Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers & Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu

Effects on learning of multimedia animation combined with

multidimensional concept maps
Chei-Chang Chiou a, Li-Chu Tien b, *, Li-Tze Lee c
a

Department of Accounting, National Changhua University of Education, No.2, Shi-Da Road, Changhua 500, Taiwan, ROC
Department of Hospitality Management, MingDao University, 369, Wen-Hua Road, Peetow, Changhua 52345, Taiwan, ROC
c
Department of Accounting Information, Overseas Chinese University, No. 100, Chiao Kwang Road, Taichung 407, Taiwan, ROC
b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 21 April 2014
Received in revised form
9 September 2014
Accepted 9 September 2014
Available online 18 September 2014

This study investigates whether teaching materials combining multimedia animation and multidimensional concept maps (MAMCMs) improve learning achievement, retention, and satisfaction more than
multidimensional concept maps (MCMs), as suggested by Huang et al. (2012) in Computers & Education.
Learning retention, learning achievement, and learning satisfaction associated with two sets of course
materials were compared in this quasi-experimental study. In total, 114 students from two classes at one
private university in Taiwan participated in this 6-week teaching experiment. Analytical results indicate
that learning achievement, learning satisfaction, and learning retention of the MAMCM group were
better than those of the MCM group. Pedagogical implications and suggestions are given.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Computer-mediated communication
Improving classroom teaching
Multimedia/hypermedia systems
Teaching/learning strategies

1. Introduction
Multimedia materials are preferred by many teachers in current learning environments (Sankey, 2003). Multimedia animation can
contain words, pictures, sounds, images, and moving pictures. Previous studies indicated that animation improves a learner's ability to
remember facts and information processing (Holzinger, Kickmeier-Rust, & Albert, 2008; Schar & Zimmermann, 2007). According to Mayer
(2001), the Segmenting Principle and Coherence Principle in multimedia instructional design can model the structure of an entire
chapter and the relationships among chapters. With sound, action, and images, animation can elucidate complex abstract concepts for
learners. Additionally, studies have shown that multimedia animation as a teaching tool can help learners understand complex concepts,
identify misconceptions, and positively impacts learners' motivation, satisfaction, learning achievement, and information processing
(Dalacosta, Kamariotaki-Paparrigopoulou, Palyvos, & Spyrellis, 2009; Holzinger et al., 2008; Leung & Pilgrim, 1995; Mayer & Moreno, 1998;
Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995; Tindall-Ford, Chandler, & Sweller, 1997). Hence, animation is an appropriate teaching material. However,
good teaching materials should be effective and suited to a student's cognitive level (Holzinger et al., 2008).
Based on Ausubel's (1968) cognitive learning assimilation theory, Novak and Gowin (1984) advocated using concept maps for teaching,
learning, and constructing teaching materials (Huang et al., 2012). Early studies conrmed that applying concept maps for teaching materials positively impact motivation, satisfaction, and learning outcomes for learners (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002a; Fesmire, Lisner, Forest, &
Evans, 2003; Gilbert & Greene, 2001; Simone, Schmid, & McEwen, 2001). Huang et al. (2012) developed the multidimensional concept map
(MCM) based on Miller's (1956) theory of short-term memory and working memory. This MCM overcomes the shortcomings of the
, 2009) and outperformed
traditional complex Novak concept map (NCM) (Adesope & Nesbit, 2013; Amadieu, van Gog, Paas, Tricot, & Marine
the NCM and traditional textbook instruction in terms of learning achievement and satisfaction.
However, according to information processing theory, MCM digital teaching materials (Huang et al., 2012) have one shortcoming; that is,
an MCM only uses the visual system, which may cause cognitive overload for learners (Deimann & Keller, 2006). This study overcomes this
problem and design learning materials that combine multimedia animation and a multidimensional concept map (MAMCM) based on dualcoding theory (Paivio, 1986) and cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2001). Two information processing systems exist: the

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 886 4 887 6660x7833.

E-mail addresses: ccchiou@cc.ncue.edu.tw (C.-C. Chiou), m9316621@yahoo.com.tw (L.-C. Tien), leelitze@ocu.edu.tw (L.-T. Lee).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.09.002
0360-1315/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

212

C.-C. Chiou et al. / Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

auditory system and visual system. These systems comprise the dual-coding memory model (Schnotz & Bannert, 2003). No study has used
dual-coding theory to assess the impact of multimedia animation combined with concept maps on learning. Therefore, based on dualcoding theory and cognitive theory of multimedia learning, this study is the rst to investigate whether learning achievement and
learning retention are improved more by MAMCMs than by MCMs.
Tough (1978) noted that learning satisfaction is a perception learners of comprised of satised, happy, or positive feelings in
contrast to unsatisfactory, unhappy and negative feelings. Biehler and Snowman (1990) asserted that linking new concepts with daily
events will harness learners' attention and interest. The MAMCM materials in this study contain images of real life, fashion, music,
advertising, and popular images are simple and easily understandable (Anderson, 1987). Therefore, the second purpose of this study is to
investigate whether learning satisfaction is better with MAMCMs than with MCMs.
In short, two research purposes of this paper are to examine:
1. whether MAMCMs improves more students' learning achievement and learning retention than MCMs; and
2. whether MAMCMs gets better students' learning satisfaction than MCMs.

