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Journal of Retailing 91 (4, 2015) 610626
Review
Looking Back to Move Forward: A Review of the Evolution

of Research in International Marketing Channels
Jessica J. Hoppner a, , David A. Griffith b,1
a
Department of Marketing, George Mason University, School of Business, 4400 University Drive, MS 1B1, Fairfax, VA 22030, United States
b Department of Marketing, College of Business and Economics, Lehigh University, Rauch Business Center, 365, 621 Taylor Street,
Bethlehem, PA 18015-3035, United States
Available online 29 May 2015
Abstract
Over the past fifty years, the scope of research on international marketing channels has significantly evolved. From an early focus on factors
influencing the expansion of marketing channels internationally, the literature now investigates a myriad of topics related to the challenges
of selecting channel structures and managing channel relationships. This article investigates the evolution of international marketing channels
research by reviewing 353 international channels-related articles published from 1965 to 2014 under a periodization approach. The assessment of
the state and evolution of the literature is used as a foundation for the identification of emerging themes that will move the field of international
marketing channels forward.
2015 New York University. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Review; International marketing channels; Political economy framework; Periodization; Managing international channel relationships
Introduction
Marketing channels are inter-organizational institutional
configurations for directing and supporting the flow, from production to use, of value (Balderston 1964) and have been a
central focus of the marketing discipline since its founding as
a field of academic inquiry (Bartels 1965; Wilkie and Moore
2003). Through the study of marketing channels, researchers
have developed a thoughtful understanding of the structure and
management of such inter-organizational arrangements (e.g.,
Frazier 1983; Heide 1994; Palmatier et al. 2006); however, it was
not until the field of marketing channels progressed from domestic issues to a global focus, slightly more than fifty years ago,
that the study of its more intricate international element began to
be formalized (Achrol, Reve, and Stern 1983; Griffith and Ryans
1995; Wilkie and Moore 2003). Driven by a dramatic increase in
the international activities of firms post-World War II, research
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 703 993 1796; fax: +1 703 993 1809.
E-mail addresses: jhoppner@gmu.edu (J.J. Hoppner),
david.a.griffith@lehigh.edu (D.A. Griffith).
1 Tel.: +1 610 758 6530; fax: +1 610 758 6941.
has since investigated a plethora of international issues ranging

from the factors influencing the internationalization of marketing channels to the cultural, political and economic differences
that effect the structure and management of international marketing channels (e.g., Anderson and Coughlan 1987; Bello
and Gilliland 1997; Cavusgil, Deligonul, and Zhang 2004;
Contractor and Kundu 1998; Kauser and Shaw 2004; Morgan,
Kaleka, and Katsikeas 2004; Severin, Louviere, and Finn 2001).
The rapid growth and expansion of research on international
marketing channels has resulted in the emergence of many independent areas of inquiry. The failure to systematically evaluate
the literature not only limits our understanding of the advancements made to date, but more importantly limits our ability to
advance the field into new areas of study.
Consequently, the purpose of this article is to review the
evolution of research on international marketing channels from
the past to the present day in terms of established trends in
topics and thought as well as to provide a prospective look
to future areas of inquiry. By doing so, this article attempts
to make two key contributions to the literature. First, while
previous reviews have been conducted on specific topics or constructs commonly examined in the literature (e.g., Aspelund,
Madsen, and Moen 2007; Katsikeas, Leonidou, and Morgan
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2015.04.005
0022-4359/ 2015 New York University. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
J.J. Hoppner, D.A. Grifth / Journal of Retailing 91 (4, 2015) 610626
2000; Sousa and Lages 2011), to the best of our knowledge,

none have sought to take a broad-based developmental approach
to understanding the extant literature. We examine the topics,
theories, and methods from a birds-eye view to uncover the
breadth and depth of the field as well as the themes that intertwine between areas to push the field forward. Second, this
review contributes to the literature by employing a periodization
approach (cf. Hollander et al. 2005) assessing the literature into
five-year periods to identify changes in the thoughts and actions
of researchers in the field of international marketing channels.
Through utilizing a periodization approach, we can better understand not only what contributions have been made and in what
areas they have occurred, thereby organizing the extant literature, but also their pattern of development, thereby providing
a foundation for identifying emerging themes that could assist
in determining the future of international marketing channels
research.
The remainder of this article is organized as follows: First,
we begin with a discussion of the study of international marketing channels, identifying its fundamental distinctions from
domestic marketing channels using the political economy framework (cf. Achrol, Reve, and Stern 1983; Stern and Reve 1980).
Next, we present the methodology used to provide the foundation for the review. Then, through a systematic analysis of 353
articles from the extant literature, we detail the current state of
the literature via the trends in the topics examined, the theories
employed, and the methods utilized and describe the evolution
of thought in international marketing channels. Lastly, building
from the review and the framework, emerging themes of future
research are discussed. We conclude with prospective reflection
on the role of international marketing channels research within
the larger literature on marketing channels.
International Marketing Channels
The importance of international marketing channels on the
firms global marketing operations (and strategies) has been a
focus of scholars for over half a century (e.g., Achrol, Reve,
and Stern 1983; Morgan, Kaleka, and Katsikeas 2004; Samaha,
Beck, and Palmatier 2014). To better understand international
marketing channels research, it is important to identify the key
distinction in philosophy between studies examining domestic
marketing channels and studies examining international marketing channels. Marketing channels, as noted previously, are
generally defined as inter-organizational institutional configurations for directing and supporting the flow, from production
to use, of value (Balderston 1964). Conceptualized within the
political economy framework (Achrol, Reve, and Stern 1983;
Stern and Reve 1980), marketing channels can be decomposed
into a primary task, a secondary task and a macro-environment.
The primary task environment consists of the immediate parties
within the focal dyad (i.e., suppliers and customers). The secondary task environment consists of the less immediate upstream
and downstream parties that interact with the focal dyad as
well as the regulatory agents and other parties that have an
influence on the focal dyad. The macro-environment consists
of the general social, economic, political and technological
611
forces impinging on the activities occurring within the primary

and secondary task environments. The key distinction between
international marketing channels and domestic marketing channels research is the environment that is selected as the primary
focus.
In the domestic marketing channel context, the primary focus
is on understanding the activities occurring within the primary
and secondary task environments while maintaining homogeneity in the macro-environment. Research on the primary task
environment has examined issues that influence the behaviors
of the focal dyad (inclusive of the structure of the dyad and its
management), such as implicit and explicit contracts or extracontractual incentives (e.g., Kashyap, Antia, and Frazier 2012;
Lusch and Brown 1996), whereas research on the secondary
task environment has expanded beyond the focal dyad to issues
related to upstream/downstream channel partner structure and
management, such as how behavior toward a downstream customer depends upon the governance mechanisms employed
toward an upstream supplier (Wathne and Heide 2004) or how
suppliers enhance profitability by balancing the investments
made with their manufacturers and their indirect industrial buyers (Dahlquist and Griffith 2014). By focusing on the activities
occurring within the primary and secondary task environment,
research on domestic marketing channels has broadened our
understanding of how domestic channels are structured and
managed.
Broadening this understanding, the primary focus of international marketing channels research has been on examining
the influence of macro-environmental heterogeneity on the primary and secondary task environment (investigating primary
and secondary task environmental phenomena under consideration of macro-environmental heterogeneity). For example,
heterogeneity has been investigated via constructs such as
national culture dimensions (Kim and Oh 2002), cultural distance (Lee 1998), psychic distance (Griffith and Dimitrova
2014), institutional distance (Yang, Su, and Fam 2012) geographic distance (Trimarchi, Liesch, and Tamaschke 2010),
market volatility (Bello and Gilliland 1997), etc. The use of
macro-environment heterogeneity within research has primarily occurred in two ways. The first is by utilizing a comparative
approach to examine differences in the activities in the primary and secondary task environments across heterogeneous
macro-environments. An example of the comparative approach
would be examining how the trust and commitment of channel members differs between channel relationships based in
Chile and those based in Bangladesh (e.g., Bianchi and Saleh
2010) (i.e., an examination of primary task environment interactions compared across macro-environments). The second is
by utilizing a contrasting approach to explore situations where
the macro-environments of the focal dyad actors, who are participating in the primary or secondary task environment are
heterogeneous (i.e., understanding primary task environment
interactions when channel members come from heterogeneous
macro-environments). Examples of the contrasting approach
would include examining the efforts of firms to internationalize into new countries (e.g., Vasilchenko and Morrish 2011)
or the factors that influence trust between Chinese buyers and
612
Malaysian sellers (e.g., Armstrong and Yee 2001). In rare cases,

