Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Personal Tutor Final
Personal Tutor Final
to accompany
Chemistry
a project of the
Wayne Morgan
Table of Contents
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1.0
2.0
2.2
2.3
3.0
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7.0
Answers, Solutions, and Explanations for the Practice Problems (pg. 67)
Introduction
A chemistry textbook is a valuable resource. It can help you in developing a deeper understanding of the
material you discuss in class. It can illustrate the most common types of problems you will face and give
examples of how to approach those problems. The textbook cannot anticipate which students will have
difficulty with computations. Even the most comprehensive textbook cannot possibly show every type of
problem that might be encountered. The Personal Tutor is a supplement to the textbook to give you more
guidance and practice with problems and computations. Using the Personal Tutor is much like visiting the
professor during office hours or going to a human tutor. You may need to take advantage of it frequently or
you may only need its assistance a few times during the course. The questions can be a good review when
preparing for the test even if you are confident that you know how to solve the problems or do the
computations.
Even the Personal Tutor is not a comprehensive set of problems. However, the types of problems shown
here should help you get a good foundation in solving problems. It is important to remember that an
examination would not truly test your understanding of concepts and your ability to solve problems if the
professor merely put on the problems you had already seen. If you use your textbook, the Personal Tutor,
and any other sources available you can be successful in this chemistry course.
Quantity
SI Unit
kilogram
meter
second
Kelvin
mole
ampere
Mass
Length
Time
Temperature
Amount of substance
Electric current
Abbreviation
kg
m
s
K
mol
A
Prefix Abbreviation
M
mega
Meaning
106
kilo
103
deci
101
centi
102
milli
103
micro-
106
nano
109
pico
1012
Example(s)
700 Megabyte = 700,000,000 bytes
(storage on a CD-R)
1.6 kilometers = 1600 meters (about 1
mile)
5.91 deciliters = 0.591 liters (soda in a 20
oz. bottle)
2.4 centimeters = .024 meters (diameter
of a quarter)
355 milliliters = .355 liters (volume of
soda in a 12 oz. can)
25 m = 2.5 X 105 m (size of a cell in
your body)
656 nm = 6.56 X 107 m (wavelength of
the red line in the hydrogen spectrum)
.01 pm = 1 x 1014 m (approximate size of
an atomic nucleus)
You may me more familiar with the typical English units of measurement that we use in everyday life.
Here are some comparisons that may help you visualize the metric units.
1 kg
1 X 10 3 g
1 X 10 3 g
1 kg
or
Since we are given a mass in grams it will be necessary to choose the conversion factor that will allow
grams to be cancelled and to have kilograms left.
Unit Conversion: 1456 grams
1 kg
1.456 kg 1.46 kg
1 X 10 3 g
More than one unit conversion factor may be used in a single problem. Sometimes it is easier to make a
conversion in more than one step. There is no real limit to the number of unit conversions that may be put
together. However, never use any more unit conversions that are really necessary to move from the unit
you are given to the unit you desire. The next example shows how to use more than one step to make a unit
conversion.
Equivalences:
1g
1 X 10 3 mg
Conversion factors:
Multiplication:
325 mg X
1 kg
1 X 10 3 g
1g
1 kg
X
3.25 X 10 4 kg
3
1 X 10 mg
1 X 10 3 g
Converting units or solving problems using the sequential multiplication of conversion factors is called
dimensional analysis or the factor label method. Dimensional analysis can be used to solve many
different types of problems in chemistry. It is a useful tool if you wish to avoid algebraic equations.
In chemistry numbers are all the result of some measurement in the laboratory. Numbers should always be
accompanied by the units appropriate for that measurement. In chemistry the unit is as important as the
number itself.
Practice Problems
1.
Which metric unit and prefix would be most convenient to measure each of the following?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
2.
What word prefixes are used in the metric system to indicate the following multipliers?
a.
1 x 103
b.
1 x 103
c.
0.01
d.
1 x 106
3.
An antacid tablet contains 168 mg of the active ingredient ranitidine hydrochloride. How
many grams of ranitidine hydrochloride are in the tablet?
4.
There are 1.609 km in exactly 1 mile. How many centimeters are there in 1 mile?
5.
A paper clip is 3.2 cm long. What is the length of the paper clip in millimeters?
6.
Derived Units
Frequently we wish to measure quantities that cannot be expressed using one of the basic SI units. In these
situations two or more units are combined to create a new unit. These units are called derived units. For
example, speed is defined as the ratio of distance to time. To measure speed, two unitsdistance and time
are combined. For example, the speed of your car would be expressed in the units of kilometers per
hour (km hr1).
NOTE: You may be more familiar with seeing an expression like kilometers per hour written as
km/hr. In chemistry the community of scientists has established rules telling how numbers, names, and
other information should be written for publication. The accepted way to write the per expression is to
write the term in the denominator with a 1 exponent. This is the way these mixed units will be written
throughout the personal tutor.
A derived unit frequently used in chemistry is volume. Let us see how these derived unit for volume is
related to fundamental SI units. The volume of a cube is determined by multiplying (length X width X
height). A cube with sides of 10 cm, has a volume of 1000 cm3 (10cm X 10cm X 10cm), which is defined
as a liter.
Mass
). It is a combination of several of the fundamental units
Volume
so it too is a derived unit. Two units are combineda mass unit and a volume unit. The density of solids
and liquids is usually expressed as g cm3 and the density of gases as g L1.
Practice Problems
1.
The average person in the United States uses 340 L of water daily. Convert this to
milliliters.
2.
A quart is approximately equal to 946 mL. How many liters are in 1 quart?
3.
One hundred fifty milliliters of rubbing alcohol has a mass of 120 g. What is the density of
rubbing alcohol?
4.
A ruby has a mass 7.5 g and a volume of 1.9 cm3. What is the density of this ruby?
5.
There are other units that you will encounter as you go through your chemistry course. The calorie and
the joule are units used in expressing energy. The calorie was defined as the amount of energy necessary to
raise the temperature of exactly one gram of water one degree Celsius. The joule comes from physics and
relates energy to forces at work. In chemistry we use joules as our unit of energy measure. In biology the
calorie or the kilocalorie ( 1 kcal = 1000 calories) is still used. 1 calorie = 4.18 J. The nutritional Calorie
(Cal) given on food labels is actual 1 kcal or 1000 calories.
In chemistry there are several units that are used to express the pressure of gases. The normal atmospheric
pressure at sea level is defined as being 1 atmosphere (atm) of pressure. One historical unit for pressure is
the Torr, named for Torrecelli who invented the barometer. Traditionally barometers had a column of
mercury that would rise and fall with changing air pressure. The height of the mercury was measured to
give the pressure in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). Torr and mmHg of mercury are numerically
identical measurements. 1 atmosphere = 760 Torr = 760 mm Hg. You will find all three of these units for
measuring pressure in many chemistry textbooks and laboratory manuals. The SI unit of pressure,
however, is the pascal (Pa). 1 atmosphere = 101, 325 Pa Since this is such a large number it is often the
case that textbooks will give pressure in kilopascals (kPa). 1 atm = 101.325 kPa.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensional analysis, also called the factor-label method, is widely used by
scientists to solve a wide variety of problems. You have already used this method to convert one type of
metric unit to another. The method is helpful in setting up problems and also in checking work because if
the unit label is incorrect, the numeric answer to the problem is likely to be incorrect. The use of
dimensional analysis consists of three basic steps:
1.
2.
3.
Arrange the conversion factor so given units cancel, leaving the new
desired unit. Perform the calculation.
Example:
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Choose the fraction with the given quantity in the denominator and the desired
quantity in the numerator.
2.54 cm
30.0 cm
1 in
The units of inches (in) cancel leaving the desired unit of centimeters (cm).
12.2 in X
Frequently in chemistry more than one conversion factor will be necessary in order to solve a particular
problem. The next example shows how more than one factor can be used to solve the problem.
Example:
Step 1:
1 min = 60 sec
Step 2:
Step 3:
Arrange the conversion factors so that the given unit will cancel and the desired unit
will be the final unit left uncancelled
60 min
1 hr
24 hr
60 sec
86,400 sec
1 min
Practice Problems
1.
The distance between New York and San Francisco is 4 ,741,000 m. Now, that may sound
impressive, but to put all those digits on a car odometer is slightly inconvenient. (Of course, in
the United States the odometer measures miles, but that is another story.) In this case,
kilometers are a better choice for measuring distance. Change the distance to kilometers.
2.
Convert 7,265 mL to L.
3.
The 1500 meter race is sometimes called the metric mile. Convert 1500 m to miles. (1 m =
39.37 in). NOTE: now the mile race is the 1600 meter.
4.
The density of aluminum is 2.70 g cm3. What is the mass of 235 cm3
of aluminum?
5.