2. Review of literature
In 1984, Novak and Gowin proposed a concept map based on Ausubel's (1968) cognitive learning assimilation theory (Novak & Gowin,
1984). In this theory, a concept map is composed of propositions and is a graphical representation in two dimensions that uses words linking
two concept nodes to facilitate meaningful learning (Beyerbach, 1998; Chiou, 2008, 2009). Meaningful learning is active, in-depth, or
constructive; that is, learners adopt actively new concepts by linking or associating them with concepts in their cognitive structures.
Knowledge is updated and individualized cognitive structures are existing expanded after such learning (Ausubel 1968; Novak & Gowin,
1984). Concept maps, therefore, can promote deep learning.
In fact, previous researches have demonstrated that concept mapping can improve student learning. For instance, concept mapping can
facilitate meaningful learning (Malone & Dekkers, 1984), enhance the abilities of students to solve problems and web-based problemsolving performance (Hwang, Kuo, Chen, & Ho, 2014; Novak, Gowin, & Johanson, 1983; Trowbridge & Wandersee, 1996), decrease student
learning anxiety (Jegede, Alaiyemola, & Okebukola, 1990), improve reading comprehension and writing ability (Liu, 2011; Liu, Chen, &
Chang, 2010), and improve memory and learning effectiveness (Chiou, 2008, 2009; Cliburn, 1990; Huang et al., 2012). Researchers also
have developed or used computer-assisted concept mapping systems, such as Inspiration, and showed that computer-assisted concept
mapping can help students construct and revise concept maps, improve the quality of teacher and student interactions, and enhance
student learning achievement (Anderson-Inman & Horney, 1996; Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2001; Chu, Hwang, & Liang, 2014; Hwang et al.,
2014; Hwang, Yang, & Wang, 2013; Liu, 2011; Liu et al., 2010; Yang, Hung, Hwang, & Tseng, 2013).
Furthermore, previous researchers proved that Internet-based teaching materials constructed using a concept map can help students
construct overall knowledge and improve learning achievement (Chang, Sung, & Chiou, 2002b; Huang et al., 2012), because thinking and
memory are neural network functions. Also, a hierarchical concept map links horizontal and vertical concepts in courses for integration,
classication, and sorting through linking words to express relationships among concepts, allowing students to learn through relationships
by understanding how new knowledge and existing meaningful structures t. A graphic presentation can be used to integrate curriculum
knowledge and help students construct their personal knowledge (Chiou, 2008, 2009). Therefore, the concept map is ideally suited for
constructing teaching materials.
3. Learning design
3.1. Mayer's cognitive theory for multimedia learning
Paivio's (1986) dual-coding theory asserted people receive cognitive information visually and auditorily. When information is coded into
language and non-language forms or visual and auditory forms, it can help individuals store information in long-term memory (Kulhavy,
Stock, & Kealy, 1993). In 2001, Mayer argued that animation and auditory materials can improve learning effectiveness, and he proposed
the cognitive theory of multimedia learning by integrating information processing theory (Keefe & Jenkins, 1997), dual-coding theory
(Paivio, 1986), a model of working memory (Baddeley, 1992), and Mayer's (1997) generative theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2003;
Mayer & Moreno, 2002, 2003).
Short-term memory is concerned with such information-related activities as daily conversations, pictures, animation, and videos. As long
as a learner's awareness is aroused, sensory memory can transfer information into short-term memory or long-term memory. When
designing teaching materials, one must consider both long-term and short-term memory capacities and time constraints. Short-term
memory encodes information based on audio and semantic codes. Once information attracts learners' interest in visual stimulation,
sounds, smells, or stimulation acquired by the other sensory organs, this information is stored in short-term memory. Biehler and Snowman
(1990) asserted that new information should be connected with daily events to retain the interest of learners. Thus, this study designs
accounting materials using multimedia animation and concept maps that incorporate learners' life experiences to attract their interest and
attention. By integrating prior knowledge and new knowledge, meaningful learning can be facilitated (Ausubel, 1968). For instance,
Merchandising companies is a general concept. Expenses and cost of goods sold follow this concept in a hierarchical order, such that
these three concepts become a hierarchy whose structure can benet meaningful learning (Novak et al., 1983) (see Fig. 1). Additionally, since
7e11 is a merchandising company, advisement music for 7e11 is used to rst attract the attention of learners and daily life images and
animation features are then used in the map for expositive teaching to increase the interest and attention of learners and enhance their
internalization of information. According to Holzinger et al. (2008) and Thompson and McGill (2008), teaching materials that incorporate
visual (images and animation) and audio (sound) information are superior to visual (text and picture) materials alone because it simultaneously stimulates two sensory systems.

C.-C. Chiou et al. / Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

213

Fig. 1. MAMCM on Merchandising.

3.2. Mayer's theory in designing teaching materials

3.2.1. Two teaching materials
The MAMCM teaching material was designed based on Mayer's cognitive model of multimedia learning. Contents were from the
Merchandising and Inventory units. This teaching material consisted of 86 image les (visual language system) (Fig. 2) and 35 audio les
(non-language sound system) (Fig. 3). Five colors (light yellow, light green, light blue, pink, and red (in web version)) were used to classify
the accounts expenses, revenue, cost of goods sold, operating expenses, and non-operating expenses. Terminology in the accounting
concept maps is marked with a cubic text block. Block size is 2.65  6.8 cm and 3.8  6 cm, font size is 28 pt, and each picture is a concept
map. Additionally, another feature of the MAMCMs is it was designed for deep and broad learning, which was discussed by Huang et al.
(2012) (see Huang et al., 2012, pp. 864e865).

Fig. 2. Image les.

214

C.-C. Chiou et al. / Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

Fig. 3. Audio les.

