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PHYSICS

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Careful observations with the Youngs

modulus experiment (explained in section
9.6.2), show that there is also a slight
reduction in the cross-section (or in the
diameter) of the wire. The strain
perpendicular to the applied force is called
lateral strain. Simon Poisson pointed out
that within the elastic limit, lateral strain is
directly proportional to the longitudinal strain.
The ratio of the lateral strain to the
longitudinal strain in a stretched wire is
called Poissons ratio. If the original diameter
of the wire is d and the contraction of the
diameter under stress is d, the lateral strain
is d/d. If the original length of the wire is L
and the elongation under stress is L, the
longitudinal strain is L/L. Poissons ratio is
then (d/d)/(L/L) or (d/L) (L/d).
Poissons ratio is a ratio of two strains; it is a
pure number and has no dimensions or units.
Its value depends only on the nature of
material. For steels the value is between 0.28
and 0.30, and for aluminium alloys it is about
0.33.

is

9.6.5 POISSONS RATIO

elastic potential energy. When a wire of

original length L and area of cross-section A
is subjected to a deforming force F along the
length of the wire, let the length of the wire
be elongated by l. Then from Eq. (9.8), we have
F = YA (l/L). Here Y is the Youngs modulus
of the material of the wire. Now for a further
elongation of infinitesimal small length dl,
work done dW is F dl or YAldl/L. Therefore,
the amount of work done (W) in increasing
the length of the wire from L to L + l, that is
from l = 0 to l = l is

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CHAPTER 9

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SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

9.6.6 Elastic Potential Energy in a

Stretched Wire

When a wire is put under a tensile stress,

work is done against the inter-atomic forces.
This work is stored in the wire in the form of

W=

0
l

YAl
YA l 2

dl =
2
L
L
2

1
l
W = Y AL
2
L
=

1
Youngs modulus strain2
2
volume of the wire

1
stress strain volume of the
2
wire

This work is stored in the wire in the form

of elastic potential energy (U). Therefore the
elastic potential energy per unit volume of the
wire (u) is
u=

(A1)

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

vc = Re /( d).

CHAPTER 11
11.9.4 Blackbody Radiation

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We have so far not mentioned the wavelength

content of thermal radiation. The important
thing about thermal radiation at any
temperature is that it is not of one (or a few)
wavelength(s) but has a continuous spectrum
from the small to the long wavelengths. The
energy content of radiation, however, varies for
different wavelengths. Figure A1 gives the
experimental curves for radiation energy per
unit area per unit wavelength emitted by a
blackbody versus wavelength for different
temperatures.

The value of the constant (Wiens constant)

is 2.9 103 m K. This law explains why the
colour of a piece of iron heated in a hot flame
first becomes dull red, then reddish yellow and
finally white hot. Wiens law is useful for
estimating the surface temperatures of celestial
bodies like the moon, sun and other stars. Light
from the moon is found to have a maximum
intensity near the wavelength 14 m. By Wiens
law, the surface of the moon is estimated to have
a temperature of 200 K. Solar radiation has a
maximum at m = 4753 . This corresponds to
T = 6060 K. Remember, this is the temperature
of the surface of the sun, not its interior.
The most significant feature of the
blackbody radiation curves in Fig. A1 is that
they are universal. They depend only on the
temperature and not on the size, shape or
material of the blackbody. Attempts to explain
blackbody radiation theoretically, at the
beginning of the twentieth century, spurred the
quantum revolution in physics, as you will
learn in later courses.
Energy can be transferred by radiation over
large distances, without a medium (i.e., in
vacuum). The total electromagnetic energy
radiated by a body at absolute temperature T
is proportional to its size, its ability to radiate
(called emissivity) and most importantly to its
temperature. For a body which is a perfect
radiator, the energy emitted per unit time (H)
is given by

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(To be inserted on Page 260, Chapter 10, Physics,

Class XI, Vol. 2 textbook before last paragraph of
second column.)
The maximum velocity of a fluid in a tube
for which the flow remains streamlined is called
its critical velocity. From Eq. 10.21, it is

is

CRITICAL VELOCITY

given by what is known as Wiens Displacement

Law:
m T = constant
(A1)

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CHAPTER 10

409

H = AT 4

Fig. A1: Energy emitted versus wavelength for a

blackbody at different temperatures

Notice that the wavelength m for which energy

is maximum decreases with increasing
temperature. The relation between m and T is

(A2)

where A is the area and T is the absolute

temperature of the body. This relation obtained
experimentally by Stefan and later proved
theoretically by Boltzmann is known as StefanBoltzmann law and the constant is called
Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Its value in SI units
is 5.67 108 W m2 K4. Most bodies emit only a
fraction of the rate given by Eq. (A2). A substance
like lamp black comes close to the limit. One,

410

PHYSICS

Here e = 1 for a perfect radiator. For a tungsten

lamp, for example, e is about 0.4. Thus, a tungsten
lamp at a temperature of 3000 K and a surface
area of 0.3 cm2 radiates at the rate H = 0.3
104 0.4 5.67 108 (3000)4 = 60 W.
A body at temperature T, with surroundings
at temperatures Ts, emits as well as receives
energy. For a perfect radiator, the net rate of
loss of radiant energy is
H = A (T 4 Ts4)
For a body with emissivity e, the relation
modifies to
H = e A (T 4 Ts4)

(A4)

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As an example, let us estimate the heat

radiated by our bodies. Suppose the surface area
of a persons body is about 1.9 m2 and the room
temperature is 22C. The internal body
temperature, as we know, is about 37 C. The
skin temperature may be 28C (say). The
emissivity of the skin is about 0.97 for the
relevant region of electromagnetic radiation. The
rate of heat loss is:

The earths surface is a source of thermal

radiation as it absorbs energy received from sun.
The wavelength of this radiation lies in the long
wavelength (infrared) region. But a large portion
of this radiation is absorbed by greenhouse
gases, namely, carbon dioxide (CO2); methane
(CH4); nitrous oxide (N2O); chlorofluorocarbon
(CFxClx); and tropospheric ozone (O3). This heats
up the atmosphere which, in turn, gives more
energy to earth resulting in warmer surface.
This increases the intensity of radiation from
the surface. The cycle of processes described
above is repeated until no radiation is available
for absorption. The net result is heating up of
earths surface and atmosphere. This is known
as Greenhouse effect. Without the Greenhouse
effect, the temperature of the earth would have
been 18C.
Concentration of greenhouse gases has
enhanced due to human activities, making the
earth warmer. According to an estimate, average
temperature of earth has increased by 0.3 to
0.6C, since the beginning of this century,
because of this enhancement. By the middle of
the next century, the earths global temperature
may be 1 to 3C higher than today. This global
warming may cause problem for human life,
plants and animals. Because of global warming,
ice caps are melting faster, sea level is rising,
and weather pattern is changing. Many coastal
cities are at the risk of getting submerged. The
enhanced Greenhouse effect may also result in
expansion of deserts. All over the world, efforts
are being made to minimise the effect of global
warming.

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(A3)

is

H = AeT 4

11.9.5 Greenhouse Effect

bl

therefore, defines a dimensionless fraction e

called emissivity and writes,

H = 5.67 108 1.9 0.97 {(301)4 (295)4}

= 66.4 W

which is more than half the rate of energy

production by the body at rest (120 W). To
prevent this heat loss effectively (better than
ordinary clothing), modern arctic clothing has
an additional thin shiny metallic layer next to
the skin, which reflects the bodys radiation.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

411

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NOTES

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NOTES