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Fundamentals
Fundamentals
geography as a discipline
geography word coined by eratosthenese.
geo (earth) + graphy (description) => description of earth as abode of human lif
e.
geography derives its database from other natural and social science and attempt
s their synthesis.
geographer explains phenomena in a cause-effect relationship(asking why?).
thus it studies the interaction between human and nature as a whole.
humanised nature and naturalised human beings.
branches of geography:
human ecology - ecology => scientific study of habitat characteristics and their
species.
zoo geography - zoology => spatial pattern of animals their characteristics in t
heir habitats.
phyto geography - botany => spatial pattern of natural vegetation in their habit
ats.
soil geography - pedology => study of soil profiles and its distribution.
oceanography - hydrology => study of water bodies and its effects.
climatology - meteorology => study of elements of atmosphere, climate, weather.
geomorphology - geology => study of landforms, evolution and related processes.
economic geography - economics => study of economic activities.
population geography - demography => population, growth, settlement, distributio
n.
political geography - political science => political events, boundaries, neighbo
urs, elections etc.
historical geography - history => study of historical process.
social geography - sociology => aspects of society.
cultural geography - anthropology => aspects of culture.
environmental geography - environmental science => environmental problems like p
ollution, land gradation, conservation.
Approaches to study geography:
1> systematic
-introduced by alexander von humboldt (1769-1859) a german geographer.
-phenomen studied world over as a whole and then identification of patterns done
.
-branches of geography:
a>physical geography => geomorphology, climatology, hydrology, soil geography.
b>human geography => social/cultural, political/settlement, economic, historical
, political.
c>biogeography => interface between above two, plant, zoo, ecology, environment.
2> regional
-introduced by karl ritter (1779-1859) another german geographer.
-world divided into regional heirarchies and then all geographical phenomena in
that region studied.
-region can be natural, political or designated.
-branches of geography:
a>regional studies => macro, meso, micro regional studies.
b>regional planning => rural and urban planning.
c>regional development.
d>regional analysis.
two aspects common to every discipline are:
a>philosophy - geographical thought and human ecology.
b>methods and techniques - cartography, statistics, field survey, geo-informatic
s(GIS,GPS,remote sensing).
------------------------------------------------------------------2. origin and evolution of earth
<Origin of earth>
early theories:(formation of planets)
1>nebular hypothesis
-proposed by philosopher immanuel kant and revised by mathematician laplace in 1
796.
-planets were formed out of cloud of material associated with a youthful sun whi
ch was rotating slowly.
-chamberlain and moulton in 1900 proposed that a wandering star approached the s
un, cigar shaped extension of material was separated that started revolving arou
nd the sun and condensed into planets.
-later there were arguments proposing companion to the sun termed as "binary the
ories"
-otto schmidt in russia and carl weizascar detailed nebular hypothesis and propo
sed that sun was surrounded by solar nebula consisting mostly of hydrogen, heliu
m and dust. friction and collision let to formation of disk and accretion let to
formation of planets.
modern theories:(formation of universe)
1>big bang theory or expanding universe hypothesis
-edvin hubble in 1920 provided evidence for this.
-development stages:
--all matter in a tiny ball of unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature a
nd density.
--"tiny ball" exploded 13.7 billion years ago and energy got converted into mass
.
--within three minutes of big bang the first atom began to form.
--within 3 lac years temperature dropped to 4500K and gave rise to atomic matter
.
--star formation:
---difference in density and gravitational force leads to formation of galaxy.
---galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of very lar
ge cloud called nebula.
---in these we have localised clumps of gas that keep getting denser to form sta
rs.
---stars were formed 5-6 billion years ago.
--planet formation:
---stars are localized lumps of gas.
---grativational force leads to formation of core and huge rotating disc of gas
and dust around it.
---gas clound starts condensing and matter around core forms small objects which
come together to form planetesimals.
---these planetesimals accrete to form planets.
Our Solar System:
-contains 8 planets, 3 dwarf planets, 62 moons, one star, millions of asteroids/
comets and huge amount of dust grains and gaseous matter.
