out the
different shots depicted in the frame. The evolution of movement through space
is evident in the following two examples that utilise technological advancements
in animation.

43

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Case Study 2: Cannon Fodder (1995)

Cannon Fodder was produced in the transitional phase of Anime production
techniques. The film is essentially traditionally animated but unravels its
(unnamed) city in a very unique way that confirms the use of early digital
advances.

In a world where a fully militarized society lives and breathes the operation and
firing of cannons, a young boy dreams of becoming the one who fires the
cannons. 40

Memories (1995) by Director Katsuhiro Otomo, is a compilation of three short

films which are known for their very distinct art styles. Attention will be drawn
to the third instalment of the trilogy titled Cannon Fodder. The film takes place
in an unnamed fictional city and has very little in the way of plot. This in a sense
helps focus on the visual techniques used to communicate the architecture of the
city. The film illustrates very unique artistry compared to the typical Japanese
Anime style. The gritty sketchy style of art compliments the architectural
language which is somewhat military defensive but in a steam punk meets
communism sort of way. The driving and reoccurring artefact in the film is the
cannon. () There are cannons positioned on a lot of the buildings in the city and
they are aimed towards the same directions. The direction of the cannons gives
the city a sense of positioning within a greater context, binding to a geographic
location.

45

The cannons are interesting as references for understanding scale but not the
kind of scale that is used to communicate accurate proportions of buildings.
They reiterate the idea of a plastic architecture that motivates emotional
response by being so exaggerated. In the city, the role of the building becomes
secondary to the cannon. The building exists to serve as a pedestal onto which
the cannons are perched.

46

The perspective of the cityscape is depicted in similar fashion to Akira which

radically blows out of proportion the structures in the distance. The spatial
narrative becomes obvious, size and scale are dominant features to emphasise
their significance in the film. The infrastructure has a sort of elongated
stretchiness that dominates the view, giving the feeling of a totalitarian presence.
The motivation is drawn into the design and then revealed through the frame.

What is unique about this thirty-minute film is that it has no cuts between
scenes. The transitions from space to space occur as if the whole film is one long
continuous shot. An experimental idea led by Director Otomo resulting in some
very complex compositional creations of spatial uncanny. Otomo wanted people
to "submerge themselves into that world, without thinking about it too much."41
The animation also attempts to execute extremely eccentric camera movements
that were unheard of in Anime prior to Memories, and would be impossible to
achieve without some additional digital support. From basic vertical tracking to
quiet complex 360 rotation while simultaneous shifting the focus point,
compositional motion dominates the film and the spatial layers are constantly
moving around to reveal the world.

47

48

The film gives the impression that it was a technical expose of ways in which to
explore spatial environments through the emerging animation tools at that time.
Upon dissecting the Cannon dome scene in the film, it becomes clear as to what
kind of unusual process went into building the Cannon Fodder world.

In a typical Anime production that uses the Multiplane camera to composite a

sequence, we should be able to count four distinct layers in action. However, in
Cannon Fodder, this does not seem to be the case. There are layers of complex
compositing that exceed the limitations of the humble four-layered Multiplane
camera.

49

50

In the Cannon dome sequence, the spatial environment is revealed by following

the commander character as he makes his way around the dome structure. We
are visually taken on a spatial transition from the ground level platform to an
upper platform via a lift. The sequence entails many moving parts that create the
illusion of being revolved 360 around the commander while the frame pans
from low to high, following the elevation of the lift.

In live action this scene would only need the camera to be moved on a rig
around a subject. Whether the subject is Static or dynamic, the visual effects of
space and motion would occur naturally. This is allot harder to achieve in 2D
animation because everything has to be constructed to move relatively otherwise
the scene will fail. In order to convey this movement, the subject would have
been hand drawn frame by frame rotating in what seems to be counter clockwise
to the camera. Furthermore, as there is no physical camera that moves through
the space (as there is no real space) the background is shifted around to
compliment the intended camera technique creating parallax and motion. The
effect of this is a complex composition of layers provides the illusion of a three
dimensional dome structure that is large in scale with various sub sets that sit
within its big open space. The background that depicts this space is not just
simply an over drawn rectangle representing a dome structure that is panned
across a stationary mounted camera. It is a series of complex architectural
moments that warp to convey a sense of coherency within the frame but beyond
it, are not that tangible. When the composition of the Cannon Dome scene is
unravelled, we get a sense of how elastic the architecture of this space really is.

