C H A P T E R 59

The Stability Graph Method for Qpen-Stope Design

Yves Potvirt* and John Hadjigeorgioist

60*1

INTRODUCTION!

from time to time, been the source of confusion amongst people

not familiar with open-stope mining.
There are multiple and interrelated factors that potentially
contribute to the instability of excavations. For convenience, they
can be divided into two groups: the ones related to the in-situ
conditions prevailing before mining, and the factors related to
the disturbance of these conditions induced by mining.
The premining conditions can be characterised by rock-mass
classification schemes and supplemented with structural geology
data and an estimation of the in-situ stress field. The major
factors related to mining are the size, shape, and orientation of
excavations as well as the ground support used (including backfill). Blast damage and the effect of time in highly convergent
rock may also affect the stability of excavations.

In the late 1970s to early 1980s, the underground metal-mining

industry shifted its extraction strategy from highly selective
"entry" methods, such as cut-and-fill, to "non-entry" methods
such as open stoping. A review of Canadian practice has shown
that 90% of the total production of underground metal mines,
based on reported tonnage, rely on open-stope mining methods
(Poulin et al. 1995). The popularity of open-stope operations can
be attributed to the higher productions levels achieved by
employing larger excavations and using mechanised equipment.
Considering the high cost of developing each stope, there is
a significant incentive to produce a smaller number of large open
stopes. The consequences, however, of exceeding the maximum
critical stable dimensions of a stope can be disastrous. Instability
around open stopes may require large remedial costs for ground
rehabilitation, production delays, mining equipment loss, ore
reserves loss, and, at the extreme, injuries or fatalities to mine
workers.
Pakalnis (1986) reports that in a survey of 15 Canadian
mines, almost half (47%) of the open-stope mines had more than
20% dilution with one fifth suffering excessive dilution of over
35%. Based on field data from 34 Canadian mines, Potvin (1988)
demonstrated that open-stope design was based on past experience of mine operators in similar mining conditions and on trial
and error. Consequently, it can be argued that the reported high
dilution rates in the early 1980s could be attributed to the
absence of comprehensive engineering design tools. It follows
that there are significant economic gains to be made by
improving open-stope stability.

S0a3 D E S C R I P T I O N O F T H E STABS L I T Y m A P U 1ETO0O

The stability-graph method is an empirical method for open-stope
design (non-entry excavations). It aims to account for and quantify
the major factors influencing the stability of open stopes. A stability
index for each stope surface is subsequently traced against its
dimensions. A series of empirically derived guidelines allow for
predictions on the overall stability of a stope. Since its introduction
(Mathews et al. 1981), it has gained wide acceptance and is used
worldwide as a design tool. There are documented case studies of
the method being used in Africa, Europe, and the United States,
and extensive databases of case studies in Canada and Australia. In
practice, the stability graph can be employed during three distinct
mining stages. Its primary use is during the feasibility stage but it
has also been found useful during individual stope planning.
Finally, through the use of back analysis, it provides an index of
stope performance and allows the mine operation to develop remedial strategies where warranted.
The method traces its origin to the recognition that traditional rock-mass classification and design tools were based on
tunnelling case studies. A review of some case studies and engineering judgement resulted in the first version of the method,
whereby a stability number (N) was traced against the hydraulic
radius of a stope surface.
The stability-graph method uses the NGI tunnelling index Q
(Barton, Lien, and Lunde 1974) as a basis for estimating rockmass quality.

@Qd2 EXCAVATION STABILITY

Evaluating the stability of a non-entry excavation such as a stope
can be subjective. Unlike entry excavations in which mine
workers have access, isolated rock falls in stopes are generally of
no consequence, providing that they can be handled by mucking
units. Therefore, a stope can be considered to be stable if it yields
low dilution (less than 5%) and if there are no ground-fallrelated operational problems. It has been argued (Pakalnis,
Poulin, and Hadjigeorgiou 1995) that there is a unique acceptable dilution rate for every mine operation. This is defined as a
function of ore grade, costs, grade of dilution material, and metal
prices. Consequently, provided the operation remains safe and
economical, it is possible to tolerate a level of dilution and a
degree of instability for every stope. Open stopes that display
excessive dilution and/or unmanageable stability problems are
often referred to as caved. In this context, the term "caved" indicates major stability problems and should not be confused with
the cave mining interpretation where it refers to orebody failure
(cavings) after undercutting. This overlap of terminology has,

where:
Q = NGI tunnelling index with
RQD = rock quality designation

* Australian Center for Geomechanics, Nedlands, WA, Australia,

t Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada.