-galaxy was formed about 5-5.6 billion years ago.
-planets were formed 4.6 billion years ago.
-inner planets: mercury, venus, earth, mars since they lie between sun and aster
oids.
-outer planets: jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune beyond asteroids.
-terrestrial:
--earth like made up of rocks and metals
eons |era
|period
|epoch
|age
|life
|
----------------------------------------------------------------|
|
|
|holocene |0-11K
|modern man |
|
|quaternary|
|
|
|
|
|
|Pleistocene|11k-2m |homo sapiens |
|cenozoic |----------|-----------|---------|-------------|
|
|
|Pliocene |2-5m
|early human |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|meocene
|5-24m
|apes
|
|
|tertiary |
|
|
|
|
|
|oligocene |24-38m |anthropoid |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|eocene
|38-54m |rabbits
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|paleocene |54-65m |rats
|
|---------|----------|-----------|---------|-------------|
|
|cretaceous|
|65-146m |dino.gone
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|mesozoic |jurassic |
|146-208m |birds/flowers|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|triassic |
|208-240m |dino appears |
|---------|----------|-----------|---------|-------------|
|
|
|
|240-500m |
|
|paleozoic|
|
|
|
|
|
|cambrian |
|500-570m |first verteb |
-------|---------|----------|-----------|---------|-------------|
protero|
|
|
|
|
|
zoic |pre
|
|
|570m-2.5b|multicellular|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-------|
|----------|-----------|---------|-------------|
|
|
|
|
|
|
archaen|cambrian |
|
|2.5b-3.9b|unicellular |
|
|
|
|
|
|
-------|
|----------|-----------|---------|-------------|
|
|
|
|
|
|
hadeon |age
|
|
|3.9b-4.6b|rocks
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
----------------------------------------------------------------|
------------------------------------------------------------------3. interior of the earth
determined only by indirect evidences since nobody had gone into the interior.
radius of earth: 6370 kms
direct sources:
rocks are direct sources.
gold mines in south africa are 3-4 kms deep. beyond this its too hot.
scientist working on projects to penetrate greater depths, two of which are "dee
p ocean drilling project" and "integrate ocean drilling project".
the deepest drill at kola in arctic has so far reached 12 kms.
volcanic eruptions and magma are another direct sources.
indirect sources:
with increase in depth temperature, pressure, density increases and volcanic eru
ptions.
indirect sources include: meteors(rocks similar to earth), gravitation(depends o
n mass, latitude), magnetic field(distribution of magnetic material), seismic ac
tivity(most important).
earthquake:
-all natural earthquakes occur in lithosphere(from surface to 200 kms deep).
-caused due to release of energy that generates waves that travel in all directi
ons.
-energy generally released at faults which are sharp break in crustal rocks and
tend to move in opposite direction leading to release of energy.
-point where energy is released is called focus of earthquake or "hypocenter".
-point on surface of earth nearest to focus is called "epicenter".
-earthquake waves are of two types: surface and body
-body waves:
--two types are p-waves and s-waves
--p-waves are primary waves and can travel through solid, liquid and gas
--p-waves are the first to be recorded
--p-waves are the only one which vibrate parallel to direction of propagation.
--p-waves shadow zone is between 105-145 degrees
--s-waves are secondary waves and reach surface after some lag
--s-waves can travel only through solid material and hence had helped us infer i
nterior structure of earth
--s-waves shadow zone is beyond 105 degrees
-surface waves:
--last to be reported on seismograph and most destructive since they propagate p
erpendicular to direction of propagation.
types of earthquakes:
-tectonic: sliding of rocks along a fault
-volcanic: special type of tectonic confined to volcanoes
-collapse: roofs of mines collapse causing minor tremors
-explosion: ground shaking due to explosion
-reservoir induced: due to reservoirs
measuring earthquakes:
magnitude => richter scale => 0-10 => relates to energy released
intensity => mercalli scale => 1-12 => takes into account visible damage
tsunamis are waves generated by tremors and not earthquakes. its effects are dev
astating provided the magnitude is more than 5 on richter scale.