How many 250 mL servings can be poured from a 2.0 L bottle of soft drink?
6.
7.
The density of helium is 0.17 g/L at room temperature. What is the mass of helium in a 5.4 L
helium balloon?
8.
Liquid bromine has a density of 3.12 g/mL. What volume would 7.5 g of bromine occupy?
9.
An irregularly shaped piece of metal has a mass of 147.8 g. It is placed in a graduated cylinder
containing 30.0 mL of water. The water level rises to 48.5 mL. What is the density of the
metal?
10
Trial
1
2
3
4
Average
Range
Thermometer
1
99.9
100.1
100.0
99.9
100.0
0.2
Temperature Readings
(oC)
Thermometer Thermometer
2
3
97.5
98.3
102.3
98.5
99.7
98.4
100.9
98.7
100.1
98.5
4.8
0.4
11
Thermometer
4
97.5
99.7
96.2
94.4
97.0
5.3
The average value for each set is usually the value compared to the accepted boiling point of water.
Accuracy will be judged by how close the average is to the accepted value. The rangethe difference
between the largest and smallest valuesis the measure of the agreement among the individual
measurements and will be used to judge precision.
The data taken with Thermometer 1 is accurate and precise, since the average agrees with the accepted
value and the range is small. Thermometer 2 provided data that is accurate but not precise since the range is
relatively large. The data from Thermometer 3 is precise but not accurate. The range is small enough that it
is possible that Thermometer 3 may not have been calibrated properly. Thermometer 4 provides data that is
neither precise nor accurate.
Practice Problems
Groups of students determined the density of an unknown liquid in the laboratory. Calculate the
average and range for each groups measurements.
1.
Group 1 obtained the following values: 1.34 g mL1, 1.32 g mL1 , 1.36 g mL1. The actual
value is 1.34 g mL1.
2.
Group 2 obtained the same results, but the actual value is 1.40 g mL1 .
3.
Group 3 obtained the following values: 1.66 g mL1, 1.28 g mL1, 1.18 g mL1. The actual
value is 1.34 g mL1.
4.
Group 4 obtained the following values: 1.60 g mL1, 1.70 g mL1, 1.40 g mL1. The actual
value is 1.40 g mL1.
12
Percent Error
Percent error is a measurement of the accuracy of the measurement. It is calculated using the following
formula:
Percent Error
Note: Percent error is a positive number when the experimental value is too high and is a negative
number when the experimental value is too low. Often, though, percent error is reported as a positive
number regardless of whether the experimental value is too high or low. Frequently the absolute value of
the difference between the experimental and accepted values is used. Experimental Value Accepted
Value
PracticeProblems
Calculate the percent error for all four groups in the previous set of practice problems. Use the
average for each group as the experimental value. The actual values are your accepted values.
Here are the data sets you need.
Groups of students determined the density of an unknown liquid in the laboratory. Calculate the
average and range for each groups measurements.
1.
Group 1 obtained the following values: 1.34 g mL1, 1.32 g mL1 , 1.36 g mL1. The actual
value is 1.34 g mL1.
2.
Group 2 obtained the same results, but the actual value is 1.40 g mL1 .
3.
Group 3 obtained the following values: 1.66 g mL1, 1.28 g mL1, 1.18 g mL1. The actual
value is 1.34 g mL1.
4.
Group 4 obtained the following values: 1.60 g mL1, 1.70 g mL1, 1.40 g mL1. The actual
value is 1.40 g mL1.
13
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
As discussed earlier, measurements are an integral part of most chemical experimentation. However, the
numerical measurements that result have some inherent uncertainty. This uncertainty is a result of the
measurement device as well as the fact that a human being makes the measurement. No measurement is
absolutely exact. When you use a piece of laboratory equipment, read and record the measurement to one
decimal place beyond the smallest marking on the piece of equipment.
The length of the arrow placed along the centimeter stick is 4.75 cm long. There are no graduation
markings to help you read the last measurement as 5. This is an estimate. As a result this digit is uncertain.
Another person may read this as 4.76 cm. This is acceptable since it is an estimation. There is error
(uncertainty) built into each measurement and cannot be avoided.
If the measurement is reported as 4.75 cm, scientists accept the principle that the last digit has an
uncertainty of 0.01 cm. In other words the length might be as small as 4.74 cm or as large as 4.76 cm. It is
understood by scientists that the last digit recorded is an estimation and is uncertain. It is important to
follow this convention.
There are three processes involving significant figures that we will mention here. The first process is
estimation in measurement. You will encounter this most frequently in the laboratory when measuring
volumes with a graduated cylinder, a buret or perhaps a pipette. Estimation will also be important when
measuring length with a ruler. The process of estimating the last digit will be very similar to the process
described at the beginning of this section.
Another process is examining measurements or data already taken by you or someone else and determining
the number of significant figures in the measurement. The next section provides you with six guidelines for
determining the number of significant figures in a recorded measurement.
The third process is reporting a calculated answer to the proper number of significant figures. The rules for
assigning the appropriate number of significant figures to an answer are covered in the section that begins
on page 16.
Significant figures will be of concern any time you perform a mathematical computation based on data. It
is important to present an answer that reflects the precision of the instruments used to collect the data.
14
All digits recorded from a laboratory measurement are called significant figures (or
digits).
The measurement of 4.75 cm has three (3) significant figures.
Note:
If you use an electronic piece of equipment, such as a balance, you should record the
measurement exactly as it appears on the display.
2.
3.
4.
A leading zero is never significant. It is only a placeholder; not a part of the actual
measurement.
0.0123 kg has 3 significant figures: a leading zeronever significant
5.
A trailing zero is significant when it is to the right of a decimal point. This is not a
placeholder. It is a part of the actual measurement.
23.20 mL has 4 significant figures: a trailing zerosignificant to the right of a decimal
point
220 mL has only 2 significant figures: a trailing zerothere is no decimal point so this
zero is NOT significant
6.
All significant figures include units since they are a result of a measurement. A
number without units has little significance.
Measurement
123 g
46.54 mL
0.33 cm
726.8 mmHg
0.0336
The most common errors concerning significant figures are (1) recording all
digits on the calculator readout, (2) failing to include significant trailing zeroes
(e.g., 14.150 g), and (3) considering leading zeroes to be significant (e.g.,
0.002 g: only 1 significant figure, not three).
15
Practice Problems
1.
2.
451 000 m
6.626 X 1034 J s
0.0065 g
4056 V
0.0540 mL
For the centimeter rulers below record the length of the arrow shown.
a.
b.
16
grams
grams
grams
grams = 1277.1 grams
1875 J
950 J
86 J
2911 J = 2910 J
10 J is the least precise measurement
i.e., you can only go to the tens place
13.345 g has 5 significant figures, 10.42 mL has 4 significant figures. The answer can only have 4
significant figures.
17
Practice Problems
1.
Answer the following problems using the correct number of significant figures.
a.
b.
42.05 3.6
c.
15.1 x 0.032
d.
13.36 0.0468
e.
2.
In the laboratory a group of students was assigned to determine the density of an unknown
liquid. They used a buret to measure the liquid and found a volume of 2.04 mL. The mass
was determined on an analytical balance to be 2.260 g. How should they report the density
of the liquid?
3.
In the first laboratory activity of the year, students were assigned to find the total area of
three tabletops in the room. To save time, each of the three students grabbed a ruler and
measured the dimensions. They then calculated the area for each tabletop and added them
together. Figure 6 presents the students measurements. What is the total area of the three
tabletops?
Student
A
B
C
Length
Width
127 cm
1.30 m
50.0 in
74 cm
0.80 m
29.5 in
Note: Only numbers resulting from measurements made using instruments have significant figures.
Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures. Exact numbers include numbers derived from
counting or definition.
Examples: 25 desks in a room or 100 cm = 1 meter
18
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
In chemistry we deal with very small and very large numbers. It is awkward to use many zeros to express
very large or very small numbers, so scientific notation is used. The number is rewritten as the product of a
number between 1 and 10 and an exponential term10n, where n is a whole number.
Examples
1.
The distance between New York City and San Francisco = 4,741,000
meters:
4,741,000 m = (4.741 X 1,000,000) m, or 4.741 X 106 m
2.
The mass of 25 water molecules = 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 748
grams:
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 748 grams = 7.48 X 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 1 g =
7.48 X 1022 grams
It is easier to assess the magnitude and to perform operations with numbers written in scientific notation. It
is also easier to identify the proper number of significant figures.
Example:
= 2.45 X 107
19
Example:
X 104
Practice Problems
1.
2.
0.0000369
c.
0.0452
d.
4 520 000
b.
36
1000
e.
365 000
d.
e.
20
TYPES OF GRAPHS
Graphs are of four basic types: pie charts, bar graphs, line graphs, and XY-plots. The type chosen depends
on the characteristics of the data displayed.