513

Foundations for Designi

514

1000

10

10

15

FIG URE SO 1

Stability graph, after Mathews et al. (1981)

15

Hydraulic radius (m)

Hydraulic radios (m)

FIGURE 60.2

J'r = joint roughness number

Stability graph after Potvin (1998)

1.0

Jw = joint water reduction number

Jn = joint set number
Ja = joint alteration number
SRF = stress reduction factor
Using SRF equal to 1 is a departure from the original system
(Barton, Lien, and Lunde 1974). This modified tunnelling index,
Q, is further adjusted to account for stress, rock defect orientation, and design-surface orientation factors to arrive at a stability
number N. The stability number was plotted against the hydraulic
radius (surface area/perimeter) of the studied surface of an excavation (Mathews et al. 1981). Three zones of potentially stable,
unstable, and caving were proposed with reference to the
predicted stability of an excavation (see Figure 60.1).
In its early days, a major shortcoming of the method was
that it was backed by limited field data26 case studies from
three mines. Once the database was expanded to 175 cases from
34 mines and the stability graph modified (Potvin 1988), the
method rapidly gained wide acceptance in the Canadian mining
industry. The transition zone from stable to unstable was reduced
significantly, thus removing some of the subjectivity in using the
design chart (see Figure 60.2). It should be noted that in the
Potvin database, the adjustment factors were different than those
proposed by Mathews et al. (1981). This resulted in what is
commonly referred to as the modified stability-graph method
using a stability index AT.
N' =

Q'xAxBxC

where:
AT = stability number
Q' = modified tunnelling quality index (NGI)
A = stress factor
B = joint orientation factor
C = gravity factor
A-Factor. The A-factor is used to account for the resulting
induced stress in the investigated stope surface. A series of charts
that provided preliminary estimates of induced stresses for

i
i
42
iW

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0

10

Gc/Oi
<Jc = Uniaxial compressive strength
G/= Induced compressive stress

FIGURE 60.3

Determination of the stress factor, after Potvin (1988)

different stope configurations and conditions were proposed

(Mathews et al. 1981 and Potvin 1988) (Figure 60.3). These
charts have now been superseded by ready access to 3-D numerical modelling stress packages.
B-Factor. The B-factor considers the orientation of the
most critical structure relative to the stope walls (Figure 60.4).
The critical structure could be a joint set, bedding planes, or foliation. This is based on the observation that most structurally
controlled failures occur when joints form a shallow angle with
the stope surface.
C-Factor. The C-factor accounts for the mode of failure. In
open stopes, structurally controlled failures are recognised as
gravity fall, slabbing, and sliding. Figure 60.5 demonstrates the
influence of gravity for slabbing and gravity modes of failure.
As more case studies became available, it was noted that the
adjustment factor for sliding could, under certain conditions,
prove inadequate for footwall stability predictions. Following a
mechanistic analysis and review of case-by-case field data, the
following modifications, shown in Figure 60.6, were made
(Hadjigeorgiou, Leclair, and Potvin 1995).