structure of earth=>
the crust:
-outermost solid part of earth, brittle in nature
-mean thickness varies, ocean(5 kms), land(30 kms) and himalayas(70 kms)
-made up of heavier rocks(basalt) having density 3 gm/cm while in oceans its 2.7
g/cm
the mantle:
-lies below crust
-extends from moho's discontinuity to 2900 kms
-upper portion is called asthenosphere(weak), extends till 400 kms, main source
of magma, density 3.4 g/cm
-crust + upper mantle = lithosphere and extends till 10-200 kms
-lower mantle extends beyond asthenosphere and is in solid state
the core:
-core mantle boundary located at depth 2900 kms
-outer core in liquid while inner core is solid
-density at core-mantle boundary is 5 g/cm while at center its 13 g/cm
-made up of very heavy material, mostly nickel and iron hence known as "nife"
volcano types and landforms=>
erosional:
-cliffs, terraces, caves, stack - erosional activity against rocks, deposition a
t foot called terraces, further lashing of waves leading to caves at bottom, rem
nants of retreating cliffs due to fallen caves termed stack
depositional:
-beaches/dunes- common along low sedimentary coasts
-bars/barriers/spits
Winds:
deflation - lifting and removal of dust and small particles from rocks
erosional:
-pediments and pediplains- gently inclined rocky floors at foot of mountains
-playas
-defaltion/hollow caves
-mushroom, table and pedestal rocks
depositional:
-sand dunes
-barchans
------------------------------------------------------------------8. composition and structure of atmosphere
99% of the total mass of atmosphere is confined to 32 kms.
carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only till 90 kms while oxygen is negli
gible after 120 kms.
---------------------------gas
percentage |
--------------------------nitrogen
78.08
|
oxygen
20.95
|
argon
0.93
|
carbon dioxide 0.036
|
neon
0.002
|
helium
0.0005
|
krypto
0.0001
|
xenon
0.00009
|
hydrogen
0.00005
|
--------------------------Gases:
-carbon dioxide is transparent to solar radiation but opaque to terrestorial rad
iation.
-it absorbs a part of latter and reflects back to earth and hence is responsible
for green house effect.
-percentage of co2 had been increasing in past few decades due to fossil fuels.
-ozone lies between 10-50 kms and absorbs the harmful ultraviolet rays and preve
nts it from reaching the earth.
water vapour:
-another variable component of air and can be 4%(in warm wet tropics) to less th
an 1%(cold deserts).
-decreases with increase in altitude and distance from equator.
-absorbs part of sun's insolation and prevents heat from radiating from earth an
d thus acts as a blanket and does not allows earth to get too cool or too hot.
dust particles:
-salts, smoke, soil, ash, dust
-generally concentrated in lower layers of atmosphere
-concentration more in sub-tropics and temperate zone compared to equator due to
winds
-act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses
structure of atmosphere:
-atmosphere divided into different layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere
, ionosphere and exosphere.
troposphere:
-average height of 13 kms. 8 at poles and 18 at equator.
-dust particles and smoke present.
-biologically most important layer.
-temperature decreases by 1 degree for every 165m height.
-changes in climate and weather take place in this layer.
stratosphere:
-tropopause separates it from troposphere.temperature here is -45 deg. at poles
and -80 deg at equator.
-stratosphere extends till 50 kms
-contains ozone layer
mesosphere:
-extends till 80 kms
-temperature decreases with altitude and reaches -100 degrees at 80 kms
-separated from ionosphere by mesopause
ionosphere:
-located between 80 and 400 kms
-contains electrically charged ions hence the name
-radio waves transmitted are reflected back to earth by this layer
-above this lies exosphere about which little is known.
generally we are concerned about the first two layers only.