Pie Charts
Pie charts show the relationship of parts to a whole. The pie chart in Figure 8
displays the largest contributions to the composition of the human body. This presentation helps the reader
to visualize the magnitude of the differences between various elements which make up the body. Pie charts
are used infrequently in the analysis of data from the chemistry laboratory. There are times when you will
see scientific information presented in a pie chart and will need to interpret it.
Hydrogen
Carbon
10%
6%
23%
61%
21
Oxygen
Bar Graphs
Bar graphs can be useful to study trends and compare relative values. In this table atomic number and size
are compared.
Atomic Number
Atomic Radius
(nm)
1
7.9
2
4.9
3
2005
4
14
5
11.7
6
9.1
7
7.5
8
6.5
9
5.7
10
5.1
11
22.3
12
17.2
13
18.2
14
14.6
15
12.3
16
10.9
17
9.7
18
8.8
19
27.7
Figure 8: Atomic Number and Atomic Radius for the First Nineteen Elements
2 3
5 6
7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Atomic Number
Figure 9: The Effect of Atomic Number on Atomic Radius for the First Nineteen Elements
This graph shows the relationship between atomic number and atomic radius. You can compare the radii of
any of these nineteen elements to each other. Trends and patterns are often brought out when data is
presented in a graph. The key is to find the most effective way of presenting the data so that the most valid
conclusions may be drawn from it.
22
Practice Problems
Use Figure 9 to answer these questions.
1.
What happens to atomic radius as you go across a series on the periodic table from left to
right?
2.
What element(s) have the smallest atomic radius among these 19? Give the name of the
element.
3.
What happens to atomic radius as you go down a group on the periodic table?
4.
What is the second period element with the largest atomic radius?
Atomic Radius
First Ionization Energy
(nm)
(eV)
1
7.9
13.598
2
4.9
24.587
3
20.5
5.392
4
14
9.322
5
11.7
8.298
6
9.1
11.26
7
7.5
14.534
8
6.5
13.618
9
5.7
17.422
10
5.1
21.564
11
22.3
5.139
12
17.2
7.645
13
18.2
5.986
14
14.6
8.151
15
12.3
10.486
16
10.9
1036
17
9.7
12.967
18
8.8
15.759
19
27.7
4.341
Figure 10: Atomic Number and Atomic Radius for the First Nineteen Elements
23
Atomic Radius
(nm)
Ionization Energy
(eV)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Atomic Number
Atomic Radius
Ionization Energy
Figure11:ComparisonofAtomicRadiusandFirstIonizationfortheFirstNineteenElements
Practice Problems
1.
What happens to the first ionization energy as you go from left to right across the second
period of the periodic table? How does this compare to the trend you found for atomic
radius?
2.
Does the trend for first ionization energy hold for the third period elements as well?
3.
Which of the first nineteen elements has the largest first ionization energy?
4.
What is the relationship between atomic radius and first ionization energy?
24
Line Graphs
Constructing a line graph is another way to show the relationship between two variables. Consider the data
collected from the titration of 15.00 mL of 0.100 M HCl with 0.100 M NaOH. In this laboratory exercise
the 15.00 mL of hydrochloric acid is placed into a flask and the pH of the solution is recorded after the
addition of each 1.00 mL of sodium hydroxide. A line graph of this data will allow you to visualize what is
happening at various points in the titration.
Volume of NaOH
(mL)
pH
Volume of NaOH
(mL)
0.00
1.00
16.00
1.00
1.06
17.00
2.00
1.12
18.00
3.00
1.18
19.00
4.00
1.24
20.00
5.00
1.30
21.00
6.00
1.37
22.00
7.00
1.44
23.00
8.00
1.52
24.00
9.00
1.60
25.00
10.00
1.70
26.00
11.00
1.81
27.00
12.00
1.95
28.00
13.00
2.15
29.00
14.00
2.46
30.00
15.00
7.00
Figure 12: Data from the Titration of 0.100 M HCl with 0.100 M NaOH
pH
11.51
11.80
11.96
12.07
12.15
12.22
12.28
12.32
12.36
12.40
12.43
12.46
12.48
12.50
12.52
pH
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25
25.00
30.00
It is clear from the graph that the pH changes only slowly at first, experiences a rapid increase near 15.00
mL and then only gradually increases after that. The line graph is an excellent choice for looking at how
data varies over time or concentration.
Practice Problems
Alkanes are compounds of carbon and hydrogen with the general formula, CnH2n+2. Suppose that you
did an experiment to determine the heat of combustion of several alkanes and noticed that the heat of
combustion/mole increased as the number of carbons in the alkane increased. The data taken are shown
in Figure 14.
Alkane
Number of Carbon Atoms
Heat of Combustion
(kJ mol1)
Methane, CH4
1
891
Ethane, C2H6
2
1561
Propane, C3H8
3
2219
n-Butane, C4H10
4
2879
n-Pentane, C5H12
5
3509
Figure 14: Heat of Combustion of Some Alkanes
1.
2.
Examine the line graph of the data. What is the relationship between the number of carbon
atoms in an alkane and the heat of combustion?
3.
Predict the value for the heat of combustion for n-hexane, C6H14.
4.
Predict the value for the heat of combustion for a substance with no carbon atoms. Why is the
value not 0? (Hint: Consider what remains in the formula when there are no carbon atoms.)
Could you use this same graph to predict the heat of combustion for other kinds of
hydrocarbons? Why or why not?
x-y Plot/Graph
An x-y plot (also called a scatterplot) demonstrates a mathematical relationship between two variables. This
type of plot is especially useful in scientific work. Sometimes it is difficult to decide if a graph is a line
graph or an x-y plot. One difference is that in an x-y plot it is possible to determine a mathematical
relationship between the variables. Sometimes the relationship is the equation for a straight line (y = mx +
b), but other times it is more complex and requires manipulation of the data. To clarify, we will first look at
a straight line, or direct relationship, then proceed to more complex situations.
Example
An entrepreneur was considering investing in a mine that was said to produce gold. Several very small
irregular nuggets were given to a chemist for analysis. The chemist, who was instructed to use
nondestructive methods, decided to determine the density of the small samples. A micro-buret was used to
determine the volume of each nugget, and the mass was determined on an analytical balance. The data
collected are shown in Figure 15.
26
Nugget
Mass
(grams)
0.116
0.251
0.290
0.347
0.386
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 15 Gold Nugget Data
Volume
(mL)
0.006
0.012
0.015
0.018
0.021
Because a mathematical relationship is expected between the mass and volume of an element, the chemist
constructed an x-y plot.
Mass (g)
Mass/Volume Ratio
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
Volume (mL)
Figure 16 Gold Nugget Graph
To connect the plotted points, the best smooth curve is drawn. In this case it appears that the best curve is a
straight line. Programs like Excel will give you the option to put a trend line on your graph. The software
will let you see what type of curve or line best fits the data you have plotted.
Mass (g)
Mass/Volume Ratio
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
R = 0.9882
y = 17.973x + 0.0192
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
Volume (mL)
Figure 17 Gold Nugget Graph with best fit trend line
27
0.02
0.025
The x-y graph is often used when you are looking to establish a mathematical relationship between two
variables. It is also frequently used to assist in predicting the values of one variable based on the value of
the other.
Example:
Find the slope of the trend line drawn on the Mass/Volume graph.
To find the slope, choose two points on the line. These points do not need to be
ones you plotted. Determine the x and y coordinates of each point.
Calculate the slope using the formula: slope
Step 1:
y 2 y1
x 2 x1
Step 2:
slope
y 2 y1
x 2 x1
Slope
.3 g .2 g
.1 g
18 g mL1
.0155 mL .010 mL
.0055 mL
28
Mass (g)
Mass/Volume Ratio
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
R = 0.9882
y = 17.973x + 0.0192
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
Volume (mL)
Figure18:Mass/VolumeRationGraphwithTrendLine,EquationandR2Value
If you look at the last graph of the gold nugget data you will see two special features. Many types of
graphing software will not only give you the best fit trend line for your data it will also do some analysis of
how well the line fits the data. In this case the relationship between mass and volume was linear, i.e., the
data points gave a straight line best fit curve. The software was able to give the equation for that straight
line ( y = 17.973x + 0.0192). The equation for a straight line is y = mx + b. The x and y are the variables
you measured and graphed. The m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept, the place where the line
would cross the y axis. For the trend line the equation gives a slope of 17.973 which is in close agreement
with the 18 g mL1 we calculated by picking two points on the line and using the slope formula.
You will also notice some other information: R2 = 0.982. This value tells how close the data points lie to
the trend line. The closer the R2 value is to 1 the more perfect the fit between the data points and the trend
line. The graphing software you may use to plot data from lecture or lab will probably have this feature as
well.