The MCM refers to the design style by Huang et al. (2012), but does not include multimedia animation. The two digital teaching materials
were checked by six experts to obtain consensus and assess content validity. The six experts were two accounting teachers, two animation
experts, and two curriculum specialists.
3.2.2. The MAMCMs achieves deep and broad learning effectiveness
When instructors teach Merchandising in an entire concept map without multimedia animation, students may become confused. Thus,
to reduce the risk of cognitive overload and disorientation, Mayer's cognitive theory of multimedia learning and Paivio's dual-coding theory
were used to design the teaching material. For instance, Fig. 4 shows a basic unit. The top-level concept for Expenses is presented as a
picture of cash outow with the sound of a cash register. The second-level concept for Operating Expenses is presented as pictures of
water and electricity receipts with the sound of bombs exploding, likening utilities payment to bombs exploding. The concept for Nonoperating Expenses refers to expenses or losses that are outside the regular course of business. A picture of a stock market price and sound
of games for buying stocks are presented as the concept of investment loss.

Fig. 4. MAMCM: basic unit.

C.-C. Chiou et al. / Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

215

Fig. 5. MAMCM: advanced unit.

These animations help learners memorize course content. Additionally, learning from animated concept maps with daily experiences can
help students connect two relevant concepts with words to attain meaningful learning. For instance, the word includes links Expense and
Cost of Goods Sold, and the word contents link low-level concepts such as Selling Expenses and Administration Expenses. Further,
Cost of Goods Sold, Operating Expenses and Non-operating Expenses are closed at year end in three statements: Income Statements,
Retained Earnings Statements and Statements of Financial Position, sequentially (Fig. 5 for the advanced units). The hyperlink between
three statements can help students acquire a deep and broad understanding of closing entries (Figs. 6e8) (Huang et al., 2012).
Anderson (1987) recommended that teaching materials should be in an easy and clear format instead of a difcult and complex format.
The use of daily life pictures and sound benets accounting content and enhances long-term recall of learned material (Holzinger et al.,
2008). The Experimental class was taught using multimedia animation with multidimensional concept maps hyperlink language for vertical and horizontal connections in accounting teaching materials, while the control class was taught using a MCM without animation,
sounds, colors, and images (Figs. 9 and 10).
4. Research design
4.1. Information processing theory
The design of MAMCMs in this study is based on information processing theory from cognitive learning theory, which models how
learners absorb, apply, and store knowledge through feelings, attention, conversion, memory, and other internal functions (Atkinson &

Fig. 6. MAMCM: deepened and broadened learning.

216

C.-C. Chiou et al. / Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

Fig. 7. MAMCM: intensive example 1.

Shiffrin, 1968). The information processing sequence in the human brain moves from sensory memory to short-term memory and then to
long-term memory. Sensory memory exists when an individual receives visual, audio, taste, smell, and touch stimulation and the sensory
organs then store this information. According to Sperling (1960), when a message is not retained for more than 1 s, memory loss will occur.
Averbach and Coriell (1961) indicated that an image stays in sensory memory for only 0.25 s, while an audio message is generally retained
for 5 s (Anderson, 1990). As learners receive a stimulus, they can pay attention to it and code it into another perception, related it to a
previous perception, or ignore it; however, no stimulus causes messages to be forgotten (Zheng, 1997).
Short-term memory refers to memories that last for 20e30 s when motive, need, or experience is triggered by information sensory
receptors. According to Gange (1985), although humans can retain 15e30 concepts every minute, only half are transferred to short-term
memory. Since time constraints exist for retaining information in short-term memory, without instant processing, information begins to
fade within 20 s during the moving process from sensory stimuli to cognitive awareness (Peterson & Peterson, 1959). Miller (1956) showed
that most people's short-term memory can only store 7 2 units. Therefore, by expanding working memory or linking information with
meaningful events, the time restriction and capacity limits can be improved.

Fig. 8. MAMCM: intensive example 2.

C.-C. Chiou et al. / Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

217

Fig. 9. MCM: main unit.

Long-term memory is generally permanent memory. For instance, an elderly person may be able to recall clearly details about their school and
loves from over 20 years ago. Long-term memory without a capacity or time limit can store massive amounts of information as long as data are
classied, integrated, and retained systematically and coded for retrieval. Long-term memory, sensory memory, and short-term memory code
information differently. Semantic coding and visual coding are preferred by long-term memory. Semantic coding is preferred in language learning,
while visual coding is prioritized for non-language learning. These two coding types are complementary for learning (Chang, 2003).
The MAMCM material for teaching in this study is based on information processing theory, visual and auditory dual-coding theory, and
the concept map construction method (see Huang et al., 2012), which considers Miller's (1956) short-term memory capacity limit, and limits
the number of concepts in each digital teaching material in Miller's request scope. Therefore, this material can enhance short-term and longterm memory of students.
4.2. Method
4.2.1. Experimental design and participants
This is a nonequivalent quasi-experimental study. Subjects were 114 students in two freshmen classes (56 in the experimental group and
58 in the control group) at one private university in Taiwan. The experimental group was 30 females and 26 males (54% female), and the
average age was 18 years. While the control group was 34 female and 24 males (59% female), and the average age was 18 years.

Fig. 10. MCM: example.