51

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Case Study 3: Tekkonkinkreet (2006)

Tekkonkinkreet is an Anime that integrates the use of modern CGI with
traditional hand drawn animation. The film takes place in the fictional world of
Treasure Town. It is a sprawling yet isolated island city where the two main
characters, Black and White fight for survival.42

"Sound of the words Tekkonkinkreet evoked this idea of a toy box that a kid
spilled out on the ground and that was one of the images I had in mind for this
whole world, as being this ramshackle, perhaps a bit chaotic, environment."43

53

An overall sense of the city is depicted in the opening sequence of the film. The
quality of space is revealed in the level of detail in the buildings, making evident
the immersive principals of the Anime aesthetics. The scene then unfolds
through an acrobatic fly through which confirms the presence of a 3D virtual
camera, highlighting the evolution of the technology used to produce Japanese
Anime. A strong feature that stands out in the way Treasure Town is depicted
through the use of abnormal perspectives and exaggerated fields of view. In
some scenes, the city is shown to have its own curvature and the buildings seem
to bend and arc across the horizon. This communicates a similar kind of vastness
and density to the way Neo Tokyo exaggerates its buildings in Akira's
backgrounds. The Difference is that Neo Tokyo has a stronger verticality
whereas Treasure Town is mostly low lying. The infrastructures in both films do
however support their spatial narratives. Akira's techno/sci-fi theme with an
immense population to land ratio suits the concept of a vertical city.
Tekkonkinkreet's gangs and slums theme is reflected in the low lying
'ramshackle' town. Another similarity of these two cities is that they are both
surrounded by water. This could symbolise a sort of gateway to the 'other
worldly-ness' that Anime portrays. Director Michael Arias wanted it to feel like
some kind of parallel universe that seem like an organic place but something
where no one's been to.44

54

There are distinct motifs and emblems that decorate the tops of the buildings
throughout the city. Like Cannon Fodder, they act as symbols that give the city
a certain narrative ambiance. But the exaggeration in scale and proportion of the
city is also highlighted by the way the geometries warp in an unrealistic manner.
Due to Treasure Town being entirely fictional, there is effort in the aesthetic
design that creates spatial identification through cultural and geographic cues.

"...it's got futuristic elements...references to Tokyo, Osaka...also other big Asian

cities, Hong Kong and Jakarta."45
55

With enough referential pre conditioning, a subconscious connection back to

types of artefacts that layer the structures of Pan-Asian cityscape such as Hong
Kong and Jakarta can be made. Apart from being references of scale and setting,
they act as vantage points for the films protagonists (Black and White) to
observe the city.

Treasure Town was constructed using hand drawn textures mixed with CGI
technology to create the illusion of a partially three-dimensional world. The
intention was to add an extra dimension by introducing of camera movement
56

and spatial depth to the scenes.46 The technique used to achieve this is called
texture mapping. This is where the hand drawn cells of each buildings, facades
and street objects are converted into digital texture maps which are then applied
onto planar geometry that are constructed in the digital space of the computer
software. This is not to be confused with the process of modelling 3D geometry
that has materials applied to the surfaces. This process would result in a more
accurate representation of volumes in space. The buildings in Tekkonkinkreet
however, do not exist as full 3D volumes. Instead they manifest as the digital
incarnations of traditionally hand drawn planes that are brought to life with the
inclusion of a virtual 3D camera.

The advantage of this is to achieve more complex camera simulations that allow
movement around the spaces in a way that was not possible in traditional cel
animation alone. What becomes apparent though is the nature of fluidity in the
camera's movement. Compared to Cannon fodder and Akira where spatial
navigation were still very ambitious and engaging, however, the animation felt
more grounded like a well oiled machine. The Multiplane camera was analogue
and did not move. Its movement had to be forged by the layers underneath it.
The feeling is like a steam train on a rail road track. The virtual 3d camera is
digital and its movement is sharp, fluid and it feels like a maglev bullet train.

The challenge with using CGI is how to maintain the essence of Traditional
Anime. When animators draw a door in motion, they make it more trapezoidal
and exaggerate its thickness as it opens up in order to convey its movement. CGI
modelling accurately reproduces the perspective involved in depicting a doors
movement therefore its movement becomes subtle and mundane. Its different
57

from the cel animation effect. In order to convey that motion, the door has to be
stretched and modelled trapezoidal. In modern Anime production, there is a
practice of deliberately miscalculating the CGI to produce the cell animation
movement.47

58

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CHAPTER 4: application

62

Application in Design Studio

Can the techniques used to create the spatial qualities of Anime be used as a tool
in Architectural Practice?

The techniques discussed in part one have been identified to have spatial
capabilities that can be used as production tools to generate architectural
propositions and represent them through a time based platform.