The relationship between the two variables we measure and graph will not always be linear. Figure 17
provides the data for the volume of one mole of NH3 gas at various pressures. The two variables measured
in the laboratory are volume, in mL, and pressure, in atmospheres.
Volume
Pressure
(mL)
(atm)
244.5
0.1000
122.2
0.2000
61.02
0.4000
30.44
0.8000
12.17
2.0000
5.975
4.0000
2.925
8.0000
Figrue 19; Data for the Effect of Pressure on Volume of Ammonia Gas
29
Volume (mL)
50
100
150
200
250
300
Pressure (atm)
Figure 20: Graph of Pressure-Volume Relationship
It is obvious from this graph that the volume is not related to pressure by a linear, straight line, relationship
like we say with the graph of mass and volume for the gold nugget samples. You can still do a best fit
curve and trend line. If you use graphing software you can experiment with possibilities until you find the
trend line that gives the best fit. Using Excel the best trend line comes from the power choice.
Volume (mL)
R =1
5
0
0
100
200
300
Pressure (atm)
Figure 21: The Effect of Pressure on the Volume of Ammonia Gas with Trend Line
Since R2 is equal to 1 this is a very good fit between the data points and the trend line. You cannot get a
better fit! This will almost never be the case with data you gather in the laboratory. The data points for this
example were actually calculated from the mathematical relationship between volume and pressure. There
are always things that make the data you collect in the laboratory less precise than the calculated values. In
other words, do not expect to get such a marvelous fit when you analyze your laboratory data.
When the best smooth curve is not a straight line, the data can be manipulated to see if another
mathematical relationship is possible. In this case it appears that as the pressure increases the volume
decreases. So we can calculate the value of 1/V, add another column to the table (Figure 19), and graph that
data (Figure 20).
30
Volume
1/Volume
(mL)
(mL)
244.5
0.00409
122.2
0.00816
61.02
0.0164
30.44
0.0329
12.17
0.0822
5.975
0.167
2.925
0.3419
Figrue 22: Data for the Effect of Pressure on Volume of Ammonia Gas
Pressure
(atm)
0.1000
0.2000
0.4000
0.8000
2.0000
4.0000
8.0000
1/Volume (1/mL)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Pressure (atm)
Figure 23 Graph Showing Inverse Relationship Between Pressure and Volume
1/Volume (1/mL)
R = 0.9998
y = 23.418x + 0.0309
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Pressure (atm)
Figure 24: Graph of 1/Volume vs. Pressure with Trend Line
This time the graph exhibits a straight line so we know that pressure and volume are inversely related. If
this mathematical manipulation did not result in a straight line, other mathematical changes or analysis
might be considered. Some of the other possible mathematical changes might involve taking the natural
logarithm of one variable or taking the values to a power.
31
First decide where the information will be graphed. The horizontal axis (x-axis) is used for the
quantity that can be controlled or adjusted. This is called the independent variable. The vertical
axis (y-axis) is used for the quantity that responds to the changes in the quantity on the x-axis.
This is called the dependent variable.
2.
Choose the scale so the graph becomes large enough to fill most of the available space on the
paper.
3.
Each regularly spaced division on the graph paper should equal some convenient, constant value.
In general, each interval should have a value that can be easily divided visually such as 1, 2, 5, or
10, rather than a value such as 3, 6, 7, or 9.
4.
An axis does not need to start at zero, particularly if the plotted values cluster in a narrow range
not near zero.
5.
Label each axis with the quantity and unit being graphed. For example an axis might be labeled
Temperature, C.
6.
Plot each point. If you plot more than one curve on the same graph, use a different color or
geometric shape to distinguish each set of data.
7.
For an XY graph, draw a smooth line that lies as close as possible to most of the points. Think of
this drawing as a line that is averaging your data. Do not draw a line that connects one point to the
next one as in a dot-to-dot drawing. If the curve appears to be straight, draw one continuous line
with a ruler.
8.
32
INTERPRETING TABLES
Tables can be as simple as listing the value for a single property of a substance or as complex as the one in
Figure 25. The unshaded portion lists the melting points for several substances. The shaded portion of the
chart suggests some additional information to aid in interpretation. You may be asked to look for
relationships in the data.
Substance
Molar Mass
(g mol1)
18
Water
H2O
78
Benzene
C6H6
128
Naphthalene
C10H8
58.5
Sodium chloride
NaCl
16
183
Methane
CH4
1248
62
Magnesium fluoride MgF2
32
97.8
Methanol
CH3OH
Figure 25: Table Showing Selected Properties of Substances
Example:
Formula
Melting Point
(oC)
0
5
80
800
Stucture
Molecular
Molecular
Molecular
Ionic
Molecular
Ionic
Molecular
Polarity of
Molecule
Polar
Nonpolar
Nonpolar
Not applicable
Nonpolar
Not applicable
polar
Find two compounds in the table with similar molar masses. Compare their melting
points. Which of the characteristics listed appears to correlate with the differences
in melting point?
Sodium chloride (MM = 58.5 g mol1) and magnesium fluoride (MM = 62 g mol1) have
very similar molar masses. There melting points are both much higher than other
substances listed on the table. They are also significantly different from each other, 800
and 1248 oC respectively.
Both have ionic structures so this cannot account for the difference in melting point. The only other factor
from the table is the formula. There must be something about their composition that explains the
difference in melting point. NaCl is made up of two ions: Na+ and Cl. MgF2 is made up of three ions:
Mg2+ and 2F. We learned early in chapter one that charge was responsible for interaction between
substances. Charge is also important in the interaction between ions in an ionic substance. Coulombs law
tells us that the larger the charge, the greater the force of attraction or repulsion. The magnesium fluoride
has a larger force of attraction with the Mg2+ ion than there is with the Na+ ion in the sodium chloride.
This explains the difference in melting points for the two substances. In chapter 2 there is a greater
explanation of the interaction of ions in an ionic solid.
Example:
Compare the molecular compounds with the ionic compounds and make a
generalization about structure and melting point.
The two ionic compounds have melting points of 800 oC and 1248 oC. The molecular
substances have melting points that range from 183 oC to +80 oC. It is always
dangerous to make generalizations from small amounts of data. However, it appears that
ionic compounds, in general, have much higher melting points than molecular
substances. The forces that hold ionic solids together must be much stronger than the
forces that hold molecular substances together. These forces are discussed in chapters
one and two of the textbook.
33
Practice Problems
1.
Compare the characteristics of methane, benzene, and naphthalene. What factor seems to
be responsible for differences in the melting points of these three substances?
The previous three questions use only some of the information available in the table. Write
two more questions that might be asked about the table.
3.
It is important to use all of the information available in a table. However, you should not
make sweeping generalizations that are supported by only a small number of facts. Look at
your answer to Question 1 and state what other information you might wish to look up to
support your statement.
The graph in Figure 26 shows the approximate level of CO2 in the atmosphere from 1900 to 1990
for available decades. Study the graph and answer these questions:
a.
b.
What other type(s) of graph might also be useful to study this data?
34
2.
Graphically determine the density of ethylene glycol for the following data collected in the
laboratory. The density will be the slope of the straight line best fit curve for the data points.
Mass
(g)
11.20
16.72
22.14
17.78
33.42
Volume
(mL)
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
The data below was collected when water was heated to its boiling point. Decide which type of
graph to use and graph this data. Answer the questions that follow based upon your graph.
Time
(minutes)
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
Temperature
(oC)
23.0
27.0
34.0
43.0
58.0
69.0
75.0
83.0
90.0
94.0
96.0
97.0
98.0
99.0
100.0
100.5
What type of graph did you choose to plot? Explain why you chose this type.
Describe the change in temperature with time.
Predict the temperature at 4.3 minutes.
Predict the temperature at 8.5 minutes.
During what time period was there the greatest change in temperature?
35
Molar Mass
The modern definition of a mole is the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of the carbon-12 (C-12)
isotope. This number itself is named after Amedeo Avogadro, who investigated related concepts but never
determined the number. At least four different types of experiments have determined that the number is
6.02 X 1023. Avogadros number is known to ten significant figures, but three will be enough for most of
your calculations.
36
The number of grams in one mole, or molar mass, of a compound is found by adding the relative atomic
masses of the atoms in the formula.
Example:
Read the atomic weights of the elements from the periodic table
Carbon:
Hydrogen:
Oxygen:
NOTE: Since we are usually interested in moles of atoms, molecules, ions or formula units
it is common practice to use the grams per mole values. These are numerically equivalent to
the amu from the atomic weights given on the periodic table.
NOTE: Ask your instructor if they have a preference on whether to use the entire atomic
weight given or how many decimal places they prefer you have for your atomic weights.