------------------------------------------------------------------9. solar radiation, heat balance and temperature
differential heating and cooling of earth creates thermal gradient leading to wi
nds.
solar radiation:
-energy received in short wavelengths called incoming solar radiation or "insola
tion"
-rays falls obliquely on the atmosphere and received on an average 1.94 calories
per cm per minute
-distance between earth and sun: 4th july(152 million kms) termed aphelion and 3
rd january(147 million kms) termed perihelion
-insolation varies due to rotation of earth, inclination of sun rays, length of
day, (transparency of atmosphere, configuration of land)=> less effect
-earth's axis of rotation makes an angle 66.5 degrees with the plane of its orbi
t around the sun because of which the duration of day varies round the year.
-angle of inclination of sun rays distributes the energy to a greater area.
-near infrared radiations absorbed by water vapour, ozone and other gases.
-very small suspended particles in troposphere scatter visible spectrum giving r
ed/blue color to sky.
-insolation varies from 320 watt/m2 at equator to 70 watt/m2.
-maximum insolation is received over sub-tropical deserts which is less cloudy
-at same latitude insolation over continent is more as compared to oceans.
heating and cooling of atmosphere:
-sun rays reaching earth are reflected as long waves.
-conduction(unequal temperatures) and convection(vertical movement of air confin
ed to troposphere) takes place and layers of air in atmosphere get heated.
-transfer of heat due to horizontal movement is called advection.
terrestrial radiation:
-earth gets heated and transmits heat back in long waves.
-these long waves are absorbed to some extent by green house gases further heati
ng the atmosphere.
-atmosphere further transmits it back to space thereby maintaining the temperatu
re of earth which is explained in detail in heat budget below.
Heat Budget:
-100% insolation reaches top of atmosphere.
-35% is reflected back to space even before reaching the earths atmosphere (27%
by clouds, 2% by snow/ice and 6% by scattering) and is termed "albedo" of earth
-remaining 65% - 14% absorbed by atmosphere and 51% by earth
-earth radiated the 51% back (17% direct to space and 34% to atmosphere)
-of 34%, 6% directly, 9% turbulence and convection and 19% by condensation.
-insolation absorbed by atmosphere is also send back to space.
-which means total received from space 65% and returned back (14+34+17=65%)
factors for variation of temperature:
-latitude- due to inclination of sun rays
-altitude- more height less terrestrial radiation, less heat. per 1km temperatur
e decreases by 6.5%.
-distance from sea- sea gets heated and cooled slowly hence less temperature var
iance. land close to sea are influenced by breeze and hence moderated.
-air mass and ocean currents- warm air mass higher temperature and vice versa.
isotherms are line joining places having equal temperature.
------------------------------------------------------------------10. atmospheric circulation and weather system
-weight of air contained in a unit column from mean sea level to top of atmosphe
re is termed as atmospheric pressure measured using mercury or aneroid barometer
.
-unit is millibars or pascal. commonly used as kiloPascal written hPa.
-with increase in altitude pressure decreases
-though not strictly, pressure decreases by 1mb every 10m increase in elevation
in the lower layers of atmosphere.
-vertical pressure gradient is larger than horizontal but balanced by gravitatio
nal force and hence we don't see wind moving up.
-isobars: line joining places with similar pressure
-near equator pressure system is low and known as "equatorial low"
-around 30N and 30S pressure system is high and is known as "subtropical high"
-around 60N and 60S its low again and termed "sub polar low"
-poles are termed "polar highs"
-these zones are not permanent but move along with the apparant motion of the su
n.
Forces affecting the velocity and direction of wind:
-pressure gradient force- rate of change of pressure w.r.t distance.
-frictional force
-coriolis force: right movement in northern while left in southern hemisphere wh
en converging at ITCZ
--maximum at poles while absent at equator
--acts perpendicular to pressure gradient which is perpendicular to isobar
--hence in low pressure areas wind blows around it while at equator since there
is no coriolis force low pressure areas get filled up and hence no tropical cycl
ones there.