both approaches to heterogeneity have been used within a single work. For instance, Griffith, Myers, and Harvey (2006)
explored trust, commitment and information sharing within
U.S.-Japan and Japan-U.S. as well as Japan-Japan and U.S.-U.S.
channel relationships. By emphasizing the multitude of ways
in which macro-environmental heterogeneity can influence the
primary and secondary task environment, research on international marketing channels has broadened our understanding of
the complexities of operating marketing channels around the
world.
Review Methodology
A broad based approach to identifying relevant articles was
adopted to review the literature. The advanced search function within the Web of Science Core Collection was used
to identify articles, published between 1965 and 2014, that
included keywords related to both marketing channels research
(e.g., wholesale, retail, distribution, supply chain, business-tobusiness, channel, buyersupplier) and international research
(e.g., international, global, culture, country, world, foreign, universal). Each article identified by this initial search process was
then individually reviewed to ensure that its focal topic was
related to international marketing channels. Any article deemed
not topically relevant was removed from the sample (e.g., the
international focus was recommending an extension into the
international domain of a domestic channel study). This search
process was conducted in each of the following marketing journals: Journal of Retailing (25 articles), Journal of Marketing (20
articles), Journal of Marketing Research (7 articles), Marketing
Science (6 articles), Journal of Consumer Research (1 article),
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science (19 articles),
International Journal of Research in Marketing (9 articles),
European Journal of Marketing (36 articles), International Marketing Review (131 articles), and the Journal of International
Marketing (99 articles). In total, 353 articles2 were identified.
Each article was then assessed according to a coding sheet. Per
the recommendation of Cooper (1989), the coding sheet was
developed to allow for the broadest collection of data. Data
captured included descriptive elements, keywords, type of article, topic, perspective, theoretical lens, data collection method,
country of study, key constructs, key findings, etc. The data
was then evaluated for quantitative and qualitative patterns in
thought, theory, method, location, and topics of inquiry. While
the results of this search do not represent an exhaustive review
of the field of international marketing channels as a number
of works could have been excluded given variations in search
terms (i.e., a limitation of literature review methodology (Cooper
1989)), examining these articles provides a starting point for
a broad understanding of international marketing channels
research.
The State of the International Marketing Channels

Literature
Although the field of international marketing channels
remains rather nascent, it has seen considerable development
over the past fifty years. Consistent with prior broad-based
reviews in marketing (e.g., Bartels 1965; Fullerton 1988; Wilkie
and Moore 2003), we employed a periodization approach, where
periodization refers to the process of dividing the chronological narrative into separately labeled sequential time periods
with fairly distinct beginning and ending points (Hollander
et al. 2005, p. 32). Periodization allows us to summarize and
structure historical research, by decomposing the literature into
time periods and then assessing changes across periods, to make
its evolution more understandable. We begin by examining the
field through the growth in the number and type of articles,
the primary channel areas of inquiry, the clusters of topics that
interconnect them, and the countries of interest.
Growth: Development of Interest in the Topic

From the early stages where only a few articles were published within a five-year period to today, where over one hundred
articles were published in the latest five-year period, the literature on international marketing channels has experienced
tremendous growth. Table 1 provides the number of articles published by five-year periods. Starting in the mid-1990s, interest in
the area achieved critical mass allowing for its development as an
independent field. Notably, of the articles identified here, 95 percent were published within the last twenty years (19952014);
60 percent of the overall sample was published within the last ten
years (200514). Now, however, the field may be approaching
maturity and its normalized level of publications as the growth
rate has begun to level out (18.4 percent in 201014) after experiencing period after period of exponential growth (i.e., 800
percent in 199599, 141.7 percent in 200004, and 112.6 percent
in 200509).
Table 1
Articles published by year.
140
98
100
87
80
60
36
40
20
2 Due to space considerations, not all of the identified articles can be cited
within this review. Please contact the corresponding author for a full list of
references.
116
120

Table 3
Theory development in international marketing channels research.
Types of Research: Methods and Theories

As the literature on international marketing channels has
expanded, the type of article published has also evolved. Table 2
provides the number of conceptual and empirical articles published, inclusive of collection methods if applicable. Overall,
more empirical articles (86.7 percent) have been published than
conceptual articles (13.3 percent). While empirical articles are
common across all time periods, conceptual articles have a pattern of periodic emergence. For example, conceptual studies
were more present at the onset of the field (196597; 17 percent of all conceptual studies), around 2000 (200001; 19.1
percent), around 2005 (200406; 19.1 percent), and around 2010
(201011; 12.8 percent). The emergence of conceptual articles
within the literature appears indicative of turning points within
the international marketing channels field, where new directions
are charted.
Within empirical articles, nine different data collection methods were utilized (only 4.9 percent of all empirical studies
employ more than one method). Methods used include surveys,
case studies, secondary data, interviews, experiments, observations, event studies, meta-analysis, and analytical models.
Surveys account for majority of data collections (59.5 percent)
and, due to their flexibility, have remained popular in their use
across all time periods. Qualitative data collection methods (i.e.,
case studies, interviews, and observations) represent 22.5 percent of all data collections. These methods, while used in all
time periods, have recently been losing favor. This is likely due
to increase in popularity of quantitative methods (i.e., secondary
data, event studies, meta-analysis, and analytical modeling),
which while used occasionally in earlier time periods, have
become much more frequently utilized as of late (201014).
Quantitative methods now represent 15.1 percent of all data
collections. Although the popularity of certain data collection
methods may ebb and flow, the literature has continually utilized
Table 2
Conceptual versus empirical examinations.
Year
Number
Conceptual
Conceptual/review
Professional
Empirical
47
43
4
306
Total
353
Data collectionsa
Survey
Case study
Secondary data
Interview
Experiment
Observation
Event study
Meta-analysis
Analytical model
191
40
38
26
9
6
4
4
3
Total
321
613
Percentage
13.3
12.2
1.1
86.7
100
59.5
12.5
11.8
8.1
2.8
1.9
1.2
1.2
0.9
100
Some empirical studies utilized more than one method of data collection.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1965- 1970- 1975- 1980- 1985- 1990- 1995- 2000- 2005- 20101969 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 2004 2009 2014
Descriptive
2
1
2
0
1
2
23
35
33
30
Theory-Based
2
13
54
65
86
0
0
0
2
2
and been open to the utilization of new methods to investigate