218

C.-C. Chiou et al. / Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

All students participated in a 6-week teaching experiment. Independent variables are the two classes. Dependent variables are learning
achievement, learning satisfaction, and learning retention.
Before this study, neither class had learned about concept maps, such that they had same knowledge level. A pretest implemented before
experiment. The experimental class used MAMCM teach materials, while the control class used MCMs. After the teaching period, each class
took the same post-test, and after four weeks they took the second post-test to long-term retention.
To minimize interference variables, such as test, incident, maturity, measurement tool, loss of subject, choice difference, or different
classroom, this study used the same instructor, teaching hours, textbook, content of the course, test instrument, and requirements for taking
this course (Borg & Gall, 1989; Campbell & Stanley, 1963). To eliminate the problem of interference, the pretest was a covariate, while class
was the independent variable and post-test was a dependent variable. Thus, one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was applied (Fig. 11).
4.2.2. Context of the study
The experimental course is Financial Accounting because it is a required course for the two participating freshmen classes. Learning
objectives of this course include denition and relationship among different accounting concepts, accounting recording process, nancial
statement preparation, and application to practical business situations.
To construct correctly a nancial statement, a thorough understanding of the relationships between different accounting concepts is
essential. The correctness of nancial statements and understanding among different accounting concepts are essential objectives. From this
viewpoint, researchers (Chiou, 2008; Leauby & Brazina, 1998) proposed concept map logic which can build links and cross-links between
accounting concepts and relationships.
In addition, nancial statements are hierarchical structured. Balance Sheet is a general concept which contains total assets, and total
assets contains current assets while cash as the specic unit under current assets. This hierarchical structure can also be found in the hierarchical concept map (Chiou, 2008; Leauby & Brazina, 1998). Therefore, concept maps in accounting should provide considerable
assistance to students in terms of learning the logic and relationship germane to nancial statements.
The MAMCM digital teaching material, which includes multidimensional concept maps and multimedia animation, was used to teach
students in the experimental group. While the control class was taught using a MCM without multimedia animation.
4.2.3. Research instrument
4.2.3.1. Learning achievement tests. The pre-test had 25 multiple-choice questions on journalizing, posting, trial balance, and adjusting from
rst three chapters while the post-test had 25 multiple-choice questions on merchandising and inventory from four and ve chapters.
Before the pilot test, questions were examined using a two-way specication table with sections for knowledge, comprehension, application, and analysis. The pilot test was administered to 65 freshmen at one national university in central Taiwan. According to American
assessment scholar Ebel, distinction criteria for question difculty should be 0.20e0.80 (Ebel & Frisbie, 1991). According to this standard, 20
questions worth 5 points each for a total of 100 points were selected for the pretest and post-test. Kuder-Richardson reliability for the
pretest and post-test, were 0.69 and 0.70, respectively.
4.2.3.2. Learning satisfaction scale. Learning satisfaction was assessed for the experimental group (MAMCMs) and control group (MCMs).
The learning satisfaction scales for these two groups included three factors and was designed based on the computer user satisfaction
scale by Doll and Torkzadeh (1988). Three major factors in this learning satisfaction scales contained: teaching material content,
knowledge characterization, and individual differences. For instance, one question stated that I feel this material helps me learn and
understand the fundamental accounting concepts. Cronbach's alpha for the three factors was 0.83, 0.86 and 0.82, and overall scale value
was 0.93 for the experimental group. The cumulative explained variance was 67.93% for the 13-item scale. For the control group,
Cronbach's alpha for the three factors was 0.90, 0.88 and 0.84, and that of overall scale was 0.82. The cumulative explained variance was
70.13% for the 13-item scale. A 5-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), was used by this learning
satisfaction questionnaire. Therefore, the maximum score was 65. As a learner's score increased, his/her satisfaction increased and vice
versa.

Fig. 11. Research structure.

C.-C. Chiou et al. / Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

219

4.2.4. Experimental teaching procedure

The teaching experiment was divided into four steps. The rst step was preparation and lecturing with traditional digital teaching
materials on journaling, posting, trial balance, and adjusting. Second, students were administrated a pretest to assess the extent of their
knowledge. Third, two topics, Merchandising and Inventory, were divided into 12 units and taught using MAMCMs and MCMs for the
experimental and control classes, respectively. This was a seven-week-long formal teaching experiment with 3 h per week. Learning
achievement and learning satisfaction were evaluated during week seven. Four weeks after the learning achievement posttest, a learning
retention test was administered to assess retention of course contentdmemory. Table 1 shows the experimental procedure.
5. Results
5.1. The learning achievement of the MAMCM class exceeds that of the MCM class
Financial Accounting is a hard subject to study. For example, in Taiwan, the passing score for National Certied Public Accountant Test is 60.
In this sense, average score over 60 is very good performance. Average scores for the experimental and control classes on the pretest were
64.64 and 65.36, respectively; the average score for experimental class was 0.72 lower than that of the control class. In addition, average
post-test scores for experimental and control classes were 64.10 and 52.60, respectively; the average score for the experimental class was
11.5 higher than that of the control class (Table 2).
As pretests scores were not the same for both classes, analytical results may be impacted. Therefore, in this study, pretest score is a
covariance, posttest score is a dependent variable and class is an independent variable. The ANCOVA analysis was applied to exclude
interference of pretest scores and account for real differences in posttest scores between the two classes. The ANCOVA analysis can be
applied since the homogeneity test of regression coefcients was examined and no signicant difference (F 1.88, p 0.174) was found
(Table 3).
After controlling for the interference of covariates, posttest scores of the experimental class and control class differed signicantly
(F 5.2, p < .05). This analytical result indicates that after excluding the inuence of pretest scores, the experimental class outperformed the
control class. That is, MAMCMs for instruction were more effective than MCMs.
5.2. Learning satisfaction of the MAMCM class was better than that of the MCM class
To test for differences in learning expectations, the MAMCM learning satisfaction scale and the MCM learning satisfaction scale were
applied. Each question in each instrument was scored 1e5; as total score increased, a student's satisfaction increased. Total teaching materials satisfaction score in the experimental group was 47.5 and average score was 3.66 after divided by 13 questions. The average score
implied that students' satisfaction level in the MAMCM group was near agree. Thus, students in average were satised with MAMCM
teaching material. However, total teaching materials satisfaction score in the control group was 44.14 and average score was 3.19 after
divided by 13 questions. The average score implied that students' satisfaction level in the MCM group was near no opinion. In other words,
students in the control group did not very satisfy with MCM teaching materials.
Additionally, a signicant difference (t 3.04, p < .01) existed in the independent sample t-test (see Table 4), meaning that learning
satisfaction differed between the two classes. The learning satisfaction score of the experimental class was higher than that of control class
by 3.36, and average scores for both the experimental and control groups were 47.50 and 44.14, respectively. Hence, learning satisfaction in
the MAMCM class was better than that of the MCM class.
5.3. Course content retention by the MAMCM group was signicantly better than that of the control group
Researchers who conducted this study wanted to determine whether retention of course content by the MAMCM class was better than
that of the MCM class. Thus, post-test was applied four weeks after the experiment end. In MAMCM group, the average scores for post-test
and content retention were 64.1 and 62.32, respectively. It implied that learning retention decline by 1.78 points. On the other hand, in MCM
group, the average scores for post-test and content retention each were found 52.6 and 46.38, respectively. The learning retention scores
dropped by 6.22 and implied a great memory loss.