Step3:
Multiply the number of moles of atoms of each element by the molar mass of each element
Carbon:
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Step 4: Add together the molar mass contributions of all the elements
12.01 g + 4.04 g+ 16.00 g = 32.05 g for one mole of methanol
Methanol has a molar mass of 32.05 g mol1. This means that in every 32.05 grams of methanol there
are 1 mole or 6.02 X 1023 molecules of methanol.
Practice Problems
Find the molar mass (grams in one mole) of each of the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
37
Mass-Mole Conversions
Unit conversions, dimensional analysis, can be used to convert between mass and moles.
mole
grams A
grams
moles A
moles A
moles
grams A
grams
Example:
1 mole
18.02 g
or
18.02 g
1 mole
mole
grams A
grams
moles A
Sinceyouaregivengramsandwantmolesyouwillchoose
1 mole
18.02 g
Step3: Multiplethegramsgivenbytheconversionfactor
100.0 grams H 2 O X
1 moleH 2 O
5.549 moles H 2 O
18.02 grams H 2 O
mole
grams A
grams
moles A
38
grams
moles A
Example:
moles
grams A
5.50 moles H 2 O X
18.02 grams H 2 O
99.1 grams H 2 O
1 mole H 2 O
39
The conversion factors are chosen so that the units given will cancel and leave you with the units you want
for your answer. Sometimes it is necessary to perform more than one unit conversion in solving one of
these problems.
Example:
1000 grams CH 3 CH 2 OH
1 kg CH 3 CH 2 OH
Thesecondconversionisfromgramstomoles:
1 mole CH 3 CH 2 OH
46.08 grams CH 3 CH 2 OH
Step3: Multiplebytheappropriateconversionfactors
1.25 kg CH 3 CH 2 OH X
1000 g CH 3 CH 2 OH
1 mole CH 3 CH 2 OH
X
27.1 mole CH 3 CH 2 OH
1 kg CH 3 CH 2 OH
46.08 g CH 3 CH 2 OH
Practice Problems
1.
Acetic acid, CH3COOH, and salicylic acid, C7H6O3, combine to form aspirin. If a chemist uses
5.00 g salicylic acid and 10.53 g acetic acid, calculate the number of moles of each compound
used.
2.
3.
Calcium chloride hexahydrate, CaCl2 6 H2O, is sprinkled on sidewalks to melt ice and snow.
How many moles of the compound are in a 5.0 kg sack of the material?
4.
1.5 mol sodium hydroxide, NaOH, are required to prepare a solution. What is the equivalent
number of grams?
5.
The laboratory technician must prepare a solution that requires 0.123 mol silver nitrate, AgNO 3.
How many grams are necessary?
40
moles A
mole
volume of A solution (L)
mole
Example:
liter
moles A
1 L = 1000 mL so 25.00 mL X
mole
0.02500 L X
0.0500 moles
1L
liter
moles A
If you know the desired amount of moles you can calculate the volume of solution that will contain that
many moles
Example:
Use conversion factors to convert from moles to liters and then to milliliters. Notice that the chemical
used makes no difference in these calculations. Remember one mole of any substance contains the
same number of molecules as one mole of any other substance. However, it is always best to include
the chemical identity with the units!
0.040 moles X
1L
1000 mL
X
1600 mL potassium dichromate
0.250 moles
1L
You can even use molarity as a conversion factor along with the molar mass to convert from volume to
mass.
41
Example:
There are two conversion factors needed for this calculation: molarity and molar mass.
The molarity is:
0.500 L X
0.150 moles
342.34 grams
. The molar mass is:
.
1L
1 mole
0.150 moles
342.34 grams
X
26.7 grams sucrose
1L
1 mole
Practice Problems
1.
2.
How many milliliters of 0.0500 M sodium hydroxide, NaOH, are needed to provide 0.025
moles of NaOH?
3.
How many milliliters of 0.225 M hydrofluoric acid, HF, are needed to provide 0.0125 moles
of HF?
4.
How many grams of potassium chlorate, KClO3, are there in 25.00 mL of a 0.l250 M
solution?
5.
How many grams of sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, are there in 100.00 mL of a 0.100 M ?
42
2 carbon atoms
6 hydrogen atoms
7 oxygen atoms
Product Side
2 carbon atoms
6 hydrogen atoms
7 oxygen atoms
43
Products Side
2 hydrogen atoms
1 oxygen atom
The number of oxygen atoms is not the same on both sides of the equation.
Step 3: Place coefficients in front of formulas until the equation is balanced
We could place a 2 in front of the formula for water to give more water molecules since we found
a deficit of oxygen on the product side before
H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (g)
Reactants Side
2 hydrogen atoms
2 oxygen atoms
Products Side
4 hydrogen atoms
2 oxygen atom
The oxygen atoms are now equal on both sides. However, there are more hydrogen atoms on the
product side than the reactant side. Now we need to place a coefficient in front of the hydrogen
gas formula to help balance the equation. Place a 2 in front of the H2 and see if the equation is
balanced.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (g)
Reactants Side
4 hydrogen atoms
2 oxygen atoms
Products Side
4 hydrogen atoms
2 oxygen atom
Now the equation is balanced and the law of conservation of mass is satisfied.
44
This is the fundamental process used for balancing most equations. It is called the inspection method
because you look at the equation and try to place coefficients in front of the correct formulas until you get
the equation balanced. Some books give tricks or procedures for trying to balance equations. Generally,
you will see right away what elements need to be increased and on which side of the equation. Start with
one coefficient at a time and check to see the effect it had on balancing the equation. You can then keep
trying various coefficients in front of formulas until you are successful. This is really a trial and error
process so do not give up too easily.
Practice Problems
Balance these molecular equations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
MnO2 (s) + HCl (aq) MnCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + Cl2 (g)
8.
9.
10.
Write the balanced molecular equation for the reactions that occur in each of the following situations.
11.
When liquid benzene, C6H6, reacts with oxygen gas, O2, the products are gaseous carbon
dioxide, CO2, and water, H2O.
12.
When photosynthesis takes place in a green plant, carbon dioxide gas and liquid water
combine to produce solid glucose, C6H12O6, and oxygen gas.
13.
Nitroglycerin, C3H5N3O9, a drug used for heart pain problems, is synthesized from glycerin,
C3H8O3, and nitric acid, HNO3, in the presence of a catalyst. What is also a product of the reaction.
14.
Some antacids contain solid aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3, which reacts with the aqueous
hydrochloric acid, HCl, in the stomach to produce aqueous aluminum chloride, AlCl3, and liquid
water.
15.
An antacid remedy contains solid sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, and solid citric acid,
H3C6H5O7, which react to produce gaseous carbon dioxide (the source of the familiar fizz), aqueous
sodium citrate, Na3C6H5O7, and liquid water.
16.
When solid table sugar (sucrose), C12H22O11, is heated, gaseous water and solid elemental
carbon are produced.
45
Stoichiometry
If the number of atoms is conserved in a chemical reaction, the mass must also be conserved as expected
from the Law of Conservation of Mass. In the equation for the formation of water2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2
H2O(l)2 molecules of hydrogen and 1 molecule of oxygen combine to form 2 molecules of water. We
could also say that 2 moles of hydrogen molecules react with 1 mole of oxygen molecules to form 2 moles
of water molecules. Using the number of grams in a mole of each substance, the mass relationships in the
table can be determined. The ratio of moles of hydrogen to moles of oxygen to form water will be 2:1. If 10
moles of hydrogen are available, 5 moles of oxygen are required.
2 H2 (g)
2 molecules
2 moles
(2 mol)(2.02 g mol1)
4.04 g
O2 (g)
2 H2O (l)
1 molecule
1 mole
(1 mol)(32.00 g mol1)
32.00 g
2 molecules
2 moles
(2 mol)(18.02 g mol1)
36.04 g
Solving problems involving the masses of products and or reactants is conveniently accomplished by
dimensional analysis. All numerical problems involving chemical reactions begin with a balanced equation.
Example
grams A
grams
moles A
1 mole H 2
(10.0 grams H 2 )
2.02 grams H 2
4.95 moles H 2
Step 2: Convert from moles of the substance given to moles of substance wanted
You will use the coefficients from the balanced equation to convert from moles of hydrogen to
moles of water.
2 moles H 2 O
4.95 moles H 2 O
(4.95 moles H 2 )
2 moles H 2
Step 3: Convert from moles of substance wanted to grams of the substance wanted.
grams
moles B
moles
grams B
18.02 g H 2 O
89.2 g H 2 O
(4.95 moles H 2 O )
1 mole H 2 O
46
Generally, you will want to put these three steps together in one problem. If you have the conversion
factors set up properly the units will cancel out and leave you with the units you need for the final answer.
1 mol H 2
(10.0 g H 2 )
2.02 g H 2
2 mol H 2 O
2
mol
H
2
18.02 g H 2 O
89.2 g H 2 O
1
mol
H
O
NOTE: This is the theoretical yield of this reaction. It represent the amount of product that can be made if
the reaction works perfectly. In practice the yield of product would be something less than this amount.