international marketing channels.
The employment of theory within the field of international
marketing channels can best be understood by comparing the use
of descriptive versus theory-based articles by five-year period
(see Table 3). Specifically, descriptive articles monopolized the
literature during the initial years (196579), prevalence then
rotated between descriptive and theory-based articles as the
field developed (198099), and now theory-based articles consistently represent the majority of articles published (200014).
Overall, there have been more theory-based articles (63.5 percent) than descriptive articles (36.5 percent) published. This
evolution is consistent with the approach to the development of
a field where researchers first use descriptive techniques to identify what is happening in a new context and then use theoretical
perspectives to explain why.
Multiple theoretical perspectives have been utilized in
international marketing channels research. Some explicitly
incorporate the macro-environment into their theorizing,
whereas others needed to be adapted from their foundation
in domestic channels in order to examine international contexts. Table 4 provides an overview of the most commonly used
theories and the contexts they examined. The popularity and
usage of these different theoretical perspectives have changed
over time. Broad based theories that represent or incorporate
the macro-environment, such as internationalization perspectives and culture theories, have remained consistently prominent
over time. In contrast, the utilization of domestic channel theories explaining the primary and secondary task environment
interactions appears to follow a pattern of introducereplace-integrate. For example, the transactional/control-based
emphasis of transaction cost economics (TCE), introduced early
in the literature in the study of how to manage international
channel relationships, eventually began to be supplanted by the
relational-based focus of relationship marketing (RM) in terms
of popularity of perspective and the knowledge on managing
international channel relationships, gained by each theory individually, was ultimately supplemented through utilizing TCA
and RM together (e.g., Frazier, Gill, and Kale 1989; Gencturk
and Aulakh 2007; Ha, Karande, and Singhapakdi 2004; Styles
and Hersch 2005). The pattern appears to have re-emerged with
614
Table 4
Theoretical perspectives in international marketing channels.
Perspective
Description
Theoretical perspectives that incorporate the macro-environment

Internationalization
Focuses on the patterns and paths that firms follow to
perspectives
international operations. Perspectives range from a
gradual approach, where a firm incrementally commits
itself to international operations via the acquisition and
integration of knowledge to gradually build experience
and reduce the risk involved, to a rapid approach, where
a firm will commit itself to international operations at its
inception.
Focuses on the influence that the shared values and
Culture theory
beliefs of a group of people have on their behaviors and
interactions with individuals from another culture.
Multiple perspectives on culture have emerged (e.g.,
Hofstede, Hall, Inglehart, Schwarz, Triandis, GLOBE);
each identifying the values, norms, and dimensions
likely to be recognized within and across cultures.
Focuses on the influence of the institutional environment
Institutional theory
(e.g., the socially sanctioned rules of the game) on the
actions, routines, and strategies of organizations. To
achieve efficiency, effectiveness, and legitimacy, firms
must conform to the institutionalized beliefs and
practices of a market. Firms operating in the same
institutional environment become similar over time.
Focuses on the interaction between the organization and
Contingency theory
its environment. It adopts the perspective that there is
not one optimal strategy for all firms. Differences
existing in the firms internal and external environment
result in different organizational structures, decision
processes, and strategies. Achieving positive outcomes
is contingent upon the alignment of market and
company factors.
Theoretical perspectives adapted for the macro-environment
Focuses on the selecting the governance structure,
Transaction cost
analysis
ranging from hierarchical to market alternatives, that
will most efficiently reduce transaction costs. Influenced
by the bounded rationality of managers and the
opportunism of prospective partners, governance
decisions are primarily based upon concerns regarding
asset specificity, frequency of interactions and
uncertainty in the market.
Relationship
Focuses on all the strategies and tactics directed toward
marketing perspective
establishing, maintaining, and enhancing marketing
relationships (e.g., with customers, suppliers, buyers,
internals, etc.). Relationships need to be managed
carefully, via trust and other relational dimensions, in
order to realize strategic advantages and positive
performance effects.
Network theory
Focuses on the composition of actors in a network (e.g.,
customers, suppliers, competitors, public and private
agencies) and the direct/indirect connections that exist
between them. Relationships with these economic and
non-economic actors are expected to have a strong
influence on the strategy and performance of the focal
firm and may be necessary for its survival. Expansion of
a firms operations is viewed as the process of joining a
new network.
Resource based view
Focuses on the achievement of a competitive advantage
and superior performance via the strategic utilization of
the distinctive resources and capabilities that a firm
possesses.
Research contexts
- Choice of entry mode or location
- Choice of internationalization speed
- Structure of selected channels (i.e., ownership, process, multiple)
- Performance differences of strategies
- Influence of channel managers
- Influence of new technology
- Exit from international markets
- Choice of location and entry mode
- Effectiveness of channel strategies
- Effectiveness of relational and transaction/control-based governance
- Preferences of managers
- Ability to create relationships
- Influence on consumer preferences
- Presence of corruption and trust
- Location choice
- Standardization/adaptation of channel management strategies and
processes
- Development of social norms
- Effectiveness of business, social, and political ties in different country
markets
- Evaluations of international firms by local country market consumers
- Standardization/adaptation of marketing channel strategy
- Centralization/decentralization of marketing channel decision making
- Selection of a gradual or rapid path to internationalization
- Utilization of global/local/glocal strategies
- Choice of entry mode and location

- Structure of channels (ownership, intermediaries, multiple channels)
- Presence of opportunism
- Management of channel relationships via contracting, monitoring, or
control
- Global sourcing of channel activities
- Process of forming relationships

- Management of channel relationships via social norms
- Effect of relationship investments
- Influence of trust and relationship quality
- Influence of customer, business, and political relationships on
performance
- Choice of entry mode
- Process of creating business and social networks for internationalization
- Identification of critical actors
- Identification of opportunities for international expansion
- Role of relationships in transitioning economies
- Choice of entry mode and location

- Resources/capabilities of channels
- Performance of channel resources
- Internationalization strategy pursued
- Influence of channel managers
- Influence of technology
the introduction of network theory. Through utilizing and integrating theories with slight variations in perspective, the field
has acquired broad knowledge of many overlapping contexts.
Channel Areas of Inquiry: Research Contexts and Clusters