Table 1
Teaching experimental procedure.
Week

Activities

Preparing
stage

1
2
1
2
1
2
3
1

1e5
6e7

8e14

18

Design teaching materials and review by experts

Design Learning achievement tests and learning satisfaction scale
Lecture with traditional digital teaching materials on contents of journaling, posting, trial balance, and adjusting
Choose one national university in central Taiwan as a pilot test for experimental instruments
Pretest: examine students' prior knowledge
Grouping: experimental class uses MAMCMs and control class uses MCMs
Instruction: awareness for experimental teaching materials was announced
Experimental class was taught with the MAMCMs and control class was taught with the MCMs. Teaching contents included
Merchandising and Inventory units.
2 The Achievement test was used as a posttest for both classes after experimental teaching to compare difference between classes and the
learning satisfaction scale was used to understand students' learning perception and viewpoints for teaching materials in both groups
1 The achievement test was used to compare learning retention between two classes four weeks after the rst posttest.

220

C.-C. Chiou et al. / Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

Table 2
Descriptive statistics of pretest and post-test scores for two classes.
Class

Female

Experimental
Control

30
34

Male

26
24

Student number

56
58

Pretest results

Post-test results

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

64.64
65.36

11.8
11.1

64.1
52.6

12.8
14.3

Note. The maximum score of pretest for the experimental class was 84, while the maximum score of pretest for the control class was 88. The maximum score of post-test for
the experimental class was 84, while the maximum score of post-test for the control class was 84. The KolmogoroveSmirnov tests of normal distribution showed that both
pretest and post-test achievement measures were normalized, D 0.76, p 0.11; D 0.81, p 0.06.

Table 3
Post-test scores of one-way ANCOVA.
Variation

Df

SS

MS

Class
Pretest score
Homogeneity test

1
1
1

719.33
5237.36
259.31

719.33
5237.36
259.31

5.20*
37.86**
1.88

*p < .05, **p < .01.

No signicant difference was found for test of homogeneity for regression coefcients (F 0.20, p .66), indicating that the homogeneity
for regression coefcients was not violated and covariance analysis can be performed. After controlling for the interference of the pretest, a
signicant difference existed in post-test scores between the two classes (F 71.78, p < .01) (see Table 5), indicating that long-term retention
of learning by experimental class was better than that of the control class. Therefore, experimental results demonstrate that students taught
with MAMCMs had better learning retention than those taught with MCMs.

6. Discussion
6.1. The MAMCMs can better improve learning achievement than MCMs
This study found that the MAMCMs can improve learning achievement more than MCMs. The MAMCMs are hierarchical knowledge
structures with hyperlinks which link nodes of complex relevant concepts. Therefore, they can help students understand the interrelationships between complex accounting concepts and the structure of the entire textbook (Huang et al., 2012; Liu, 2011). Specically,
the MAMCMs, using multimedia animation and concept maps with the daily life experiences of learners, can transfer abstract accounting
concepts to concrete real-life information (Morrison & Reeve, 1988). The MAMCMs, therefore, can attract the attention of students and
improve their learning interest, motivation, and achievement (Dalacosta et al., 2009; Holzinger et al., 2008). Moreover, the MAMCMs can
help students overcome low learning motivation resulting from complex concepts in traditional concept maps and low learning outcomes
resulting from limited information processing abilities (Charsky & Ressler, 2011; Huang et al., 2012; Thompson & McGill, 2008).
Additionally, another benet of MAMCMs is that the same accounting content can be presented using two different systems that
multimedia animation and concept maps are combined. According to Paivio (1986), dual-coding theory posits two distinct information
processing systems: auditory and visual. When presenting a concept, using these two systems simultaneously is better than only one
(Paivio, 1971). Concept maps with an integrated structure and systematic attributes can improve learning effectiveness by helping students
build knowledge frameworks and understand complex connections among major and minor concepts. However, text and images, with
belong to the visual system, can cause information and cognitive overload while ignoring the auditory system (Paivio, 1971). According to
Tversky, Morrison, and Betrancourt (2002), animated images provide knowledge in detail, display characteristics of an event of context,
trigger motivation, and help clarify misconceptions. The MAMCM content was designed based on dual-coding theory. In digital material,
concept maps with multimedia animation was presented on the same screen to access the two different processing channels. Thompson and
McGill (2008) noted that teaching materials with both auditory and visual aspects can decrease information loading and then increase
learning achievement.
Furthermore, Park (1998) and Schar and Zimmermann (2007) suggested that good teaching materials should have the following attributes: a) attract the attention of learners; b) help memory encoding and retrieval; c) linking concepts effectively both in depth and width;
d) be meaningful and structured; and e) explain complex concepts or phenomena. According to arousal theory, an increase in arousal by
adding, say, entertaining sounds can increase learner attention, such that the amount of material processed by a learner increases, likely
improving learning performance (Renninger, Hidi, & Krapp, 1992; Weiner, 1990). The MAMCMs, which address the auditory and visual
systems, can attract the attention of learners, help their memory encoding and retrieval, and help them memorize and understand complex
concepts or phenomena (Dalacosta et al., 2009; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mousavi et al., 1995). Therefore, experimental results in this study
Table 4
Comparison of learning satisfaction between two classes.
Class