The 5th year studio project is located in Tokyo and the architectural theme is of
a Japanese nature. The primary deliverable is a film that communicates the
architectural proposition of the projects. These were the drivers for investigating
the possibilities of using Anime techniques as a way of representing and
communicating the architectural ideas.

The Aim was to provide a clear understanding of the architectural concepts but
in a way that creates a sense of immersion and emotional response that would be
pleasing and somewhat different when compared to typical photorealistic
representation methods. The plan was to take current and accessible 2D and 3D
animation software that in addition to their intended applications could also
(with some lengthy tinkering) communicate spatial qualities in the way Anime
does.

63

By applying the masking technique that is used on Anime subjects, the designed
elements of the project become identifiable in contrast to the site. The
architecture becomes a subjective vessel of engagement for the observer. A
solid, two-tone colour shading scheme with a black outline was used to
distinguish the architectural elements. Limiting information in the way of
removing specula highlights, glossiness and complex lighting systems, allow the
representation to become partially abstract, communicating only what is
important to the project.

The site was treated like an Anime background with contextual cues to make the
location identifiable. Generous detail is apparent in the buildings of the site. As
there are no immediate landmarks within the vicinity, focus was put on the
nuances of the site and is exaggerated to strengthen the contextual meaning.
Texture was applied in the surfaces to further objectify the site.

So far, a simple means of texturing had been used. This was done subtly by
blending texture maps into the already mentioned solid colour material. The
textures themselves were manipulated to look more painterly prior to application
on the background elements. The aesthetic aspiration would be to combine
coarsely detailed, hand drawn textures and project them onto 2D planes by way
of texture mapping to create strong spatial immersion with complex layers of
architecture as seen in the film Tekkonkinkreet.

The Animation style that demonstrates the spatial properties of the project was
achieved by using a combination of traditional planar compositing techniques
64

with current video compositing software. As the Architectural components were

modelled in a virtually simulated 3D environment, a certain amount of reverse
engineering went into achieving a unique spatial expression.

The perception of three dimensional properties in the modelling software was

reduced to make the image look more planar. This was done by controlling the
field of view in the virtual camera that navigates the 3D space. Another
technique was to limit the cameras motion path in order to behave more like the
Multiplane camera used in Anime. The elements of the scene were then
separated into layers with transparent backgrounds simulating the celluloid
sheets in traditional animation. The layers were then composited using 2D
animation software. Complex animation sequences would be generated in the
3D programme and exported as a series of flat images. All other motion was
fabricated in the compositing software. In order to feed the illusion of depth
back into the animation, visual effects such parallax scrolling, focus shifting and
motion blur were applied to the layers. In order to achieve these visual effects in
the 2D programme, the addition of an artificial camera into the scene was
required. The camera introduces the Z axis allowing the planar layers to be
moved in Z space, thus creating 2.5 dimensional spaces. With this space, the
camera is able to simulate the desired visual effects. However, an interesting
deviation of software protocol was discovered whereby the camera and Z space
was altogether bypassed, but the same visual effects were still achieved. This
was done by simply translating the traits of Z space (depth) into the two
dimensional transform (position, scale, rotation) properties of the planar layers.
So the effect of the layer moving away from the camera can be simulated by
literally scaling the layer down. This may be useful because it stream lines the

65

production process. This technique also bares operational similarities to the way
animation was made with the Multiplane camera.

The editing somewhat dictated the over feeling of the animation process. There
was some conscious effort made in complying with the motivations of emotion,
story, rhythm and framing. But the effects are not as obvious as there are no
focal subjects present in the animations to carry the action. In the film
Playstation The focus is drawn on moving around the architecture, depicting
how it exists within its made up context and how it functions but the films
editing is essentially an elaborate 'fly through.' By Drone Alley, there is a
stronger narrative motivation for the editing to contribute spatially to the film.

The editing insofar has been used to make the architecture tangible. Medium to
Long sequences with straight cuts is used on action in predictable situations. For
example, () shows the scene at the cut and switches to another angle in order to
keep the focus on action in the frame. This is because the architecture does not
exist beyond this point. But through the cuts and transitions, is made consistent
and whole. It reflects the conversation of the frame controlling the space within
in it but when the frame is removed, reveals a far more plastic and mutable
architecture.

[example]

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With the absence of subjective interaction, there is a need to add a layer of

complexity to the editing in order to amplify the spatial narrative and make the
experience of the architecture more radical. With the knowledge of Shatoshi
Kon's editing style and means of application, It would be interesting to see how
the spatial language reads with faster cuts and shorter inserts. Some scenes may
require the removal of visual information in order to become more legible.