The international marketing channels literature has remarkable breadth in the contexts examined. As research contexts
were consolidated based on primary focus, five substantive
areas of inquiry emerged: channel structure (primary focus
of 58.4 percent articles), channel management (16.1 percent),
entry decisions (12.2 percent), company operations (10.8 percent), and macro-economic factors (2.5 percent). Since much of
international channels research exists at the boundaries, the classification percentages based on primary focus may be somewhat
misleading. For example, while only a few articles had a primary
focus on macro-environmental factors, the majority of the articles incorporate these factors, either explicitly or implicitly, as
a secondary issue. Table 5 provides a breakdown the number of
articles by the primary channel area of inquiry.
Research on channel structures, the methods that firms select
to serve markets across country borders, account for the majority
of articles published in the field across all time periods. This
research context can be further decomposed into the various
channel structures and subfields predominately examined:
Exporting: 29.1 percent of channel structure articles; Focuses
on export strategies to pursue (e.g., Lee and Griffith 2004;
Zou, Fang, and Zhao 2003) and export performance effects
(e.g., Katsikeas, Leonidou, and Morgan 2000; Morgan,
Kaleka, and Katsikeas 2004).
Franchising: 5.3 percent of channel structure articles; Focuses
on how to structure international franchises (e.g., Brookes and
Roper 2011; Contractor and Kundu 1998; Quinn and Doherty
2000).
Alliances & Joint-Ventures: 8.7 percent of channel structure articles; Focuses on factors influencing formation (e.g.,
Table 5
Channel areas of inquiry.
Topic
Number
Entry decisions
Country factors
Company operations
Channel structure
Channel management
43
9
38
206
57
Total
353
Channel structure
Retail
Exporting
Alliances and joint ventures
Business-to-business
Supply chain and logistics
Franchising
Alternate distribution channels
Total
73
60
18
18
16
11
10
206
Percentage
12.2
2.5
10.8
58.4
16.1
100
35.4
29.1
8.7
8.7
7.8
5.3
4.9
100
615
Akhter and Robles 2006; Li, Boulding, and Staelin 2010) and
partnership success (e.g., Bello, Katsikeas, and Robson 2010;
Kauser and Shaw 2004).
Retail: 35.4 percent of channel structure articles; Focuses
on how to transfer formats internationally (e.g., Goldman
2001; Swoboda, Berg, and Dabija 2014), perceptions of
global retailers (e.g., Klemz, Boshoff, and Mazibuko 2006;
Swoboda, Pennemann, and Taube 2012) and preferences of
international consumers (e.g., Badrinarayanan et al. 2012;
Burt and Carralero-Encinas 2000).
Supply Chain & Logistics: 7.8 percent of channel structure
articles; Focuses on the challenges and opportunities of global
supply chains (e.g., Cho and Kang 2001; Rugman, Li, and Oh
2009; Salam 2011).
Business to Business: 8.7 percent of channel structure articles;
Focuses on comparing how B2B firms operate internationally (e.g., Deshpande, Farley, and Webster 2000; Karande,
Shankarmahesh, and Rao 1999).
Alternative Distribution Channels: 4.9 percent of channel
structure articles; Focuses on unauthorized channels (e.g.,
Ahmadi and Yang 2000; Chaudhry and Walsh 1995) and the
emergence of new channel structures (i.e., internet, multiple channels) (e.g., Gabrielsson, Kirpalani, and Luostarinen
2002; Overby and Min 2001).
Further, traversing each of the channel structures, research

examines how to effectively manage international marketing
channel relationships. Research on channel management, which
focuses on choosing the proper governance strategy, has transitioned from a transactional or control-based approach (e.g.,
Bello and Gilliland 1997; Buvik and Andersen 2002) to a
relational-based perspective (e.g., Hewett and Bearden 2001;
Lee and Dawes 2005) and finally to integrated approach incorporating each perspective (Yang, Su, and Fam 2012).
Each of the remaining three areas of inquiry examines factors that significantly influence the choice, implementation, and
performance of channel structures and relationships. Entry decision research, which focuses on the selection of the appropriate
structure and location for international channel expansion, has
experienced a resurgence (44 percent of entry decision research
was published in 201014). Early articles in this area emphasized how to set-up international marketing channels in mostly
developed markets (Anderson and Coughlan 1987; Hakansson
and Wootz 1975), whereas recent articles have examined how to
internationalize channel operations to or from developing markets (e.g., Chiao, Lo, and Yu 2010; Hilmersson and Jansson
2014; Sandberg 2013). Research on company operations, a
consistent area of inquiry since the late 1990s, focuses on a
firms internal skills and capabilities that influence international channel operations (e.g., Buchan, Crosan, and Johnson
2004; Freeman and Cavusgil 2007; Kropp, Lindsay, and Shoham
2006). Lastly, research on macro-economic factors focuses on
the context in which international channels operate. Its emphasis has moved from the challenges arising due to differences in
international markets (Batra 1997) to the opportunities created in
international markets by the increasing similarity of customers
(Ter Hofstede, Wedel, and Steenkamp 2002).
616
Throughout these primary research contexts are clusters of

research that examine common themes. These themes identify
topics that challenge existing thought and serve to extend the
current boundaries of international marketing channels. While
multiple clusters of varying size exist, five emerged as the largest,
in terms of both breadth and depth. They are:
Trust: Focuses on the perceived existence of credibility and
benevolence (e.g., Fang et al. 2008; Lee and Dawes 2005);
Serves as the foundation for channel interactions and relationships.
Path to International Operations: Focuses on the process,
gradual or rapid, that firms follow to expand their channels
from domestic to international (e.g., Bjorkman and Eklund
1996; Moen and Servais 2002); Effected by company characteristics and effects international channel performance.
Networks: Focuses on the influence of social, business, and

political ties (networks) (e.g., Loane and Bell 2006; Sheng,
Zhou, and Li 2011); Effects performance, channel management, and the establishment of international operations.
Technology: Focuses on the influence of new technologies
(most notably the internet) (e.g., Ashraf, Thongpapanl, and
Auh 2014; Javalgi and Ramsey 2001); Disrupts established
behaviors and channel structures.
Culture: Focuses on the influence of the similarity or differences, perceived or actual, between home country and foreign
country market (e.g., Griffith and Dimitrova 2014; Lee 1998);
Influences all aspects of international marketing channels.
For each cluster, Table 6 provides an overview of research contexts examined previously and identifies potential contexts to be
examined in the future.
Table 6
Established and emerging research clusters.
Cluster
Focus
Established research clusters

Focuses on the influence of the similarity
Culture
or differences, perceived or actual,
between home country and foreign
country market. Influences all aspects of
international marketing channels.
Path to
Focuses on the process, gradual or rapid,
international
that firms follow to expand their channels
operations
from domestic to international. Effected
by company characteristics and effects
international channel performance.
Trust
Focuses on the perceived existence of
credibility and benevolence. Serves as
the foundation for channel interactions
and relationships.
Focuses on the influence of social,
Network (ties)
business, and political ties (networks).
Effects performance, channel
management, and the establishment of
international operations.
Technology
Focuses on the influence of new
technologies (most notably the internet).
Disrupts established behaviors and
channel structures.
Emerging research contexts

Managers
Focuses on the characteristics of
managers that influence their decision
process. May result in less optimal
strategic decisions.
Unauthorized
Focuses on the emergence of illegal or
non-designated channels of distribution
channels
in international markets. May have
strategic and performance implications
for firms.
Exit
Focuses on the termination of
relationships or activities in international
markets. Influence by external
environment and may have long-term
effects on relationships and performance.
Contexts examined
Future contexts
- Influence on consumer behavior

- Influence on international expansion decisions
- Influence on governance
- Dynamics or stability of culture

- Segment similarities in cultures
- Integrate cultural constructs
- Develop and refine measures
- Introduction of born globals

- Comparison of gradual and rapid
internationalization paths
- Performance effects of paths
- Expand theoretical foundation

- Developing market perspective
- Effect of managers
- Role of knowledge
- Effect of macroeconomic factors
- Process to build trust
- Influence of culture on trust
- Diverging partner perceptions
- Deterioration of trust
- Capabilities of network actors
- Influence of extended networks
- Integration into existing theory
- Presence in different countries

- Effect on channel relationships
- Influence on consumer behavior
- Role in international expansion
- Role in channel management
- Performance effects of networks
- Adoption of consumers and firms

- Prevalence in different countries
- Introduction as a new channel structure
- Consumer impressions and adoption of

new technologies
- Disruption of existing channels
- Introduction of new or hybrid channel
structures
- New emerging technologies
- Influence of cultural perceptions on

international channel decisions
- Ability to create/use networks for international
expansion
- Macroeconomic conditions that support their
development
- Skills and capabilities of managers