Number

Mean

SD

Experimental
Control

56
58

47.50
44.14

5.31
6.42

3.04**

**p < .01.

C.-C. Chiou et al. / Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

221

Table 5
One-way ANCOVA of tracking post-test scores for two classes.
Variation

Df

SS

MS

Class
Pretest score
Homogeneity test

1
1
1

7550.981
3411.426
20.688

7550.981
3411.426
20.688

71.78**
32.43**
.20

Note. The average scores of tracking post-test for experimental and control classes are 62.32 and 46.38, respectively.
**p < .01.

suggest that MAMCMs attract the attention of learners and improve their learning achievement. Thus, the MAMCMs can results in better
learning outcomes than MCMs.
6.2. MAMCMs generate higher learning satisfaction than MCMs
Experimental results also show that students have higher learning satisfaction when taught with MAMCMs than when taught with
MCMs. Learners typically prefer teaching materials that are related to daily life. Such material that also stimulates the auditory and visual
sensory organs of learners and attracts their attention can improve their interest in learning and satisfaction. Biehler and Snowman (1990)
argued that new concepts should be connected to daily events to attract the attention and interest of learners. In this study, MAMCMs based
on life experiences and content knowledge were designed using pictures, fashion, music, advertising, and popular images. When connected
to real life, teaching materials can be easily understood and enhance the learning interests of students (Anderson, 1987).
According to literature, learners are more attentive to colorful images and animation than black and white materials (Adesope & Nesbit,
2013; Holzinger et al., 2008; Nesbit & Adesope, 2011; Pett & Wilson, 1996; Schwier, Misanchuk, & Boling, 2000). Learning satisfaction is a
feeling. One can determine whether the learning needs of students are met and learning goals are achieved by examining the gap between
expectations and outcomes. When the gap between expectations and outcomes is small, the learning satisfaction of students is high. With
increased motivation, students can continue learning and nd satisfaction and interest. The MAMCMs in this study attracted the attention
and interest of students by compiling materials with daily life experiences and creating content using colorful pictures, fashion, music,
advertisements, and popular images. The MAMCMs, therefore, can improve learning satisfaction better than MCMs.
6.3. MAMCMs generate better retention in long-term memory than MCMs
The MAMCM content helped learners transfer and generalize knowledge and improved long-term memory. Generalization theory from
transfer of learning was proposed by Judd in 1908. According to this theory, knowledge or skills learned in stage A can be transferred to stage
B once a reaction is triggered by a stimulus. The expansion phenomenon of learning is called transfer of learning while the previous learning
effect will impact new learning (Judd, 1908). Transfer of learning occurs when interaction exists among existing knowledge, skills, methods,
attitudes, and new knowledge or new skills (Fu, Man, Leung, & Tan, 2006). Transfer of learning is often regarded as the ultimate educational
goal; that is, learners apply knowledge to a new context to reach a high degree of achievement. According to Huang (1998) and Bransford,
Vye, Bateman, Brophy, and Roselli (2004), learning by understanding and connecting content to real life experiences facilitates transfer of
learning performance. For instance, transfer of learning occurs when external stimuli and cognitive structures are very similar. Once learners
can transfer and generalize their learning, their knowledge and skills can be retained in long-term memory and their abilities and learning
achievement improve (Westling & Fox, 2000). In this study, the MAMCM materials, which contained real-life images and animation, were
vivid and linked to real experiences, helping learners transfer to and categorize knowledge in long-term memory.
Additionally, when learning, students should be equipped with knowledge of their intrinsic cognitive level and external stimuli and
interact with external environments. Learners receive stimulation through their sensory receptors. Attention is processed in short-term
memory and knowledge stored in long-term memory can be transferred to encoding memory for later retrieval (Chou, 2011). How
retrieve information from long-term memory and apply this information to produce more memory retention is an important issue. According to Bower, Clark, Lesgold, and Winzenz (1969), people can recall 19% of their random and disorganized memories, but 65% from
hierarchical storage. Long-term memory without capacity or time limits can store massive amounts of information systematically. However,
data are classied, integrated, and retained systematically in long-term memory, where only meaningful and structural information can be
stored (Chang, 2003). Therefore, teaching materials should be organized, structured, and systematic for retention in and retrieval from longterm memory. This study used teaching materials with multidimensional visual diagrams to organize and integrate multimedia sounds,
motion, and daily events or experiences to connect knowledge and materials and help learners transfer information to long-term memory
for later retrieval (Chiou, 2003; Jacobs-Lawson & Hershey, 2002). Therefore, learning retention in long-term memory was better with
MAMCM material than with MCM material.
7. Conclusion
Previous studies demonstrated that multimedia animation and concept maps in teaching materials positively impact teaching and
learning in such subjects such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and medicine. However, concept maps alone only use the visual
system and ignore the auditory system, possibly causing visual system overload and wasting auditory resources. Teaching materials with
multimedia animation provide stimuli that attract the attention of learners and make learning fun. However, learners may suffer cognitive
overload and learning disorientation. Thus, MAMCMs, which take advantage of two sensory systems, can provide cues for subsequent
integration and recall. They can help learners construct their own cognitive structures and efciently transfer their knowledge into practice,
such that good learning effectiveness is achieved (Huang et al., 2012; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mousavi et al., 1995; Schnotz, 2005; TindallFord et al., 1997). Therefore, the MAMCM material is this study clearly demonstrated its worth as digital teaching material.