-pressure and wind
--wind circulation around low is called "cyclonic circulation" while around high
is called "anticyclonic circulation"
-cumulus- look like cotton wool, at 4-7 kms, flat base, scattered
-stratus- layeres
-nimbus- black/dark gray, dense, opaque, low, shapeless and contain thick vapour
precipitation:
after condensation its the release of moisture => rainfall, snowfall, sleet, hai
l
-rainfall types
--conventional
--orographic
-cyclonic
in general as we move away from the equator, rainfall decreases steadily.
coastal areas receive more rainfall than land.
------------------------------------------------------------------12. world climate and climate change
classification approaches:
empirical, genetic and applied
koeppen's scheme of clasification(empirical approach):
-close relationship between distribution of vegetation and climate
----------------------------------------------------------------|A-Tropical|tropical wet
|Af-no dry season
|
|humid
|tropical monsoon
|Am-monsoonal, short dry season |
|
|tropical wet n dry |Aw-winter dry season
|
|average temperature of coldest month is 18 degrees or higher |
----------------------------------------------------------------|B-Dry
|subtropical steppe |BSh-Low-latitude semi arid/dry |
|
|subtropical desert |BWh-Low-latitude arid/dry
|
|
|mid-latitude steppe |BSk-Mid-latitude semi arid/dry |
|
|mid-latitude desert |BWk-Mid-latitude arid/dry
|
|potential evaporation exceeds precipitation
|
----------------------------------------------------------------|C-Warm
|humid subtropical |Cfa-No dry season, warm summer |
|temperate |mediterrean
|Cs-Dry hot summer
|
|
|marine west coast |Cfb-No dry season, warm n cool |
|
|
|summer
|
|avg. temperature in coldest month between -3 and 18 deg.
|
----------------------------------------------------------------|D-Coldsnow|humid continental |Df-No dry season, severe winter|
|forest
|subarctic
|Dw-Winter dry and very severe |
|avg. temperature in coldest month -3 or below
|
----------------------------------------------------------------|E-Cold
|tundra
|ET-No true summer
|
|climate |polar ice cap
|EF-Perennial ice
|
|average temperature for all months below 10 degrees
|
----------------------------------------------------------------|H-Highland|highland
|H-Highland with snow cover
|
|cold due to elevation
|
----------------------------------------------------------------Group A:
-Af:tropical evergreen forests with dense canopy, bio-diversity, amazon, western
equatorial africa, east indies island, temperature 20-30 degrees, rainfall thro
ughout the year.
-Am:india, NE south america, northern australia. rainfall in summer and winter i
s dry.
-Aw:north and south of Af type climates, wet season is shorter while dry longer
with drought severe. deciduous forests and grasslands.north and south of amazon
forests. bolivia, paraguay, sudan, south of central africa.
Group B:
-very low rainfall not suitable for plant growth
-low latitude(15-30 degree) in subtropical high
-middle latitude(35-60 degree) confined to interior of continents where maritime
winds do not reach and its surrounded by mountains
-subtropical steppe receives slightly more rainfall than deserts enough for the
growth of sparse graslands. rainfall is highly variable
-The highest shade temperature of 58 C was recorded at Al Aziziyah, Libya on 13 S
eptember 1922.
Group C:
-30 to 50 latitude mainly from eastern and western
-humid subtropical - poleward tropic of cancer and
s, south china interior plains
-mediterranean- around mediteranean climate, along
30-40 degrees), central california, central chile,
rn coast of australia
-marine west coast- poleward to mediterranean west
margins of continents
capricorn, north indian plain
the west coast of continents(
south eastern and south weste
of continent
Group D:
-large continental area in north hemisphere between 40 and 70 north latitude
Group E:
-70 degree north latitude
-tundra- low growing moss, lichen, flowering plants due to short growing season
and water logging. sub-soil is permanently frozen.