The Stability Graph Method for pesi-Stope Design

515

critical joint > F/W

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Relative difference in dip between

the critical Joint and slope surface
FIGURE 60A
(1988)

Determination of the Orientation Factor, after Potvin

10

1
20

1n
30

40

r
50

Inclination of critical joint

FIGURE 60 6 Influence of gravity for sliding mode of failure, after
Hadjigeorgiou Leclair and Potvin (1995)

30

40

50

inclination of :
FIGURE 60.5
of failure

0=4

Influence of gravity for slabbing and gravity fall modes

DISCUSSION OF THE INPUT FACTORS

As a result of wide dissemination in a number of textbooks

(Hoek, Kaiser, and Bawden 1995, Hutchinson and Diederichs
1996) the input factors for the calculation of N' described above
have now gained broad acceptance from practitioners and
researchers. The applicability of the input methodology on a
case-by-case analysis was reviewed and, with the exception of the
minor modifications to the C factor shown in Figure 60.6, were
found to be appropriate (Hadjigeorgiou, Leclair, and Potvin
1995). On the other hand, some authors (Stewart and Forsyth
1995; Trueman et al. 2000) have indicated their preference for
the formulation of the input factors as originally proposed
(Mathews et al. 1981).

Several other modifications to the stability graph have been

proposed during the last decade. The following offers a brief
historical review. It should be noted that most of these proposals
have not yet been extensively tested by case studies nor are they
widely employed by practitioners.
Scoble and Moss (1994) suggested that there was merit in
adding two further adjustment factors, D for blasting and E for
sublevel interval rating with some tentative factors proposed. A
fault factor was been developed that can be incorporated into the
stability factor (Suorineni, Tannant, and Kaiser 1999). This fault
factor accounts for the angles between fault and stope surface
and the position where the fault intersects the stope surface. The
fault factor was derived based on modelling and demonstrated
that it could be critical for a series of documented case studies in
Canada and Africa. At the Golden Giant Mine in Ontario, Canada,
it was shown that under high-stress environments the introduction of a stress-damage factor merited attention (Sprott et al.
1999). Based on 3-D numerical modelling, they used the "extra
stress deviator," the uniaxial resistance of the rock, and the
hydraulic radius to define a stress-damage factor. It has been
argued that the stability predictions of the stability-graph method
may prove inaccurate due to the influence of rock-mass degradation and relaxation (Kaiser et al. 1997). It was recommended that
stope sequencing be used as a tool to minimise stress-induced
rock-mass degradation and to minimise stress relaxation. In their
work, they defined rock-mass relaxation as stress reduction
parallel to the excavation wallnot to stress reductions in the
radial or a reduction in confinement. Rock-mass degradation was
quantified as loss of rock-mass strength.
S0oS

HYDRAULIC RADIUS

The term "hydraulic radius" has been used in the past to characterise the size and shape of stope surfaces (Laubscher 1977). This
is the area over the perimeter of a given stope surface. It has also
been demonstrated that, despite the advantages of hydraulic
radius over span, it still has important limitations (Milne,
Pakalnis, and Felderer 1996). In particular, when applied to
irregularly shaped stope surfaces, it is possible to arrive at the

Foundations for Designi

516

FIGURE 60.7
(1996)

Determination of the radius factor, after Milne et at.

same hydraulic radius. It has been put forward that a better way
to describe the geometry of an irregularly shaped excavation is
the radius factor (see Figure 60.7). This is determined by identifying the centre of any excavation and by taking distance
measurements to abutments at small regular increments:
RF =

FIGURE 60.8

Stability graph, after Nickson (1992)

-5
I y n = i i
n^Q
r0

where
re = distance from the surface centre to the abutments at
angle q
n = number of rays measured to the surface edge
In principle, the radius factor can be determined at any
point on a surface. If the centre cannot be determined, a series of
calculations are possible with the maximum value assumed to be
the radius factor. Despite its somewhat cumbersome definition,
the radius factor can easily be calculated by a routine integrated
into a computerised design package.
8oS

BEBim

charts

In reviewing the proposed chart, Figure 60.1 (Mathews et al.