222

C.-C. Chiou et al. / Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

Acknowledgments
This study is supported in part by the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Republic of China under contract numbers NSC 1022628-H-018-001.
References
Adesope, O. O., & Nesbit, J. C. (2013). Animated and static concept maps enhance learning from spoken narration. Learning and Instruction, 27, 1e10.
, C. (2009). Effects of prior knowledge and concept-map structure on disorientation, cognitive load, and learning. Learning
Amadieu, F., van Gog, T., Paas, F., Tricot, A., & Marine
and Instruction, 19, 376e386.
Anderson, J. R. (1987). Skill acquisition: compilation of weak-method problem solutions. Psychological Review, 94, 192e210.
Anderson, J. R. (1990). The adaptive nature of human categorization. Psychological Review, 98, 409e429.
Anderson-Inman, L., & Horney, M. (1996). Computer-based concept mapping: enhancing literacy with tools for visual thinking. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 40(4),
302e306.
Atkinson, R. L., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: a proposed system and control processes. In K. W. Spence (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in
research and theory. New York: Academic Press.
Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Averbach, E., & Coriell, A. H. (1961). Short-term memory in vision. Bell System Technical Journal, 40, 309e328.
Baddeley, A. D. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556e559.
Beyerbach, B. A. (1998). Development a technical vocabulary: preserves teachers' concept maps. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4(4), 339e347.
Biehler, R. F., & Snowman, J. (1990). Psychology applied to teaching (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifin.
Borg, W. R., & Gall, M. D. (1989). Educational research: An introduction. New York: Longman.
Bower, G. H., Clark, M. C., Lesgold, A. M., & Winzenz, D. (1969). Hierarchical retrieval schemes in recall of categorized word lists. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,
8, 323e343.
Bransford, J. D., Vye, N., Bateman, H., Brophy, S., & Roselli, R. (2004). Vanderbilt's Amigo3 project: knowledge of how people learn enters cyberspace. In T. Duffy, & J. Kirkley
(Eds.), Learner-centered theory and practice in distance education. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago: R. McNally.
Chang, C. X. (2003). Educational psychology. Taipei: Dong-Hua.
Chang, K. E., Sung, Y. T., & Chen, I. D. (2002a). The effect of concept mapping to enhance text comprehension and summarization. Journal of Experimental Education, 71(1),
5e23.
Chang, K. E., Sung, Y. T., & Chen, S. F. (2001). Learning through computer-based concept mapping with scaffolding aid. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 17(1), 21e33.
Chang, K. E., Sung, Y. T., & Chiou, S. K. (2002b). Use of hierarchical hyper concept map in web-based courses. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 27(4), 335e353.
Charsky, D., & Ressler, W. (2011). Games are made for fun: lessons on the effects of concept maps in the classroom use of computer games. Computers & Education, 56,
604e615.
Chiou, C. C. (2008). The effect of concept mapping on students' learning achievements and interests. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 45(4), 375e387.
Chiou, C. C. (2009). Effects of concept mapping strategy on learning performance in business and economics statistics. Teaching in Higher Education, 14(1), 55e69.
Chiou, H. F. (2003). The effects of multimedia interface on elementary students' learning motivation. Thesis of Department of Educational Technology of National Pingtung
University of Education, Taiwan.
Chou, B. H. (2011). The improvement strategy of Chinese-character-teaching based on transfer of learning. Journal of National Taipei Education University, 42(2), 1e22.
Chu, H. C., Hwang, G. J., & Liang, Y. R. (2014). A cooperative computerized concept mapping approach to improving students' learning performance in web-based informationseeking activities. Journal of Computers in Education, 1(1), 19e33.
Cliburn, J. W. (1990). Concept maps to promote meaningful learning. Journal of College Science Teaching, 19(4), 212e217.
Dalacosta, K., Kamariotaki-Paparrigopoulou, M., Palyvos, J. A., & Spyrellis, N. (2009). Multimedia application with animated cartoons for teaching science in elementary.
Computers & Educations, 52, 741e748.
Deimann, M., & Keller, J. M. (2006). Volitional aspects of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 15(2), 137e158.
Doll, W. J., & Torkzadeh, G. (1988). The measurement of end-user computing satisfaction. MIS Quarterly, 12(2), 259e274.
Ebel, R. L., & Frisbie, D. A. (1991). Essentials of educational measurement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Fesmire, M., Lisner, C. P., Forest, P. R., & Evans, W. H. (2003). Concept maps: a practical solution for completing functional behavior assessment. Education & Treatment of
Children, 26, 89e104.
Fu, C. L., Man, G. W., Leung, C. Y., & Tan, C. (2006). Some strategies of transfer of learning for mathematics. Journal of Luoyang University, 21(1), 110e112.
Gange, E. D. (1985). The cognitive psychology of school learning. Boston: Little, Brown & Company.
Gilbert, N. J., & Greene, B. A. (2001). College students' collaborative use of inspiration to generate concept maps in an educational technology class. Journal of Educational
Technology Systems, 30, 389e402.
Holzinger, A., Kickmeier-Rust, M., & Albert, D. (2008). Dynamic media in computer science education; content complexity and learning performance: is less more? Educational
Technology & Society, 11(1), 279e290.
Huang, W. Y. (1998). The research of generalization on sport skill learning transfer. Thesis of Department of Education of University of Taipei, Taiwan.
Huang, H. S., Chiou, C. C., Chiang, H. K., Lai, S. H., Huang, C. Y., & Chou, Y. W. (2012). Effects of multidimensional concept maps on fourth graders' learning in web-based
computer course. Computers & Education, 58(3), 863e873.
Hwang, G. J., Kuo, F. R., Chen, N. S., & Ho, H. J. (2014). Effects of an integrated concept mapping and web-based problem-solving approach on students' learning achievements,
perceptions and cognitive loads. Computers & Education, 71, 77e86.
Hwang, G. J., Yang, L. H., & Wang, S. Y. (2013). A concept map-embedded educational computer game for improving students' learning performance in natural science courses.
Computers & Education, 69(1), 121e130.
Jacobs-Lawson, J. M., & Hershey, D. A. (2002). Concept maps as an assessment tool in psychology courses. Methods & Techniques, 29(1), 25e29.
Jegede, O. J., Alaiyemola, F. F., & Okebukola, P. A. (1990). The effect of concept mapping on students' anxiety and achievement in biology. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
27, 951e960.
Judd, D. H. (1908). The relation of special training to general intelligence. Educational Review, 36, 28e42.
Keefe, J. W., & Jenkins, J. M. (1997). Instruction and the learning environment. NY: Eye On Education, Inc.
Kulhavy, R. W., Stock, W. A., & Kealy, W. A. (1993). How geographic maps increase recall of instructional text. Educational Technology Research & Development, 41(4), 47e62.
Leauby, B. A., & Brazina, P. (1998). Concept mapping: potential uses in accounting education. Journal of Accounting Education, 16(1), 123e138.
Leung, Y. K., & Pilgrim, C. J. (1995). Multimedia animation to enhance learning complex concepts in data communications. In Proceedings of 12th Annual Conference of the
Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education (ASCILITE), Melbourne.
Liu, P. L. (2011). A study on the use of computerized concept mapping to assist ESL learners' writing. Computers & Education, 57, 2548e2558.
Liu, P. L., Chen, C. J., & Chang, Y. J. (2010). Effects of a computer-assisted concept mapping learning strategy on EFL college students' English reading comprehension. Computers
& Education, 54, 436e445.
Malone, J., & Dekkers, J. (1984). The concept maps as an aid to instruction in science and mathematics. School Science and Mathematics, 84(3), 220e231.
Mayer, R. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: are we asking the right questions. Educational Psychologist, 32(1), 1e19.
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University press.
Mayer, R. E. (2003). The promise of multimedia learning: using the same instructional design methods across different media. Learning and Instruction, 13(2), 125e139.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (1998). A split attention effect in multimedia learning: evidence for dual processing system in working memory. Journal of Educational Psychology,
90(2), 312e320.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2002). Animation as an aid to multimedia learning. Educational Psychology Review, 14(1), 87e99.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Education Psychologist, 38(1), 43e52.
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81e97.