- Influence of attitudes and perceptions on
decisions
- Role as a potential hindrance
- How to manage gray markets
- Erosion of brand equity
- Influence of macroeconomic conditions on

market exit
- Factors that influence relationship termination
- Types of divestment
- Performance effects of exiting
- Long-term effects of relationship
termination
Of these established clusters, with its emphasis on examining heterogeneity in the macro-environment, the most influential
on all aspects of international marketing channels research has
been culture. Culture is a fundamental aspect of the macroenvironment and has been found to significantly influence the
behaviors of international channel managers (e.g., Sichtmann
and von Selasinsky 2010; Swift 1999) as well as the choice of
entry mode, channel management, and strategy decisions (e.g.,
Bello and Gilliland 1997; Evans, Mavondo, and Bridson 2008).
It has been examined in terms of geography, institutions, norms,
values, perceptions, preferences, and the ability of individuals to
interact (see Table 7 for an overview of the multitude of conceptualization of culture and their notable findings). While many
facets of culture, which impact international marketing channels, have been identified, they have not yet been integrated as
most studies employ only one approach (87 percent of studies explicitly examining culture). Frequently, culture has been
operationalized via country, psychic distance, and cultural distance. Limitations exist for each operationalization that may bias
the extant understanding of the influence of culture. Country
assumes, but does not measure, cultural differences at the firm
or manager level; leading the knowledge acquired to remain at
a basic level (i.e., effects vary between countries). Psychic distance, based on individual perceptions of cultural differences, is
limited by its broad definition and variety of measures (Sousa
and Lages 2011); leading to the difficulties in comparing the
knowledge acquired. Cultural distance, based on differences
in established cultural norms, is limited by which theoretical
perspective on culture is utilized. Multiple theories on culture
have been used within the international channels literature (see
Table 8 for an overview of common culture theories). Each theory has its own definition and focal dimensions; leading any
knowledge acquired via cultural distance to be constrained by
the perspective and boundaries of the theory. Overall, while
the importance of culture to international marketing channels
research is clearly recognized, the examination of its influence
has lacked a consistent or integrative focus.
617
specifically categorized based on level of development,4 significantly more of the articles published have examined developed
countries (74.9 percent vs. 25.1 percent overall) (see Table 10
for a comparison of developed versus developing economies
by five-year period). While still representing the majority of
countries examined, the prominence of developed countries has
decreased slightly over time from 90.9 percent of articles from
197594, to 83.8 percent from 19952004, and finally to 68.8
percent from 200514. Further, the G7 nations,5 considered to
be the most advanced of the developed economies, represent the
majority of developed countries studied (58.1 percent). Interest in G7 nations has decreased over time (i.e., 80 percent of
developed country examinations in 197594, 65.4 percent in
19952004, 51.7 percent in 200514). In contrast, examinations
of developing countries have consistently increased since they
started to be examined during 19951999 (16.2 percent of this
time period) and have since reached approximately 31 percent
of the all examinations in the latest period (201014). BRICs
countries,6 considered to be the most influential of the developing countries, have garnered the most attention of the developing
economies. The number of studies on BRICs countries has consistently increased from 5.4 percent in 199599, to 7.4 percent
in 200004, to 11.0 percent in 200509, and to 16.1 percent in
201014. Taken together, these trends indicate that researchers
are endeavoring to bring a broader view to the international
marketing channels literature through expanding the variety of
developed and developing countries examined, most notably
focused on those with the greatest business activity.
Emerging Themes in International Marketing Channels
Research
To delineate emerging themes in international marketing
channels research, we build upon the periodization review of
the literature. We frame the topics in three broad areas (each
touching element of the primary task, secondary task and macroenvironment of the political economy of marketing channels):
Improving Our Foundational Knowledge, Expansion of Current
Research, and Shifting Focus to Emerging Areas.
Countries of Interest
Improving Our Foundational Knowledge
Countries examined have primarily remained relatively consistent. Data has been collected in 65 countries3 (Table 9
provides a map of all of the countries examined), where the
six most frequently examined countries comprise almost half
of the all examinations (46.7 percent). The top six countries
are: United States (16.2 percent), United Kingdom (9.6 percent), China (6.6 percent), Germany (5.2 percent), Japan (5
percent), and Australia (4.1 percent). The prevalence of these
countries indicates that a substantial focus of the literature has
been on the Western or developed economy perspective. When
3 The country counts are larger than the number of articles identified as the
majority of research utilizes data collected in multiple countries. Each country
clearly mentioned as a data source was included in the count.
The most linear progression in the evolution of international

marketing channels research is to improve our foundational
knowledge with respect to the theoretical focus, the methods
and measures utilized, and the macro-environments examined.
Continuous improvement in the tools that international channel
researchers utilize to uncover knowledge will advance the field.
Multiple theories have provided the foundation for explanations of phenomena occurring in international marketing
4 Level of development was based on the IMF classification (International

Monetary Fund 2014).
5 G7 refers to Canada, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, and
the United States.
6 BRICs refer to Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
618
Table 7
Culture constructs.
Constructs
Definition
Notable findings
Country or country of origina
The official boundaries of a nation-state
Geographic distance
The physical distance between countries
Institutional distance
The extent of the similarity or dissimilarity of the

regulatory, normative, and cultural-cognitive
institutions between two countries
Psychic distance
The degree of perceived similarity or difference

between a home country and foreign country
market
Cultural distance
See also: Cultural Uncertainty;
Cultural Similarity; Cultural
Closeness; Cultural Divergence
The degree to which cultural norms in one country

differ from those in another country
Cultural sensitivity
The openness to understanding differences in

cultural and business practices
Cultural affinity
The degree to which an individual likes a culture
Cultural familiarity
See also: Contextual Familiarity
The extent to which one is familiar with another

cultural or country environment
Cultural understanding
See also: Cross-cultural skills
The ability to appropriately and meaningfully

interact with individuals from another culture
Cultural interaction
See also: Cultural Erosion
The adjustments or changes to culture that occur

over time due to interactions with partners and
external forces
- An extrinsic cue used by consumers to evaluate the reputation of

and trust in foreign retailers (Dahlstrom and Nygaard 1995).
- Influences perceptions of product quality, which effects global
sourcing decisions and retailers reputation (Baldauf et al. 2009).
- Influences the nature of governance selected (control vs. trust) in
foreign markets (Grewal et al. 2013; Kim and Oh 2002).
- Strongly impacts the likelihood of trade and the sensitivity to
geographic distance regarding trade has increased over time
(Hakanson 2014).
- Proposed to influence choice of entry mode (Sashi and Karuppur
2002).
- Increases legitimacy pressures and market ambiguity (Yang, Su,
and Fam 2012).
- Influences entry mode choice and effect of other factors on entry
mode choice (complementarity, experience) (Chiao, Lo, and Yu
2010).
- In high institutional distance relationships, formal contracts
increase opportunism and relational governance is more effective
(Cavusgil, Deligonul, and Zhang 2004).
- Has business and cultural dimensions (Griffith and Dimitrova
2014).
- Proposed to be influential in determining international operations,
decision-making, and the performance in international markets
(Evans, Treadgold, and Mavondo 2000).
- Influences entry strategy selection (low cost/control), retail
strategy (adaptation), and organizational performance (Evans,
Mavondo, and Bridson 2008).
- Influences the adaptation of contracting, but not relational
governance of channel relationships (Griffith et al. 2014).
- Increases need for learning (technology, market, social) (Yeoh
2004).
- Influences the entry mode that will be selected; with high cultural
distance, service firms and inexperienced firms select higher
control options (Blomstermo, Sharma, and Sallis 2006; Li,
Boulding, and Staelin 2010).
- Influences the effectiveness of strategies employed
(Global/Glocal/Regcal/Local) for channel decisions (Chung, Wang,
and Huang 2012).
- Low levels help to increase trust (Armstrong and Yee 2001;
Bianchi and Saleh 2010).
- Requires a deep understanding of their partners culture (LaBahn
and Harich 1997).
- Increases credibility, benevolence, and information exchange with
ones partner (Voss et al. 2006).
- Managers tend to like cultures that are similar to their own (Swift
1999).
- Increases the ability of a firm to articulate their own position on a
topic as well as understand their partners motives (Shankarmahesh,
Ford, and LaTour 2004).
- The satisfaction-benevolence link exists only under high CF (Lee,
Lee, and Suh 2007).
- Proposed to be valuable in developing relationships by increasing
communication quality and competency as well as relationship
quality (Griffith and Harvey 2001).
- CU of managers increases the use of relationship marketing
activities (RMA); CU of service employees increases the ability of
RMA to create more and more valuable cross-cultural relationships
(Sichtmann and von Selasinsky 2010).
- Proposed to occur due to globalization and increased interactions
and partnerships with firms from a different culture (Slater and
Robson 2012).
- Proposed to influence the ability to communicate with a partner
and relationship quality (Griffith and Harvey 2001).
619
Table 8
Theoretical perspectives on culture.
Perspective
Description
Culture definition
Focal dimensions
Hofstede
A widely accepted framework from the field of