Practice Problems
1.
15.0 g NaNH2 is required for an experiment. Using the following reaction, what mass of
sodium metal is required to produce the NaNH2?
Ethanol and acetic acid react to produce ethyl acetate according to the reaction C2H5OH +
CH3C(O)OH CH3C(O)OC2H5 + H2O. If the reaction is only 35% efficient at the conditions
used, what mass of CH3C(O)OH will be necessary to produce 100. g CH3C(O)OC2H5?
Assume that sufficient ethanol is available.
5.
Heating CaCO3 yields CaO and CO2. Write the balanced equation. Calculate the mass of
CaCO3 consumed when 4.65 g of CaO forms
47
Available Ingredients
2 27-oz cans whole green chiles
3 lb Monterrey Jack cheese
3 lb Cheddar cheese
1 doz eggs
5 lb flour
4 5-oz cans evaporated milk
Possible Casseroles
2
3
3
4
Many
4
How many casseroles can be made? Although four casseroles can be made from the available eggs or milk,
there are only enough cans of green chiles for two casseroles. In other words, the number of cans of green
chiles can be called the limiting factor. After the two casseroles are prepared, cheese, eggs, flour, and milk
will remain, but all the green chiles will be used. Therefore, no more than two casseroles can be made.
In this example, the green chiles are the limiting reactant. The limiting reactant is the reactant that is
consumed first and limits the amount of product that can be made. The same principle applies in
determining the quantity of product that can be produced in a chemical reaction. Lets take another look at
the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to produce water, then consider what would happen if 2.00 mol
hydrogen and 2.00 mol oxygen were available. How many moles of water can be produced? What is the
limiting reactant? Which reactant will be in excess and by how much?
48
Example
How many grams of water can be made if 5.00 g of H2 (g) and 5.00 g of O2 (g)
are allowed to react? What is the limiting reactant?
5.00 g H 2
1 mol H 2
2.02 g H 2
2 mol H 2 O
2 mol H 2
18.02 g H 2 O
44.6 g H 2 O
1 mol H 2 O
1 mol O2
32.00 g O2
2 mol H 2 O
1 mol O2
18.02 g H 2 O
5.63 g H 2 O
1 mol H 2 O
5.00 g O2
Since the oxygen gas produces the smaller amount of water it must be the limiting reactant. That
means that when 5.00 g of hydrogen and oxygen gases react a total of 5.63 g of water can be produced.
Once we have identified the limiting reactant we can calculate the mass of the excess reactant that
remains unused at the end of the reaction.
First, calculate how much of the excess reactant is used up in the reaction. Start with the limiting
reactant and solve for the mass of the excess reactant.
1 mol O2
32.00 g O2
5.00 g O2
2 mol H 2
1 mol O2
2.02 g H 2
1 mol H 2
.631 g H 2 used
It only takes 0.631 g of hydrogen gas to react with the 5.00 grams of oxygen gas. We started out with
5.00 grams of oxygen gas and used up 0.631 grams. That means that 4.37 grams of hydrogen remain
unused at the end of the reaction (5.00 g 0.631 g = 4.37 g H2).
49
50
Example:
Aluminumchloride,AlCl3,hasmanyusesincludingindeodorantsand
antiperspirants.Itissynthesizedfromaluminumandchlorine.Whatmassof
AlCl3canbeproducedif100.gofeachreactantareavailable?Whatisthe
limitingreactant?Howmanygramsoftheexcessreactantremain?
2 mol AlCl3
2 mol Al
26
.
98
g
Al
1 mol Al
100. g Al
1 mol Cl 2
70.90 g Cl 2
100. g Cl 2
133.33 g AlCl 3
1 mol AlCl
3
2 mol AlCl3
3 mol Cl 2
494 g AlCl 3
133.33 g AlCl3
1 mol AlCl32
125 g AlCl3
The Cl2 must be the limiting reactant since it produces the smaller amount of AlCl3. In this reaction 125
g of aluminum chloride can be produced. This is the calculated or theoretical yield of the reaction. It
represents the amount of product that can be made if the limiting reactant is completely used up and the
reaction produces all the product theoretically possible. In actual practice the yield will be less than this
amount.
1 mol Cl 2
70.90 g O2
100. g Cl 2
2 mol Al
3 mol Cl 2
26.98 g Al
1 mol Al
25.4 g Al used
We started with 100. g of aluminum. 25.4 g of the aluminum is used in the reaction leaving 74.6 g of
aluminum unused at the end of this reaction.
Practice Problems
1.
In the synthesis of sodium amide (NaNH2), what is the maximum mass of NaNH2 possible
if 50.0 g of Na and 50.0 g NH3 were used?
The fuel methanol, CH3OH, can be made directly from carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrogen (H2).
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
Aspirin (C9H8O4) is synthesized in the laboratory from salicylic acid (C7H6O3) and acetic
anhydride (C4H6O3):
What is the theoretical yield of aspirin if you started with 15.0 g salicylic
acid and 15.0 g acetic anhydride?
Which reactant is the limiting reactant?
What mass of the excess reactant remains?
51
S:
(6 valence electrons) X (1 sulfur atom) = 6 valence electrons
(6 valence electrons) X (4 oxygen atoms) = 24 valence electrons
The sum of the valence electrons is 30.
Since this is a negatively charged ion we need to add in electrons equal to its
charge.
The total valence electrons will be 30 + 2 = 32.
Step 2: Write the symbols of the elements and connect them to each other with a pair of electrons
Example:
52
NOTE: It is usually good to start by putting the element with the fewest atoms in the formula in
the center and arranging the other elements around it. You would not choose hydrogen as
a central atom for any of the three examples here.
O H
O
O
H
O
Step 3: Distribute electrons to the atoms that are not in the center until they have 8 valence electrons
(4 pairs of electrons). This is called an octet. NOTE: The pair in the bond is counted as one
of the 4 pairs of the octet. Hydrogen will not get an octet. It will only have one pair of
valence electrons.
O H
O
O
H
O
Step 4: If there are any valence electrons remaining they may be placed around the atom in the
center until it has an octet or all the available electrons are used up.
2
1+
O H
O
O
H
O
NOTE: Ions are written with brackets around them and the charge noted at the upper right hand
corner. This assists in the electron counting process. The brackets and charge identify why there
are extra or missing electrons. You can wait until you have completed the Lewis structure to put
on the brackets and charge if you wish.
53
Step 5: Check to see if each atom has an octet of electrons. If the central atom does not have an
octet it may be necessary to share more than one pair of electrons with one of the other
atoms, i.e., form a double or triple bond.
NOTE: C, O, S, N, and P are all capable of sharing two pairs of electrons in a bond, i.e., forming
double bonds. C and N are capable of sharing three pairs of electrons in a bond, i.e.,
forming a triple bond.
Hydrogen and the halogens will not routinely form double or triple bonds.
All three of the compounds shown in the examples for Step 4 have octets around all the atoms
except hydrogen. Therefore, no double bonds are needed and all three Lewis structures are fine as
written.
Example:
Nitrogen does not have an octet after adding the remaining electrons.
Step 5: Complete the octet around the central atom by forming double or triple bonds if possible
2
Sharing two pairs of electrons with the oxygen gives nitrogen an octet.
54
Example:
Step 2:
O
H
NOTE: You may wonder why the carbon atom is placed in the center since there are one atom
each of carbon and oxygen. It would be possible to write a Lewis structure with oxygen as the
central atom. In a later section the concept of formal charge will be introduced as a way to help
determine which of several possible Lewis structures would be more likely to occur. Right now
you could apply the bonding patterns for hydrocarbons and would see that the Lewis structure
with oxygen in the center will not be consistent with the bonding patterns.
Step 3:
O
H
Step 4: There are no valence electrons remaining to place on the carbon atom.
Step 5:
O
H
Two pairs of electrons must be shared in order for carbon to have an octet.
55
Example:
Step 3:
Step 4: There are no left over valence electrons to be placed around the carbon atom. It does not have an
octet so it will be necessary to share more than one electron with each oxygen.
Step 5:
There will not be a triple bond with one oxygen and a single bond with the other since oxygen is
not one of the two elements likely to form triple bonds. Oxygen does make double bonds.
Structural Formulas
Sometimes you will see the Lewis structure abbreviated by replacing the dots representing shared pairs of
electrons, i.e., bonds, with dashes.
1
NO2 : O
CH4:
H
H
H
HC(O)H:
CO2: O
56
C
C
O
O
Sometimes the line formula of a compound will give some help in writing the structural formula. It will
give us a general idea about the order of the atoms. You will still have to apply the patterns observed with
hydrocarbons and everything else you know about writing Lewis structures.