C.-C. Chiou et al. / Computers & Education 80 (2015) 211e223

223

Morrison, C., & Reeve, J. (1988). Effect of instruction and undergraduate major on qualitative skill analysis. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 15, 291e297.
Mousavi, S. Y., Low, R., & Sweller, J. (1995). Reducing cognitive load by mixing auditory and visual presentation modes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(2), 319e334.
Nesbit, J. C., & Adesope, O. O. (2011). Learning from animated concept maps with concurrent audio narration. Journal of Experimental Education, 79, 209e230.
Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Novak, J. D., Gowin, D. B., & Johansen, G. T. (1983). The use of concept mapping and knowledge vee mapping with junior high school science students. Science Education, 67,
625e645.
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representation: A dual coding approach. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Park, O. (1998). Visual displays and contextual presentations in computer-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 46(3), 37e50.
Peterson, L. R., & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193e198.
Pett, D., & Wilson, T. (1996). Color research and it application to the design of instructional materials. Educational Technology Research and Development, 44(3), 19e35.
Renninger, K. A., Hidi, S., & Krapp, A. (Eds.). (1992). The role of interest in learning and development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Sankey, M. D. (2003). Visual and multiple representation in learning materials: an issue of literacy. In Create.ed 2003: eLearning for the Creative Industries, 2 Oct 2003,
Melbourne, Australia.
Schar, S. G., & Zimmermann, P. G. (2007). Investigating means to reduce cognitive load from animations: applying differentiated measures of knowledge representation.
Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40(1), 64e78.
Schnotz, W. (2005). Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 49e70). New Jersey: Cambridge
University Press.
Schnotz, W., & Bannert, M. (2003). Construction and interference in learning from multiple representations. Learning and Instruction, 13, 141e156.
Schwier, R., Misanchuk, E., & Boling, E. (2000). Discourse on designing an illustrated hypermedia book. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 9(3), 223e251.
Simone, C. D., Schmid, R. F., & McEwen, L. A. (2001). Supporting the learning process with collaborative concept mapping using computer-based communication tools and
process. Education Research & Evaluation, 7, 263e283.
Sperling, E. A. (1960). The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 74, 1e28.
Thompson, N., & McGill, T. J. (2008). Multimedia and cognition examining the effect of applying cognitive principles to the design of instructional materials. Educational
Computing Research, 39(2), 143e159.
Tindall-Ford, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1997). When two sensory modes are better than one. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(4), 257e287.
Tough, A. (1978). Major learning efforts: recent research and future directions. Adult Education, 28(4), 250e263.
Trowbridge, J. E., & Wandersee, J. H. (1996). How do graphics presented during college biology lessons affect students' learning. Journal of College Science Teaching, 26(1),
54e57.
Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animated: can it facilitate? International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57, 247e262.
Weiner, B. (1990). History of motivational research in education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 616e622.
Westling, D. L., & Fox, L. (2000). Teaching students with severe disabilities (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Yang, C. C., Hung, C. M., Hwang, G. J., & Tseng, S. S. (2013). An evaluation of the learning effectiveness of concept map-based science book reading via mobile devices.
Educational Technology & Society, 16(3), 167e178.
Zheng, Z. M. (1997). Cognitive psychology: Theory and practice. Taipei: Laurel.