management that focuses on measuring that values
that exist cross-culturally. Four cultural dimensions
were originally identified from a survey conducted
in over forty countries of employees within a
multinational corporation; Later research has
expanded the number of dimensions to six (see
Hofstede, Hofstede, and Minkov 2010).
Developed from an anthropologic perspective, this
cross-cultural theory focuses on the influence of
context, time, space, and information in determining
cultural preferences. Particular emphasis was placed
on the dimensions influence on effective
communication and interactions (see Hall 1976).
A theory of cultural change developed in the field of
political science that argues that economic
development via modernization and industrialization
influence systematic changes in underlying cultural
values. Cultural change is seen as path dependent. It
serves as the basis for the World Values Survey (see
Inglehart 1990).
A psychological theory of the self, where the
self-concept at the private-, public-, or
collective-self level, is influenced by cultural
variations. Cultural dimensions influence which
level of self is activated and consequently how
individuals behave (see Triandis 1989).
As theory of basic human values seeking to find
universals, it identifies ten values and four
higher-order values likely to be recognized within
and across cultures. The values were originally
evaluated in 20 countries, and not have been tested
in more than 60 countries (see Schwartz 1992).
The collective programming of the mind

distinguishing the members of one group or
category of people from another.
- Individualism/Collectivism
- Masculinity/Femininity
- Long-Term/ Short-Term Orientation
- Power Dependence
- Uncertainty Avoidance
- Indulgence/Restraint
The identity, language, systems of nonverbal

communication, material culture, history and
ways of doing things of a group of people.
- High-context/Low-context
- Monochronic/Polychronic
- Low territoriality/High territoriality
- Slow flow/Fast flow
A system of attitudes, values, and knowledge

that is widely shared within a society and
transmitted from generation to generation.
- Traditional/Secular-rational
- Survival/Self-expression
Subjective culture is the extent to which

aspects are shared by people who speak a
common language and who are able to
interact because they live in adjacent
locations during the same historical period.
- Cultural Complexity
- Individualism/Collectivism
- Tightness-Looseness
Values are beliefs that transcend specific

situations to guide the selection or evaluation
of behavior and events pertaining to
desirable end states or behaviors and are
ordered by importance.
- Self-Transcendence
- Benevolence
- Universalism
- Self-Enhancement
- Achievement
- Power
- Openness to Change
- Self-Direction
- Stimulation
- Hedonism
- Conservation
- Security
- Conformity
- Tradition
- Humane Orientation
- Uncertainty avoidance
- In-Group Collectivism
- Institutional Collectivism
- Performance Orientation
Assertiveness
- Power Distance
- Future Orientation
- Gender Egalitarianism
Hall
Inglehart
Triandis
Schwarz Value
Theory
GLOBE
GLOBE is a cross-cultural theory on leadership and

organizations. Drawing its foundation from
Hofstede, Triandis, and others, it examines nine
cultural dimensions as both values (should be) and
practices (as is) in 62 societal cultures and 10
societal clusters. Differences in values and practices
were often observed (see House et al. 2004).
The shared motives, values, beliefs,

identities, and interpretations or meanings of
significant events that result from common
experiences of members of collectives that
are transmitted across generations.
channels (for examples, see Tables 4 and 8). The diversity of theoretical perspectives coexisting within the literature allows for
contexts to be examined from fresh viewpoints. Future research
should continue to introduce new theories as well as integrate
existing theories. Recently introduced theories, such as role
theory (Dong, Tse, and Hung 2010), population ecology (Li,
Qian, and Qian 2014), and governance value analysis (Griffith
et al. 2014), as well as the integration of transaction-based and
relationship-based theories have already brought new understanding to international channel relationships. Comparative
approaches could also contribute by identifying the strengths

and weaknesses of the multiple perspectives utilized to examine
the similar topics. For example, the General Theory of Competition (e.g., Hunt 1990) or Service Dominant Logic (e.g., Lusch,
Vargo, and OBrien 2007; Vargo and Lusch 2004) could provide
new insights into comparative channel analysis.
More importantly, the theoretical focus of the field of international marketing channels needs to continue to expand beyond a
Western or developed economy perspective to incorporate more
Eastern or developing economy viewpoints. While intermittent
620

Table 9
Countries examined in international marketing channels research.a
Some empirical studies collected data in more than one country.
comparisons of EastWest perspectives have been conducted

(e.g., Chung, Sternquist, and Chen 2006; Ha, Karande, and
Singhapakdi 2004; Johnson et al. 1993), an entire theory based
on the Eastern or developing economy perspective has not
been successfully introduced into the literature. Future research
should endeavor to advance new theoretical perspectives drawn
from Eastern and developing economies to address fundamentally different assumptions and approaches within competitive
and regulatory sectors (spanning both the secondary and primary task environments) that can substantively influencing
international channel structures and management across macroenvironments.
From a methodological perspective, a variety of data collection methods have been used within international marketing
channels research. For example, scholars have moved from primary reliance upon surveys to the employment of secondary
data (as secondary data has become more available across
countries) or combinations of multiple research approaches.