1981), it can be seen that the developed guidelines were somewhat vague for design purposes. This was because there was
insufficient data to provide more accurate zone definition. As
more case studies became available, a narrower transition zone
and a "support requirement zone" were defined (Potvin 1988).
This has allowed for a calibrated and more versatile design tool
(Figure 60.2). A more comprehensive statistical analysis further
modified the support zones by introducing lines indicating where
cable bolting could be used (see Figure 60.8) (Nickson 1992). A
review of a larger database (Hadjigeorgiou, Leclair and Potvin
1995) confirmed the general validity of previous work (Potvin
1988, Nickson 1992) within statistical limits.
It should be noted that the work of Hadjigeorgiou et al.
(1995) demonstrated that, for larger stopes with a hydraulic
radius greater than 15, the design curve was in fact flatter (see
Figure 60.9). More recent work in the United Kingdom by Pascoe
et al. (1998) and in Australia by Trueman et al. (2000) has
confirmed the same trends.
A series of design guidelines were proposed (Stewart and
Forsyth 1995) that allowed for a finer definition of the types of

FIGURE 60.9 Stability graph design lines as developed by

Hadjigeorgious et al. (1995)

stope failure, distinguishing between potentially unstable, potentially major, and caving failure separated by transition zones (see
Figure 60.10). In their experience, the boundary between stable
and unstable is clear cut, while the transition between unstable
and major failure is not as well defined. It is of interest that the
transition between a "potentially stable zone" and a "potentially
unstable zone" is identical to Potvin's transition zone. In practice,
it could be argued that, for open-stope design purposes, it is
somewhat irrelevant to subdivide the area defining stope failure
into three zones as the objective is to design stable stopes.
Cavity monitoring laser surveys have been employed to backanalyse the resulting volumetric measurements of overbreak/

The Stability Graph Method for pesi-Stope Design

517

1000

1000

10

FIGURE 60=10

Stability graph after Stew rt & Forsyth (1993)

s?

s*
j.

4
.

I
.

Cross-Sections
G
Generated
from
IMS Survey

l/\ \
Equivalent Linear
Overbreak/Slough
(Expressed in Meters

E l Slough from Stope Wails

I Equivalent linear overbreak/Slough

FIGURE 60.11 Schematic definition of the ELOS parameter, after

Clark and Pakalnis 1997

slough and underbreak, and a new index has been proposed (Clark
and Pakalnis 1997) (see Figure 60.11):
ELOS

equivalent linear overbreak

slough
volume of slough from stope surface
stope height x wall strike length

In Figure 60.12, ELOS has been integrated in the stability

graph, providing a series of design zones (Clark and Pakalnis
1997). Although this data presentation does not account for the
influence of support, it provides a useful back-analysis tool for
hanging walls and footwalls in a low- or relaxed-stress state and
with parallel geological structure being present.
All of the above graphs rely on arbitrarily drawn design
curves. The first comprehensive statistical analysis of the thenavailable field data (Nickson 1992) clearly demonstrated the
applicability of the modified stability graph (Potvin 1988) and
laid the foundations for further statistical work (Hadjigeorgiou,

15

Hydraulic radius (m)

(m)

Stope
Width

Length

10

15

Hyaraulic r diu

FIGURE 60.12 Estimation of overbreak/slough for nonsupported

hangingwalls and footwalls, after Clark and Pakalnis 1997

Leclair, and Potvin 1995, Pascoe et al. 1998, and Suorineni

1998).
Successful applications of the stability graph recognise that
the method remains subjective. Despite using quantifiable values,
the precise degree of inherent conservatism is not known. It
reflects "current and past practice," which may have been influenced by legislation, local practices, or geological peculiarities, and
does not necessarily constitute an optimum design methodology.
80.7

RISK A N A L Y S I S

It has been argued that the design of non-entry excavations lends

itself to risk analysis much more than the design of access ways
where worker safety is the major concern (Pine et al. 1996,
Pascoe et al. 1998, Diederichs and Kaiser 1996). There are two
basic elements in risk analysis. The first one deals with input variability and the second deals with calibration uncertainty. For
practical purposes, the major challenge lies in defining how much
risk is acceptable for design purposes. Using risk probability
procedures for fine-tuning or calibrating site-specific design
guidelines, while attractive, is hindered in that site-specific calibrated guidelines will be validated only towards the end of mine
life. At that time, their impact will be limited to providing a better
understanding of particular field conditions, but it may be too
late to implement major design changes.
60.8