67

Application in Architecture Practice

Architecture clients have a priority in wanting to know what their projects will
look like in real life. This is why photorealistic visualisation with an emphasis
on 'realism', in most cases is substantial enough to represent an idea and satisfy
clients needs. Therefore the application of Japanese animation techniques as
means of communicating architectural ideas in professional practice is
something of a stretch. However, from the understanding of plastic cities in
Anime Films, there seems to be a stronger sense of appropriation for the
techniques of Anime in architectural practice at an urban scale. This is because
the architecture becomes more dynamic and less palpable. Abstract conditions
arise that could be suitable for Anime's capacity to produce spatial narratives
focusing less on accurate representation and more on generating emotional
responses through immersive cinematic experiences.

BIG Architects often use film and animation to communicate their design
proposals. These techniques work well in delivering engagement to large scale
projects that have a strong public interest. For example, BIG's 'Big U' initiative
seeks to develop an urban strategy that will protect the areas and inhabitants of
lower Manhattan from future flooding. The ideas of this proposal are creatively
communicated in a short film using part live footage and part 3D animation. The
way the spatial interventions are represented through the mixing of the fake and
the real is rather engaging. By using camera tracking technology, the 3D
animation is composited into the live footage. The effect of this is a cartoonish
unravelling of architecture, popping out of the existing fabric with a slight
bounciness as the camera moves around the city. The elastic nature of how the
virtual concepts are integrated into the real world is done deliberately to make
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the film exciting and more importantly, generate an appeal towards the
realisation of the project. This style is also example of the masking effect,
whereby there is an obvious distinction between subjective and objective
elements, allowing a sense of immersion into the spaces being animated.

The larger the scale of architecture becomes, the more people it affects.
Therefore there is purpose in using a type of architectural representation that is
universally understood and easily accessible by as many people as possible.
BIG's 'Big U' official video has over 67,300 views on Vimeo and an additional
20,000 on Youtube48, This shows that the use of animation to communicate
architectural ideas can be appealing because it is in a form of visual
communication that many people can understand and relate to. Platforms like
Vimeo and Youtube are made for film and animation so they provide suitable
means for architectural ideas communicated through film and animation to reach
a wider audience.

As identified in Part one, and exemplified by BIG's Big U film, the aesthetic
principals found in Anime are used in different forms of representation. Also,
the fundamentals of editing techniques are widely used in film and animation.
The aspect of Anime that was unique and could have provided an alternative
take on communicating space in Architecture practice is the compositing
techniques of the Multiplane camera. However, this technique is expensive, time
consuming and has ultimately been made obsolete by modern animation
techniques. The subtlety, control and well oiled feeling of traditional Anime are
something that is hard to surrogate with modern CGI. There is a tension between
digital and cel animation that reduces the immersive factor of current Anime
69

film. However, by speculating the removal of the character element, and

replacing this subjectivity with inanimate architecturally designed objects, the
spatial quality of traditional Anime could be inserted into the practices of film
based architectural representation.

The similarities of real space and the space of perspective drawing encouraged
the architect to assume that the projection was capable of representing a
proposed architectural concept and therefore design in perspective.

49

The

experience of the real space though occurs in time. Therefore the representation
of architecture in time can be achieved by designing in Animation.

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CHAPTER 5: Conclusion

74

Found Merits of Architectural Value

Anime and Architecture has explored the spatial dimension in the production
stages of Anime to reveal a unique way of observing the architectural image that
exists inside the realm of the frame. An Analysis has been made of the role of
architecture and the way spatial language in Anime has evolved over two
decades of technological changes in animation. Finally, the merits of Anime
techniques as design tools in studio and application within architecture practice
have been also discussed.

The aesthetic design strategy plays to the sensitivity of the human psyche, far
beyond the superficial observations of the Big Eyes, Big Hair, Big Breasts, and
Big Robots that is commonly associated with Anime. The meticulous attention
given to the spatial environments provides a sense of realism and depth.
However, not the kind of realism that tries to replicate our lived experience of
space because Anime does not prioritise a photorealistic representation. Rather
aims to capture the essence of Anime into a culmination of a quasi-malleable
realism that our imagination is comfortable engaging with because the artistic
language allows the mind to differentiate between real and the fake. The code of
aesthetic distinction that is applied to animated subjects and the inanimate
objects helps achieve the effect of masking where the objects without
personality become visually and therefore mentally objectified, so as to
distinguish and to detract from the subjective objects.

75

Through the multi facets of composition, backgrounds become elastically

versatile, architectural portals that enable the immersion into another form of
reality a plastic, ambiguously dimensional reality. The background plane also
becomes a form of architectural representation, an artefact that functions to
realise the world that is shown through the frame. But most interestingly, is the
malleability of the architecture that becomes apparent when the frame is
removed, the space within it is deconstructed and its true form is revealed.