This has allowed the field to be unencumbered by the limitations
of any one methodological perspective and the continued openness to diverse qualitative and quantitative methods in future
research can only benefit the field. In the future, due to complexities of its domain, multi-level and multi-method approaches
are likely to be emphasized in examinations of established and
emerging themes. Further, the continued advancement of statistically complex methods, coupled with increases in the variety
and volume of data, provides a platform for international marketing channels researchers to explore new questions never before
deemed possible but of critical importance to the practice of
international marketing channels (e.g., regulatory issues pertaining to customer tracking across markets, multi-country single
source customer data collection and utilization). Germann et al.
(2014), using survey data from top managers based in the Americas, Europe Middle East and Africa and Asia, demonstrate that

Table 10
Developed versus developing countries.
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Developed
G7
Developing
BRICs
1975-79 1980-84 1985-89 1990-94 1995-99 2000-04 2005-09 2010-14

2
4
1
3
31
125
93
116
1
3
1
3
24
78
53
55
0
0
1
0
6
24
43
52
0
0
1
0
2
11
15
27
621
however these must occur from a theoretical foundation and

not simply work to describe unique differences within a single
country. Concepts assumed to be true may not exist everywhere
(Douglas and Craig 2006). Consistent with this argumentation, we contend that the perspective utilized when examining
these countries needs to be expanded. Much of the extant
research studies firms from a developed economy entering into
a new country via channel decisions or relationships. Omitting
other views limits our understanding of many of the challenges
and opportunities of operating in and internationalizing channel operations from developing countries. Consequently, the
greater the expansion of perspectives of and conditions in macroenvironments in our examinations, the more holistic view of the
international marketing channels will be acquired.
Expansion of Current Research
retailers achieve significant returns from deploying customer

analytics, thus suggesting that customer analytics has the potential to change channel approaches across markets. The revolution
in computer science and its application in marketing analytics
upon which we sit can be viewed as being similar in nature to the
advances brought forth through the utilization of statistical techniques such as event studies and meta-analysis, as both which
have allowed scholars to understand relationships never before
tested.
To further advance the literature, it is necessary for future
research to undertake the challenge of increasing the rigor in the
conceptualization and measurement of key constructs. Efforts
have already begun to refine the extant understanding of psychic distance. Building on the work of Evans, Mavondo, and
Bridson (2008), Griffith and Dimitrova (2014) observe substantive effects independently caused by both the cultural and
business aspects of psychic distance. The decomposition of the
psychic distance clarifies our prior understanding of the concept and lays the foundation for how other macro-environmental
factors may be uniquely perceived. In addition to refining the
conceptual domain culture-related and other constructs central
to the macro-environment of international marketing channels,
the quality of their measures as well as the ability to be used
in multiple countries should be improved. Opposed to simply
being noted as a limitation of international marketing channels
research, the continued criticism of the measurement of cultural
distance (e.g., Shenkar 2001) should be addressed methodologically through the development of new measures that capture the
complexity of the construct.
To aid in the development of new theories and measures
applicable to a variety of country perspectives as well as the
fundamental domain of international marketing channels, future
research must expand on the countries it examines. A mere six
countries account for approximately half of all data collections.
Countries in Africa, South America, and the Middle East have
rarely, if ever, been examined (see Table 9). While some progress
has been made by increasing the attention on developing
economies (see Table 10), it needs to continue. The pursuit of
examining entirely different macro-environments may challenge
commonly held assumptions regarding the structure, implementation, and management of international marketing channels;
The evolution of international marketing channels research

will also expand our current understanding of established and
emerging research clusters. Established clusters, such as culture
and technology, will continue to develop in the international marketing channels area, whereas emerging clusters from research,
such as managerial skills, unauthorized channels, exiting, and
multichannel and hybrid structures, will offer new directions for
the field.
As the extent of globalization continues to increase, its effects
will not be consistent across all macro-environment elements
and will, therefore, create an increased need to understand individual macro-environmental effects. Whereas Friedman (2006)
argues that convergence has already occurred to a significant
degree, others argue that important distinctions still exist across
market borders that change the fundamental nature of international marketing channels (Ghemawat 2011; Griffith 2010).
The evolution of cultural, legal/regulatory and political macroenvironmental elements should be an important theme of future
research by focusing on how the convergence/divergence of
these elements, how they occur, and their influence on the operations of international channel structures and management. For
example, international channel convergence has been proffered
to be founded on the convergence of market segments in respect
to consumer taste (cf. Levitt 1983), where cultural convergence
drives, by extension, channel structures to be similar so as to
be consistent with said taste. The lack of legal/regulatory convergence within the international marketplace, however, results
in the inability to employ consistent channel structures across
markets and, thereby, provides an opportunity for new, or alternative, channel structures to emerge. Changes occurring in the
macro-environment, with respect to culture and other elements,
will have a meaningful influence on all aspects of international
marketing channels.
Further, in the modern marketplace, new technologies and
their influence will continue to be of upmost importance to
the field (e.g., Lin and Hsieh 2011). Technology acceptance by
managers (and customers) and the technological readiness of
firms will be central factors in determining the capabilities of the
marketing channel both within and across macro-environments.
Those firms (and channels) capable of integrating and leveraging
622
new technologies (e.g., customer analytics, digital product

delivery, 3D printing) will be able to evolve new patterns of
internationalization and channel structures by taking advantage
of the benefits of new technologies (in relation to timing of market entry, product assortment, delivery, etc.) to advance their
competitive position. Fletcher, Harris and Richey (2013) present
exploratory work on technology adoption and usage and its
relationship to knowledge, market entry and a number of other
fruitful areas that would be extended by international marketing
channel research.
Beyond the assumption of their role as a decision-maker,
managers have begun to be viewed as individuals who can be
strongly affected by their own perceptions on culture and can
serve as a resource for developing international channel operations. With their significant influence on international marketing
channels, the study of the manager should be a central focus
for the advancement of the literature. Their attitudes, perceptions, skills, and capabilities have the potential for far reaching
effects. For example, Griffith and Hoppner (2013) provide a
conceptual foundation for the specific skill sets that global marketing managers should possess. There is ample opportunity
and need for advancing these thoughts empirically through the
utilization of judgment and decision theory, behavioral economics, or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). For
example, fMRI has previously been used to examine the mental skills of salespeople (Dietvorst et al. 2009). Applications
of an fMRI approach could help understand skills related to
issues such as perceptions of markets (e.g., psychic distance) and
entry timing preferences. Similarly, a cross-national approach to
decision-making would allow for differing perceptions of channel decisions and responses to competitive changes in channel
structure to be examined. For example, employment of cue utilization theory across cultures may help us to better understand
macro-economic differences across channel managers in their
weighting of specific channel management cues (e.g., timeliness
of delivery, cycle time).
While the majority of the extant literature has looked on the
bright side of international marketing channels through examining factors that, directly or indirectly, increase performance,
two emerging research clusters have begun to examine its dark
side driven by differences in macro-environments. First, the
growing presence of unauthorized channels (or gray markets)
is a problem caused by global demand and the existence of
price differentials between markets (Chaudhry and Walsh
1995) and by the changes in technology where new channel
structures are emerging. While the conditions that give rise
to these channels are agreed upon, the methods of how to
manage unauthorized channels are debated (e.g., Ahmadi and
Yang 2000; Autry, Bova, and Soberman 2014). Future research
could examine short- and long-term approaches to managing
unauthorized channels as well as the negative (or positive)
externalities associated with their existence (e.g., the erosion
of brand equity) on firms international operations. Second,
the process of exiting international operations or relationships
is a common, but rarely examined, occurrence caused by
incompatible perceptions and market turbulence (Ellis 2006;
Hadjikhani and Johanson 1996). Initial studies have sought to
classify the types of divestment (Palmer and Quinn 2007) and