Example
There are two ways that we might try to write this formula.
H
H
57
The first structure is not consistent with the bonding patterns seen in hydrocarbon molecules. The second
carbon only makes two bonds instead of the 4 that carbon normally makes.
The second structure adheres to all the general rules. Hydrogen makes 1 bond, both oxygen atoms make
two bonds, and both the carbon atoms make four bonds each.
NOTE: A concept called formal charge can be used to help you decide among possible structural formulas.
It is discussed in the next section.
Practice Problems
Write the Lewis structures for these molecules and ions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
58
Formal Charge
Suppose you have more than one possible way of writing a Lewis structure for a molecule.
OCS:
OSC:
SOC:
O=C=S
O=S=C
S=O=C
The technique of assigning formal charge to each atom within a compound can help determine which of
several structures is most likely. Formal charge is a book keeping method for electrons in a compound.
FCO = 6 [1/2(4) + 4] = 0 (The oxygen has 6 valence electrons. Since there is a double bond
there are 4 electrons shared between the oxygen and carbon. The
oxygen also has 4 nonbonding electrons)
FCC = 4 [1/2(8) + 0] = 0 (Carbon has 4 valence electrons. It forms two double bonds in this
compound for a total of 8 shared/bonded electrons. Carbon does not
have any nonbonding electrons.)
FCS = 6 [1/2(4) + 4] = 0 (Sulfur has 6 valence electrons. It shares 4 electrons with the carbon
and has 4 nonbonding electrons as well.)
59
Does the formal charge help you pick the more probable formula?
2.
O ]
[ N
O ]
[ N
O ]
Assign formal charges to each atom. Use the formal charges to predict which structure is most
probable.
60
The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to pressure. As the pressure goes up the
volume goes down if all other variables are constant.
volume
1
pressure
Charles Law: The volume of a gas is directly proportional to Kelvin temperature. As the temperature
goes up so does the volume if all other variables are constant.
volume temperature
Avogadros Law: The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas particles. As
the number of moles of gas particles goes up so does the volume if all other variables are constant.
volume moles of gas particles
Gay-Lussacs Law: The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature. As the
temperature goes up so does the pressure if all other variables are
constant.
pressure temperature
Problems requiring the use of Boyles, Charles, Avogadros and Gay-Lussacs laws always involve
changes in one of the variables: pressure, temperature, number of moles, or volume. The mathematical
formulas for the gas laws are given here.
Boyles Law:
Charles Law:
Avogadros Law:
V1
P
2 or V1P1 = V2P2
V2
P1
V1
T
1 or V1T2 = V2T1
V2
T2
V1
n
1 or V1n2 = V2n1
V2
n2
61
Gay-Lussacs Law:
T1
P
1 or T1P2 = T2P1
T2
P2
The four gas laws can be put together into a combined gas law to aid calculation when more than one
variable changes.
Combined Gas Law:
P1V1
PV
2 2 or P1V1n2T2 = P2V2n1T1
n1T1
n2T2
The pressure of a gas is not always given in atmospheres. The most common units are given here and
related to 1 atmosphere of pressure.
1 atmosphere = 760 Torr = 760 mmHg = 101.325 kPa = 101325 Pa = 14.7 psi
These relationships can be used to arrive at the proper conversion factor when changing from one of these
units to atmospheres.
Just like the SI units that have been established to help standardize reporting among scientist there are
standard units for temperature and pressure used in gas problems. Standard temperature and pressure
(STP) are 273 K and 1atmosphere.
Example
What volume would a 50.0 mL sample of gas occupy if the pressure were
increased from 2.0 atm to 8.0 atm?
T1
P
1 or T1P2 = T2P1
T2
P2
P1 = 735 mmHg
P2 = ?
(50.0 mL)(2.0 atm) = (V2)(8.0
T1 =atm);
25.0 oC = 298 K
(50.0 mL)(2.0 atm) T2 = 100. oC = 373 K
V2
12.5 mL 12 mL
(8.0 atm)Kelvin.
Example
P1V1
PV
2 2 or P1V1n2T2 = P2V2n1T1
n1T1
n2T2
Step 2: Identify the variables and their values
P1 = 715 mmHg
mmHg)
V1 = 75.0 mL
V2 = ?
n1 = ?
n2 = ?
T1 = 22.0 oC = 295 K
T2 = 273 K (standard temperature)
What about n1 and n2? Since no gas is lost or gained the number of moles remains the
same. You can cancel out the n1 and n2 from the equation or put the same value in for
both n1 and n2, e.g., n1 = n2 = 1.0 mole.
P1V1T2 = P2V2T1
Step 3: Substitute and solve
We can ignore n1 and n2 since the number of moles remains constant.
(715 mmHg)(75.0 mL)(273 K) = (760 mmHg)(V2)(295 K)
V2
63
Example
P1V1
PV
2 2 or P1V1n2T2 = P2V2n1T1
n1T1
n2T2
Step 2: Identify the variables and their values
P1 = 721.0 mmHg
V1 = 125.0 mL
n1= n2
T1 = 25.0 oC = 298 K
P2 = 850.0 mmHg
V2 = ?
n2 = n1
T2 = 35.0 oC = 308 K
V2
64
Example
Example
65
Example
What is the volume of 1.00 mole of hydrogen gas at 25.0 oC and 725
mm Hg?
1 atm
= .954 atm
P = (725 mmHg )
760 mmHg
V = ?L
n = 1.00 moles
R = 0.08206 L atm mol1 K1
T = 298 K
Practice Problems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The volume of a sample of gas is expanded from 2.5 L to 4.5 L. If the original pressure
was 855 mm Hg, what is the pressure after the gas is expanded?
The volume of a sample of gas is compressed from 7.5 L to 1.0 L. If the initial
temperature is 24.0 oC, what is the temperature of the gas after it has been compressed?
A sample of gas occupying a volume of 75.0 mL contains 0.0250 moles. Gas is released
until the volume reaches 50.0 mL. How many moles of gas remain in the container?
The pressure of a gas is decreased from 950.0 mmHg to 720.0 mmHg. If the temperature
is 26.5 oC initially, what is the temperature after the pressure has been reduced?
A 120.0 mL sample of nitrogen gas, N2, has a pressure of 1.25 atm at 45.0 oC. What
volume will it occupy at STP?
A 75.0 mL sample of hydrogen gas, H2, has a pressure of 0.850 atm at 20.0 oC. What
volume will it occupy at 2.25 atm and 60.0 oC?
What would be the pressure of a 45.0 mL sample of hydrogen gas containing 0.750 moles
at 31.0 oC?
What would the temperature of 500.0 mL of oxygen gas be if there were 1.10 moles of gas
at a pressure of 850.0 mmHg?
66
2.
Which metric unit and prefix would be most convenient to measure each of the following?
a.
meter
b.
micrometer
c.
millisecond
d.
kilogram
e.
nanogram
f.
milligram
g.
megagram
What word prefixes are used in the metric system to indicate the following multipliers?
a.
kilo
b.
milli
c.
centi
d.
micro
3.
An antacid tablet contains 168 mg of the active ingredient ranitidine hydrochloride. How many
grams of ranitidine hydrochloride are in the tablet?
1g
1000 mg
168 mg
4.
0.168 g
There are 1.609 km in exactly 1 mile. How many centimeters are there in 1 mile?
1000 m
1.609 km
1 km
5.
100 cm
1.609 x 10 5 cm
1
m
A paper clip is 3.2 cm long. What is the length of the paper clip in millimeters?
10 mm
32 mm
1 cm
3.2 cm
6.
67
The average person in the United States uses 340 L of water daily. Convert this to
milliliters.
1000 mL
340,000 mL 3.0 x 10 5 mL
1
L
A quart is approximately equal to 946 mL. How many liters are in 1 quart?
340 L
2.
1L
.946 L
1000
mL
One hundred fifty milliliters of rubbing alcohol has a mass of 120 g. What is the density of
rubbing alcohol?
946 mL
3.
120 g
0.80 g mL1
150 mL
4.
A ruby has a mass 7.5 g and a volume of 1.9 cm3. What is the density of this ruby?
7. 5 g
3.9 g cm 3
3
1.9 cm
5.
The distance between New York and San Francisco is 4 ,741,000 m. Now, that may sound
impressive, but to put all those digits on a car odometer is slightly inconvenient. (Of course,
in the United States the odometer measures miles, but that is another story.) In this case,
kilometers are a better choice for measuring distance. Change the distance to kilometers.
1 km
4741 km
4,741,000 m
1000 m
2.
Convert 7,265 mL to L.
1L
7.265 L
1000 mL
7,265 mL
3.
The 1500 meter race is sometimes called the metric mile. Convert 1500 m to miles. (1 m =
39.37 in). NOTE: now the mile race is the 1600 meter.
39.37 in
1 m
1500 m
4.