S U P P O R T RECOIVIIVSENDATSONS

Potvin (1988) first addressed the influence of support on the

stability of open stopes. The area of the graph that could successfully be supported by cable bolts was refined, and a series of design
recommendations made on cable-bolting patterns (Nickson 1992).
The basic concept is that there is a zone where support cannot be
effectively used to stabilise the excavation. It has been shown
(Hadjigeorgiou, Leclair, and Potvin 1995) that the actual supportable zone was smaller than predicted (Nickson 1992).
A design chart is available to select a suitable cable-bolt
density as a function of relative block size (RQD/Jn) and the
hydraulic radius (Potvin and Milne 1992). This graph, slightly
modified in Figure 60.13, is most appropriate for stope backs. It
has also been employed for hanging-wall reinforcement design,
provided a systematic and regular cable-bolt pattern is used.

FoyoiidatBOinis for Design

518

(RQD/Jn)
Hydraulic radius
FIGURE 60.13

Determination of cable bolt density

At the time when the design curves for cable reinforcement

were developed, support often consisted of single plain-strand
cables. Recent years have seen a shift towards double-strand and
modified-geometry cables as they provide higher support
capacity. This is achieved in the presence of sufficiently high
ground deformation whereby the strength of the steel is being
mobilized. In other words, pattern reinforcement is designed to
help the rock support itself and not necessarily to support the
dead weight of the rock. A series of semi-empirical design charts
to determine the design spacing for both single- and doublestrand cable bolts has been proposed (Diederichs, Hutchinson,
and Kaiser 1999). It should be noted, however, that there are no
documented case studies confirming their application.
SQ3
L I M I T A T I O N S F TiHE S T A B I L I T Y QiRAPU
All empirical methods are limited in their application to cases
that are similar to the one used in the developmental database.
Therefore, the stability graph is inappropriate in severe rockbursting conditions, in highly deformable (creeping) rock mass,
and for entry methods. Since its introduction, the stability graph
method has been the subject of extensive efforts to expand its
applicability to better account for the presence of faults, blast
damage, and stress damage. Unfortunately, some of the proposed
modifications are not supported by field data. Furthermore, when
merging databases from diverse sources, it is necessary to verify
the quality of collected data. In particular, the practice of using
empirical correlations to convert from one rock-mass classification system to another should only be used as a last resort and
even then with great caution.
For all practical purposes, the stability graph can be used
during the feasibility stage, during individual stope planning, and
for stope reconciliation or back analyses.
eD10
DESDGN C O N S I D E R A T I O N S
T H E FEASIBILITY STAE
The determination of adequate stope dimension is one of the
most critical decisions to be made at the feasibility study stage of
a mine. The profitability of an operation is directly linked to
productivity, which in turn, is influenced by stope dimensions.
Validation of stope-design methodology can begin once the first
stope is extracted. By this time, however, the mine infrastructure
is already in place, allowing for no or only minor modifications to