The Anime World is carefully crafted to harbour a reality that is not meant to
exist outside the confines of the frame. Once outside the frame, the reality
becomes illegible and our understanding of that world becomes tainted. As a
way of sustaining the illusion of plastic Anime World, cuts and transitions piece
together the fragments of architectural moments to create a coherent narrative
and continuity of space.

76

The Plastic City and Beyond

The Anime case studies illustrate transitions in scale to bolster different points in
the narrative, the interior spaces are sub sets of the building and the story
unfolds on an intimate scale. Then we have the Architecture at building scale
that incorporates greater contextual meaning. Finally, the city acts as the
overarching universe and its scalability is omnipotent.

Technology has effected how each film reveals its city. From Neo Tokyo that
essentially existed as four planar images at a time, to the countless fragments of
Treasure Town that existed in an unlimited virtual platform, the layers of space
in the film became more complex and ambitious as animation technology
developed.

The Anime Worlds have come to flourish through a pioneering set of techniques
that take shape in a unique and appealing form of artistic expression. Through
this expression, unusual ways of reading spatial environments come to be that
have the capacity to excite and create dialogue. This engagement comes from
the relationship of the real and unreal in Anime, which is orchestrated to be
enjoyed by the limitations of the Anime World.

Techniques that exercise the type of spatial language found in Anime are so far
unfamiliar to conventional filmic representations of Architecture. This language
allows for a more playful and stimulating response to environmental spaces by

77

communicating a strong narrative perspective. This is made possible through a

type of lens that distorts the architecture just enough to draw attention into
another realm of spatial possibilities. But at the same time keeps the spectator
grounded in a certainty that is pleasing and identifiable. 50

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NOTES

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Notes
1
2
3

3D animation/CGI, created in 3D software such as Autodesk Maya that generates geometry in a

virtual 3D space, simulating a physical camera and the naturally occurring visual properties such as
perspective scale and depth, but with the added ability to digitally manipulate these spatial
properties.
4
Traditional animation - hand drawn also known as Cel animation due to the transparent celluloid
sheets used to paint each frame onto.
5
3D animation/CGI, created in 3D software such as Autodesk Maya that generates geometry in a
virtual 3D space, simulating a physical camera and the naturally occurring visual properties such as
perspective scale and depth, but with the added ability to digitally manipulate these spatial
properties.
6
Digital 2D animation - commonly produced on Adobe Flash, vector based 2D geometry animated
using key frames and pre composed inventory.
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41

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42
43
44
45
46
47
48

The Art of Howls Moving Castle (p 188, Eric Searleman)

49
50

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Figures
Figure 1.1 Animation ........................................................................................... 5
Figure 1.2 Types of Animation ............................................................................ 7
Figure 1.3 Panda and the Magic Serpent (1958) .................................................. 8
Figure 1.4 Example of anime backgrounds .......................................................... 9
Figure 1.5 Disney Art Style ............................................................................... 11
Figure 1.6 Television Anime show - Astro Boy (1963) ..................................... 11
Figure 1.7 Mobile Suit Gundam (1979) ............................................................. 12
Figure 1.8 The History of Anime Time Line ..................................................... 13
Figure 2. 1 Subtracting detail from the human form to create universal
identification - Understanding Comics, S. McCloud ......................................... 20
Figure 2. 2 Abstractions of architectural elements ............................................. 20
Figure 2. 3 Types of Cel Shading ....................................................................... 22
Figure 2. 4 Live room effect vs. Image of room effect ...................................... 25
Figure 2. 5 Multiplane camera ........................................................................... 27
Figure 2. 6 Parallax effect .................................................................................. 28
Figure 2. 7 Spatial dimensionality ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3. 1 Plan for Tokyo 1960 - Kenzo Tange Architects .............................. 37
Figure 3. 2 Plan of Neo Tokyo - Akira (1988) .................................................. 37
Figure 3. 3 Opening scene from Akira ............................................................... 39
Figure 3. 4 Stairway to entrance of the bar ........................................................ 39
Figure 3. 5 Stretching the internal wall .............................................................. 39
Figure 3. 6 Chase scene from Akira ................................................................... 40
Figure 3. 7 Military Hospital .............................................................................. 41

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Bibliography
Books
Brown, S. T. (2006). Cinema Anime. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
Buchan, S. (2006). Animated Worlds. Eastleigh: John Libbey Publishing.

Essays
Journal Articles
Websites
Film

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