-ice cap- interior greenland and antartica
Green house gases:
carbon dioxide(CO2),chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs),methane(CH4),nitrous oxide(N2O) an
d ozone(O3).
carbon dioxide- increasing at 0.5% annually, largest GHG, source is mainly fossi
l fuel combustion
-CFC- destroying ozone in stratosphere leading to ozone hole
-kyoto protocol - binds 35 industrialised nations to reduce their emissions by 2
012 to 5% less than the level in 1990.
-global warming leads to rise in sea levels
-year 1998 was the warmest year of the millenium.
------------------------------------------------------------------13. water (oceans)
water on earth hence "blue planet"
Hydrological cycle:
-circulation of water within earth's hydrosphere in different forms i.e. liquid,
solid, gas
oceans
ice caps and glaciers
groundwater
lakes
atmosphere
biosphere
:
:
:
:
:
:
97.25%
2.05%
0.68%
0.01%
0.001%
0.00004%
-59% of the water that falls on the land returns to the atmosphere through evapo
ration
Relief of ocean floor
-continental shelf:
--extended margin of each continent
--shallowest part of ocean with average gradient of 1 degree of even less
--average width is 80 kms and varies from continent to continent
--siberian shelf is the largest one(1500 kms). while chile, west of sumatra don'
t have any
--source of fossil fuel due to massive deposition of sediments
-continental slope:
--end of shelf and steep slope with 2-5 deg. gradient.
--end of continents. this also connects shelf with ocean basins
--can be 200 metres to 3 km deep
-deep sea plain:
--gently sloping area's of ocean basin
--flatest and smoothest regions of the world
--width varies between 3 to 6 kms and is covered by silt and clay
-oceanic deep or trenches:
--deepest part of the oceans
--associated with active volcanoes and earthquakes
--57 deeps have been explored. 32 in pacific, 19 in atlantic and 6 in indian oce
an
minor relief features:
-mid-oceanic ridges:
--composed of two chains of mountains supported by large depression
--peaks can be as high as 2.5 km and can reach above sea level e.g. iceland
-seamount:
--mountain with pointed summits rising from sea floor but not reaching the surfa
ce
--3 to 4.5 km tall
--emperor seamount, hawaiian island
-submarine canyons,guyots, atoll etc
temperature of ocean waters:
-latitude: temperature decreases as distance from equator increases since insola
tion also decreases polewards.
-unequal distribution of land and sea: ocean in northern hemisphere surrounded b
y land receives more heat
-prevailing wind from land leading to longitudinal variation
-ocean currents
horizonal and vertical distribution of temperature:
-temperature decreases sharply after about 200-400 metres and this boundary is t
ermed thermocline
-about 90% of water lies below this layer and approaches 0 deg. celcius
-maximum temperature of oceans is at the surface
salinity:
vertical:
-total content of dissolved salt in sea water
-amount of salt in gms in 1000 gms of sea water and unit is ppt(parts per thousa
nd)
-24.7 ppt is termed upper limit of brackish water
-highest salinity: lake van in turkey (330 ppt), dead sea (238), great salt lake
(220)
-dissolved salts in sea water
chlorine
: 18.97%
sodium
: 10.47%
sulphate
: 2.65%
magnesium
: 1.28%
calcium
: 0.41%
potassium
: 0.38%
horizontal:
average salinity,
indian ocean
: 35 ppt
atlantic
: 36 ppt
------------------------------------------------------------------14. movements of ocean water
vertical - due to tides
horizontal - ocean currents(water moves in one direction), waves(water does not
moves here)
Waves:
-wind provides energy to waves
-stagnant deep water is not affected
-steep waves from local winds, slow and steady winds from far away places possib
le another hemisphere
-water particles vibrate at its place when waves travel
Tides:
-rise and fall in water level due to attraction of sun and moon(more effective)
-another factor is the centrifugal force which is balancing gravitational force
and causing tidal bulge on both sides together with the lunar attraction
-highest tides occur in the bay of fundy, nova scotia, canada with tide bulge of
15-16 m
-types:
-based on frequency
semi-diurnal tide: most common with 2 high and 2 low each day
diurnal tide: one high and one low each day
mixed tide: of varying height occuring in west coast of north america and pacifi
c islands
-based on sun, moon, earth positions
-spring tides: when sun, moon, earth are in straight line. height of tide is hig
h and occurs twice a month once every full moon and new moon day.