design stope dimensions. This emphasizes the importance of

developing a reliable stope-design methodology at the earliest
possible stage.
Many practitioners have reported on the reliability of the
stability-graph method during the last 12 years (Reschke and
Romanowski 1993, Bawden 1993, Pascoe et al. 1998, Dunne et al.
1996, and Goel and Wezenberg 1999). When properly used, the
method provides a good "ball park" estimate of stable stope dimensions under different conditions. The major limitation at the feasibility study stage is the availability of quality geotechnical data.
This is a concern for all design methods. Consequently, it is essential to optimise all available data while being fully aware of any
limitations. The following guidelines can facilitate the estimation
of realistic stability numbers during the feasibility stage.
An integral part of the stability method is the quantification of
rock-mass quality based on the Q system. At the "green field" stage,
the majority of geomechanical data are derived from boreholes.
Consequently, it is possible to develop a comprehensive database
of RQD readings, which can easily be integrated into geological
models easily accessed by both planning and rock mechanics. It is
strongly suggested that the number of joint sets be determined by
using oriented diamond-drill cores in the orebody.
There are several case studies where core data were used to
derive representative Q readings for underground mines (Milne,
Germain and Potvin 1992, Germain, Hadjigeorgiou, and Lessard
1996). This has included a simplified approach to determine joint
alteration, Ja. If the joint cannot be scratched with a knife, Ja is
assumed to be equal to 0.75, and if it is possible to scratch, it
varies from 1.0 to 1.5. When a joint feels slippery to touch and
can scratched with a fingernail, Ja is equal to 2; and when it is
possible to indent with a fingernail, Ja is equal to 4. The joint
roughness parameter (J r ) is more difficult to assess on a small
exposed surface of a core. However, in most cases, it is possible to
estimate whether the surface is smooth or rough. In the absence
of reliable data, joints are assumed to be planar. This allows for Jr
values of 0.5 for slickenslide planar, 1.0 for smooth planar, and
1.5 for rough planar joints.
Factor A can generally be assumed to be equal to 1 for all
stope walls, unless mining is to proceed very deep (say 1,000 m
and deeper). As a first-pass estimation, the stress induced in
stope backs could be assumed to be around 1.5 times the premining horizontal stress for transversal mining (mining across
the strike of the orebody). In longitudinal mining (mining along
strike), a rough estimate of the induced stress in the back can be
obtained by doubling the premining horizontal stress perpendicular to the orebody strike. The premining stress can be measured
if underground access is available or otherwise based on regional
data. The uniaxial compressive strength of rock is easily obtained
by standard laboratory tests on cored rock. A larger database of
UCS values can also be gathered at low cost using a standard
point load test. When at least some oriented core is available,
Factor B can be estimated. In the absence of joint orientation
data, a minimum value of 0.2 is assumed. The estimation of
factor C is independent of ground conditions and is, therefore,
straightforward to determine, even at the feasibility stage.
A good methodology for the construction of a geomechanical model and the application of the stability graph method for
mine feasibility assessment exists (Nickson et al. 1995). Stability
numbers are calculated for back and walls and displayed on mine
sections. For each stability number (N), a hydraulic radius (S) is
determined from the stability graph in Figure 60.14, using the
upper section of the transition zone. The option of increasing
stope dimensions exists if a systematic pattern of cable-bolt
support is to be used. This can be assessed using Figure 60.8.
Unless the ground conditions are consistent throughout the
orebody, a number of stable hydraulic radii will be produced,
which can be grouped into domains and displayed on a longitudinal section. Because most mines employ systematic layouts, a

The Stability Graph Method for pesi-Stope Design

@1 D E S I G N C O N S I D E R A T I O N S F O R
INDIVIDUAL STOPE PLANNING

z
o
Q

3CQQ EL
HW
Q : = 10
A=1
B = 0.3
C = 3.5
N'= 10.5
3=6

S
li

El
a

519

ROD
>= 0%
> = 20%
> = 40%
> = 60%
> = 75%

It is good engineering practice to employ the stability graph at the

planning stage to evaluate the stability of each stope. At this stage
of development, there is usually underground access that allows
for a revaluation of the rock-mass data collected during the feasibility study. Direct underground mapping can provide more
reliable information than diamond-drill hole data. Another
advantage of underground observations is that it can reveal early
signs of stress. This can be complemented by stress measurements allowing for a better assessment of stress influence on the
stopes. At this point, it is possible to integrate numerical modelling to investigate optimum sequencing.
Access to more quality data can allow for greater confidence
in stope stability estimates than allowed during the feasibility
study. Consequently, it is possible to consider modifications or
fine-tuning to the ground support and extraction strategies. At
this stage, it is also important to assess the influence on stope
stability of some of the factors not well accounted-for in the
stability-graph method. These can include faulting, shear zones,
or areas susceptible to rock bursts.
One of the great benefits of using such a method at the planning stage is that it brings geomechanical considerations into
stope design and increases the awareness of mine planners to
ground-control issues. Modern stope designs require the close
cooperation of geology, mine planning, and rock mechanics.