the reasons for relationship termination (Zhang, Griffith, and
Cavusgil 2006), but have yet to examine the short- or long-term
implications of their exit for their international channel strategy
and their performance. Future research should examine these
issues, while remembering that not all exit decisions have to
be negative, as some firms have been found to continually
restructure their international operations in order to maintain
competitiveness (Freeman, Deligonul, and Cavusgil 2013).
The growing emergence of multiple and hybrid channels
initiate new concerns regarding the appropriate selection and
management of channel structures. Partially integrated channels
are currently popular in South Korea, Japan, and other Asian
countries and are poised to become more common in the United
States (Kim et al. 2011). Research must move from the study
of single format channel structures to multichannel distribution
and complex hybrid channel structures. The diversity of channel structures available for international use over the next decade
will increase the need to understand the fundamental drivers of
these decisions. Examining consumer responses to new channel structures will only be a starting point for exploring the
myriad factors that will lead a global firm to engage in multichannel distribution and hybrid channel structures within and across
international markets. Moreover, the complexity of new channel
structures requires innovative ways of managing these formats.
The use of multichannel and hybrid channel structures should
increase inquiry into issues of coordinated channel delivery (e.g.,
omni-channel strategies) as well as the use of plural governance strategies. Plural governance recognizes that firms do not
necessarily make mutually exclusive choices between market
contracts and vertical integration (Heide 2003). Moving beyond
control or relation-based approaches, plural governance allows
for unique combinations of governance to emerge, enhancing
the overall performance of channel management.
Shifting Focus to Emerging Areas
The evolution of international marketing channels research
will also necessitate a shift in our focus to areas not yet examined
to uncover new knowledge. Three new areas, at this precipice
in international channels research, include the dynamics of contexts and constructs, sustainability and market development, and
the influence of international channels on domestic operations.
As the field matures, researchers will need to continue to shift
their focus among the many new areas of inquiry will emerge.
Much of the international marketing channels research treats
key constructs and contexts as if they were static; however, the
literature will advance more rapidly if future research recognizes the dynamic reality of the international context. Domestic
channel research has recently begun to examine the dynamics of the primary and secondary task environments via the
introduction of constructs such as commitment velocity (e.g.,
Palmatier et al. 2013). Similarly, drawing from theoretical development in the domestic context, we contend that international
channels research will begin to examine the dynamics of convergence and divergence of macro-environmental elements (e.g.,
culture, political institutions, and economic development). The
convergence, divergence, and the velocity of such elements

is likely to have a rippling effect throughout the domain of
international marketing channels research. The presence of environmental turbulence, for example, has already been found
to have an overriding effect in channel management through
enhancing and suppressing the influence of culture (Samaha,
Beck, and Palmatier 2014). The dynamics naturally occurring
in the macro-environment will provide international marketing
channel researchers with a contextual playground to explore.
A foundational aspect of international marketing channels
is that such channels were expected to fulfill higher responsibilities to consumers, communities and countries where they
operate (Hochstrasser 1968). Establishing marketing channels
in less developed countries has the possibility to transform
the lives of consumers by providing them consistent access to
basic necessities, the environment of communities by introducing sustainable production and distribution techniques, and the
economies of countries by developing advanced channels of distribution. However, in the evolution of the field, the positive
impact that international marketing channels can have has been
vastly overlooked. While issues of social responsibility (e.g.,
Bolton and Mattila 2015) and sustainability have (e.g., Zeriti
et al. 2014) been growing in importance, research in international
marketing channels has only begun to look at the combinations
of macro-environment and firm factors that need to align in order
for firms to benefit from sustainability strategies. Future research
should not only look at the performance effects of firms pursuing international channel strategies, but also how international
channels can better benefit the communities that they serve. As
such, the growth of a macro-marketing approach to international
marketing channels may emerge.
From concepts to theories, research on international marketing channels has drawn inspiration throughout its development
from its domestic counterpart. Now, as the field matures, we
believe that it is time for the domestic literature to draw inspiration from international marketing channels research. The
macro-environment has become more critical than ever to the
success of all marketing channels. Future research needs to
highlight the influence that the knowledge gained on the macroenvironment from international marketing channels research
can have on the operations of all marketing channels. Further,
while domestic channels were influential in selecting the channel structures at establishment (Anderson and Coughlan 1987),
at maturity, for some firms, their international marketing channel
structures and relationships have become so important that any
changes to them sends shockwaves through their domestic operations. Future research should examine the spillover effect that
firms actions and decisions in international marketing channels have on domestic channels. As the boundaries between
international and domestic blurs, international marketing channels researchers need to play a significant role in charting the
direction of the field of marketing channels.
Conclusion
This article sought to review the evolution of research on
international marketing channels and to provide a prospective
623
look to where the field may evolve in the future. Over the
last fifty years, it is clear that significant progress has been
made as evidenced by the advances in theoretical development
and empirical investigation as well as in the research contexts,
clusters, and countries examined. This periodization analysis
provides researchers, international or domestic, with significant
latitude to examine issues, from a firm, relationship, or system
perspective, relating to dynamic macro-environment, company
and channel decision factors. With the importance and influence
of the macro-environment increasing, it is even more critical now
that international marketing channel researchers assume the lead
in charting the direction for the development of the entire field
of channels research. While much has been uncovered thus far
in the study of international marketing channels, there is still
much left to discover.
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Journal of Retailing 91 (4, 2015) 610626

Looking Back to Move Forward: A Review of the Evolution

has since investigated a plethora of international issues ranging

J.J. Hoppner, D.A. Grifth / Journal of Retailing 91 (4, 2015) 610626

2000; Sousa and Lages 2011), to the best of our knowledge,

forces impinging on the activities occurring within the primary

J.J. Hoppner, D.A. Grifth / Journal of Retailing 91 (4, 2015) 610626

Malaysian sellers (e.g., Armstrong and Yee 2001). In rare cases,

The State of the International Marketing Channels

Growth: Development of Interest in the Topic

J.J. Hoppner, D.A. Grifth / Journal of Retailing 91 (4, 2015) 610626

Types of Research: Methods and Theories

and been open to the utilization of new methods to investigate

J.J. Hoppner, D.A. Grifth / Journal of Retailing 91 (4, 2015) 610626

Theoretical perspectives that incorporate the macro-environment

- Choice of entry mode and location

- Process of forming relationships

- Choice of entry mode and location

J.J. Hoppner, D.A. Grifth / Journal of Retailing 91 (4, 2015) 610626

Channel Areas of Inquiry: Research Contexts and Clusters

Further, traversing each of the channel structures, research

J.J. Hoppner, D.A. Grifth / Journal of Retailing 91 (4, 2015) 610626

Throughout these primary research contexts are clusters of

Networks: Focuses on the influence of social, business, and

Established research clusters

Emerging research contexts

- Influence on consumer behavior

- Dynamics or stability of culture

- Introduction of born globals

- Expand theoretical foundation

- Presence in different countries

- Adoption of consumers and firms

- Consumer impressions and adoption of

- Influence of cultural perceptions on

- Skills and capabilities of managers

- Influence of macroeconomic conditions on

J.J. Hoppner, D.A. Grifth / Journal of Retailing 91 (4, 2015) 610626

The most linear progression in the evolution of international

4 Level of development was based on the IMF classification (International

J.J. Hoppner, D.A. Grifth / Journal of Retailing 91 (4, 2015) 610626

Country or country of origina

The official boundaries of a nation-state

The physical distance between countries

The extent of the similarity or dissimilarity of the

The degree of perceived similarity or difference

The degree to which cultural norms in one country

The openness to understanding differences in

The degree to which an individual likes a culture

The extent to which one is familiar with another

The ability to appropriately and meaningfully

The adjustments or changes to culture that occur

- An extrinsic cue used by consumers to evaluate the reputation of

J.J. Hoppner, D.A. Grifth / Journal of Retailing 91 (4, 2015) 610626

A widely accepted framework from the field of

The collective programming of the mind

The identity, language, systems of nonverbal

A system of attitudes, values, and knowledge

Subjective culture is the extent to which

Values are beliefs that transcend specific

GLOBE is a cross-cultural theory on leadership and

The shared motives, values, beliefs,

approaches could also contribute by identifying the strengths