-neap tides: seven day interval between neap and spring. sun and moon are at rig
ht angles to each other and their forces counteract. moon closest to earth(perig
ee) unusually high and low tides, on apogee range is limited. similarly when sun
is closer (perihelion around 3rd jan) range is bigger compared to aphelion(4th
july).
time interval between high and low tide: ebb
time interval between low and high tide: flow/flood
can be quite useful in power generation. 3 MW tidal project is underway at durga
duani in sunderbans, west bengal
Ocean tides:
B. Temperate
C. Boreal
regions:
A1. 10 N-S,
A2. 10 - 25 N-S,
B. Eastern North America, N.E. Asia, Western and Central Europe
C. Broad belt of Eurasia and North America, parts of Siberia, Alaska, Canada and
Scandinavia
climate:
A1. Temp. 20-25C, evenly distributed
A2. Temp. 25-30C Rainfall, ave. ann. 100 cms, seasonal
B. Temp. 20-30 C, Rainfall evenly distributed 75-150 cms, Welldefined seasons and
distinct winter.
C. Short moist moderately warm summers and long cold dry winter;very low tempera
tures. Precipitation mostly snowfall 40 -100 cms
2>Deserts:
subtypes:
A. Hot and Dry desert
B. Semi arid desert
C. Coastal desert
D. Cold desert
regions:
A. Sahara, Kalahari , Marusthali, Rub-el-Khali
B. Marginal areas of hot deserts
C. Atacama
D. Tundra climatic regions
climate:
A. Temp. 20 - 45C.
B. 21 - 38C.
C. 15 - 35C.
D. 2 - 25C
A-D Rainfall is less than 50 mm
3>Grassland:
subtypes:
A. Tropical Savannah
B. Temperate Steppe
regions:
A. Large areas of Africa ,Australia, South America and India
B. Parts of Eurasia and North America
climate:
A. Warm hot climates, Rainfall 50-125 cms
B. Hot summers and cold winter.Rainfall 50-90 cms
4> aquatic:
subtypes:
A. Freshwater
B. Marine
region:
A. Lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands
B. Oceans, coral reefs, lagoons and estuaries
climate:
A-B Temperatures vary widely with cooler air temperatures and high humidity
------------------------------------------------------------------16. biodiversity and conservation
weathering mantle is the basis of diversity of vegetation and hence biodiversity
. this depends on insolation and water and hence such areas receiving these will
be rich in biodiversity.
biodiversity is not even and is found rich in the tropics.
biodiversity is termed as the number and variety of organisms found in a geograp
hical area.
biodiversity can be discussed at three levels: genetic diversity, species divers
ity(ecological hotspots), ecosystem diversity.
world conservation strategy suggested measures for biodiversity conservation:
(i) Efforts should be made to preserve the species that are endangered.
(ii) Prevention of extinction requires proper planning and management.
(iii) Varieties of food crops, forage plants, timber trees, livestock, animals a
nd
their wild relatives should be preserved;
(iv) Each country should identify habitats of wild relatives and ensure their pr
otection.
(v) Habitats where species feed, breed, rest and nurse their young should be saf
eguarded and protected.
(vi) International trade in wild plants and animals be regulated.
some countries situated in the tropics contain a lot of diverse organism and are
termed as mega-diversity centers.
There are 12 such countries, namely Mexico, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Zai
re, Madagascar, China, India, Malaysia,Indonesia and Australia
Ecological hotspots of the world:
central american highland forest
central american lowland forest
western equador and columbian choco,
tropical andes,
atlantic forest, brazil
upper guinean forest
eastern arc mountains, tanzania
eastern madagaskar
western ghats, india
eastern himalayas
sinharaja forest, srilanka
peninsular malaya
indonesia
phillipines
northern bomeo
queesland
melanesia
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