60 12

FIGURE 60.14 A case study during the feasibility stage, after

Nickson et ai. 1995
unique stope dimension is usually determined for each mine
domain. Engineering judgement must be used in selecting the
appropriate hydraulic radius. Selecting the smallest hydraulic
radius would ensure that all stopes would be stable, but would
not likely be the most economical option. Notwithstanding the
value of ore, the impact of dilution, acceptable risks, and the
operating philosophy, a good starting point for selecting a mean
hydraulic radius for an entire domain would be to ensure that
approximately 80% of the stopes are stable. The remaining 20%
or so can then be dealt with individually using specific ground
support or different extraction strategies.
The stope height, length, and width within each domain can
be determined from the mean hydraulic radii (roof and walls).
The orebody geometry obviously has an important influence on
the determination of the stope geometry. In many cases, there
will be an economic advantage to maximising the stope height as
it has a major influence on the sublevel interval, and therefore,
on the mine infrastructure cost.
As more and more operations integrate backfill in the
extraction process, its impact on stope stability must be
accounted for. The main function of mine backfill is to limit the
exposure of stope surfaces during extraction by filling adjacent
mined-out stopes. Provided a good quality-control program is
followed, it can reasonably be assumed that backfill provides
adequate support of adjacent mined out stopes. Consequently,
the stability-graph method treats backfill as a rock material when
calculating stope-wall dimensions. In practice, however, it is rare
that a tight fill can be established against a stope back. As a
result, in stope-back analysis, the influence of backfill is assumed
to be minimal and ignored.

STOPE RECONCILIATION

Using the stability graph to assess and document stope performance is useful to build site-specific empirical knowledge that
can be used in future design. Once a sufficient number of case
histories have been collected, it may even be possible to refine the
stability graph for a given site or extend its predictive capability
to dilution (Pakalnis, Poulin, and Hadjigeorgiou 1995) or to
quantify the probability of failure (Diederichs and Kaiser 1996).
A major aid in stope reconciliation has been the introduction of
cavity-monitoring systems.
These refinements are interesting and contribute to a better
understanding of stope behaviour. However, the value added to
operations from this effort remains limited in many cases because
the initial stages of mining are completed, the mine infrastructure is in place, and opportunities for modifying stopes layout are
restricted.

60,13

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

By definition, empirical design is based on observation and experience. The stability-graph method owes its popularity in its ease
of use, its application at early stages of mining, and the fact that it
can provide a reference for stope performance. Invariably, it
cannot provide a successful prediction for every stope at every
operation because the complexity of ground conditions and operating practices can influence stope performance.
It has been argued in the past that the method only reaches
its full potential when it is "site-calibrated." The basic assumption
is that, as more data become available, the design recommendations can be modified through back analysis. Obviously, this is an
important step in better understanding the site conditions. If the
reconciliation exercise is done rigorously, it can reveal important
information on the efficiency of mine practices such as blasting,
prereinforcement, and sequencing.
However, this should not detract from the main objective of
the method as a design tool at the feasibility stage when no such
data is available, but when the critical decision must be made.
The extensive calibration of the method worldwide makes it
very robust and ideal for designing open-stope dimension at the

Foundations for Designi

520

feasibility-assessment stage. The added value of a very refined

site-specific graph towards the end of a mine life can only be
limited.
Over the years, there has been a proliferation of design
charts aiming to refine the method or expand on its applicability.
Design charts that are not backed by field data have limited use.
Similarly, modifications that rely on limited sites should be
viewed with caution.
Complex charts bring new and interesting ideas, but one
should keep in mind that the method can be no better than the
quality of input data available. This is particularly true at the
feasibility stage where data are limited by access.
Introducing many zones to the graph has limited application
at the design stage because the designer has to come up with a
hydraulic radius number for each domain. The transition
between stable and unstable and the potential for increasing
dimensions by using pattern cable bolts remain the basis for stope
design
S O 14

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