1 ft
12 in
1 mile
5280
ft
0.93 mile
The density of aluminum is 2.70 g cm3. What is the mass of 235 cm3
of aluminum?
68
2.70 g
634 g
235 cm 3
3
1 cm
5.
How many 250 mL servings can be poured from a 2.0 L bottle of soft drink?
1000 mL
1L
2.0 L
6.
1000 m
1 km
0.17 g
1L
1 hr
60 min
1 min
27.8 m s 1
60
s
0.92 g
Liquid bromine has a density of 3.12 g/mL. What volume would 7.5 g of bromine occupy?
1 mL
7.5 g
3.12 g
9.
8.0 servings
The density of helium is 0.17 g/L at room temperature. What is the mass of helium in a 5.4 L
helium balloon?
5.4 L
8.
7.
1 serving
250 mL
2.4 mL
69
Group 1 obtained the following values: 1.34 g mL1, 1.32 g mL1 , 1.36 g mL1. The actual
value is 1.34 g mL1.
The sample data is precise and accurate. The average equals 1.34 g mL1, which is equal to the
actual value. The range is only 0.02 g mL1.
2.
Group 2 obtained the same results, but the actual value is 1.40 g mL 1 .
The data is precise (range is only 0.02 g mL1), but the accuracy is lower. The average is
1.34 g mL1, but significantly varied from the actual value of 1.40 g mL1.
3.
Group 3 obtained the following values: 1.66 g mL1, 1.28 g mL1, 1.18 g mL1. The actual
value is 1.34 g mL1.
The average is 1.37 g mL1 and the actual value is 1.34 g mL1, so the accuracy is good. The range
is 0.48 g mL1, so the precision is not very good
4.
Group 4 obtained the following values: 1.60 g mL1, 1.70 g mL1, 1.40 g mL1. The actual
value is 1.40 g mL1.
The average is 1.57 g mL1 and the range is 0.30 g mL1, so the measurements are neither very
accurate or precise.
% Error
2.
% Error
NOTE: The percent error is negative because the experimental value is less than the accepted
value.
70
3.
% Error
4.
% Error
2.
451 000 m
6.626 X 1034 J s
0.0065 g
4056 V
0.0540 mL
3 significant figures
4 significant figures
2 significant figures
4 significant figures
3 significant figures
For the centimeter rulers below record the length of the arrow shown.
a.
The ruler is marked to the 0.1 cm. It is clear that the tip of the arrow is past
seven. The tip appears to be right on the eight. We can say with certainty that
the measurement is 8.0 cm. We are allowed to estimate one digit farther than the
markings on the ruler. The ruler is marked to the tenths of a centimeter so we
can estimate the hundredths place. Since the tip of the arrow seems to be
exactly on the 8 that makes the measurement 8.00 cm.
8.00 cm
b.
10.50 cm
Answer the following problems using the correct number of significant figures.
a.
48.833 = 48.8
Since this is an addition problem the answer can only be as precise as the term with the least
precision. The least precise measurement is 32.1 with a precision of .1 so the answer must be
rounded to the nearest tenth.
71
b.
42.05 3.6
38.45 = 38.5
Since this is a subtraction problem the answer can only be as precise as the term with the least
precision. The term with the least precision is 3.6 which has a precision of .1 (the precision of
42.05 is .01). The answer must be rounded to the nearest tenth.
c.
15.1 x 0.032
0.4832 = 0.48
Since this a multiplication problem the answer can only have as many significant figures as the
term in the problem with the fewest significant figures. In this case 15.1 has 3 significant figures
and 0.032 has 2 significant figures. The answer can only have 2 significant figures since this is the
smaller number of significant figures.
d.
13.36 0.0468
285.470086 = 285
Since this is a division problem the answer can only have as many significant figures as the term
in the problem with the fewest significant figures. In this case 13.36 has 4 significant figures and
0.0468 has 3 significant figures. The answer can only have 3 significant figures since this is the
smaller number of significant figures among the terms in this problem.
e.
118.6558 = 119
This problem is a combination of addition, multiplication and division. The rules for order of
operation tell us that the calculation within the parenthesis is done first. The calculation within the
parenthesis is addition and the answer to that part of the overall computation can have an answer
that is only as precise as the least precise term. That means the answer for the calculation within
the parenthesis would be 13.41 since the precision of the least precise term is 0.01. The rules for
multiplication and division are the same. The final answer can only have as many significant
figures as the term with the fewest number of significant figures. In this case 12.6 is the term with
the fewest significant figures. That means the final answer can only be expressed to 3 significant
figures.
2.
In the laboratory a group of students was assigned to determine the density of an unknown
liquid. They used a buret to measure the liquid and found a volume of 2.04 mL. The mass
was determined on an analytical balance to be 2.260 g. How should they report the density of
the liquid?
Density is mass over volume, so
2.260 g
1.107843 g mL1 1.11 g mL1
2.04 mL
Since this is a division problem the answer may have as many significant figures as the term with
the fewest significant figures. In this case the volume (2.04 mL) has 3 significant figures and the
mass (2.260 g) has 4 significant figures. The answer should have 3 significant figures.
72
3.
In the first laboratory activity of the year, students were assigned to find the total area of
three tabletops in the room. To save time, each of the three students grabbed a ruler and
measured the dimensions. They then calculated the area for each tabletop and added them
together. Figure 6 presents the students measurements. What is the total area of the three
tabletops?
Student
A
B
C
Length
Width
127 cm
1.30 m
50. in
74 cm
0.80 m
29.5 in
100 cm
80. cm
1 m
1.3 m
0.80 m
50.0 in
2.54 cm
74.9 cm
1 in
29.5 in
Table 2 (Student B): 130 cm x 80. cm = 10400 cm2 = 1.0 x 104 cm2 (2 significant figures)
Table 3 (Student C): 127 cm x 74.9 cm = 9512.3 cm2 = 9510 cm2 (3 significant figures)
The total area is the sum of these three values.
9,400 cm2 + 10,000 cm2 + 9,510 cm2 = 28,910 cm2 = 29,000 cm2
Since this is an addition problem the answer can only be as precise as the least precise
measurement. In other words, the answers last digit must be the same place value as the
term with the last digit in the highest place value. The second term in this group has the
last digit in the thousands place (that was why it was written 1.0 X 104 cm2). It is the
least precise measurement. Student As value has a precision of 100 cm2, Student Bs
value has a precision of 1000 cm2, and Student Cs value has a precision of 10 cm2.
That means our answer must have the last digit in the thousands place. It can only have a
precision of 1000 cm2.
73
2.
0.0000369
3.69 x 105
b.
36
1000
3.6 x 102
c.
0.0452
4.52 x 102
d.
4 520 000
4.52 x 106
e.
365 000
3.65 x 105
a.
(1.62 x 103) + (3.4 x 102) = (1.62 x 103) + (0.34 x 103) = 1.96 x 103
b.
(1.75 x101) (4.6 x 102) = (1.75 x 101) (0.46 x 101) = 1.29 x 101
c.
d.
e.
74
What happens to atomic radius as you go across a series on the periodic table from left to
right?
The atomic radius decreases as you from left to right across a series on the periodic table. The
arrows help show the pattern of decreasing atomic radius in the first three periods of the periodic
table. (NOTE: Horizontal rows on the periodic table may be called either series or periods.
Vertical columns are called either groups or families.)
2 3
5 6
7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Atomic Number
2.
What element(s) have the smallest atomic radius among these 19? Give the name of the
element.
Helium, He, and Neon, Ne, have the smallest atomic radii.
Elements 2 and 10 have the smallest atomic radii among the first nineteen elements. Element 2 is
Helium and element 10 is neon.
2 3
5 6
7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Atomic Number
75
3.
What happens to atomic radius as you go down a group on the periodic table?
Atomic radius seems to increase as you go from top to bottom in a group/family on the periodic
table.
The ovals show the radii of elements within group 1 (the alkali metals) on the periodic table. The
atomic radii increase as you go farther down the group. The rectangles illustrate the trend with
group 2 (alkaline earth) elements.
2 3
5 6
7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Atomic Number
4.
What is the second period element with the largest atomic radius?
Lithium, Li
The second period elements are elements 3 to 10, i.e., the elements from lithium to neon in the
second row of elements on the periodic table. Since atomic radius decreases as you go from left to
right the largest radius should be found in the first element of the series. This is consistent with
the graph. Element 3, lithium, has the largest atomic radius of the elements in the second period.
2 3
5 6
7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Atomic Number
76
What happens to the first ionization energy as you go from left to right across the second period of
the periodic table? How does this compare to the trend you found for atomic radius?
First ionization energy generally increases as you go from left to right across the second period of
the periodic table. There are two exceptions to this, but the general trend is for the first ionization
energy to increase. This is just the opposite of the trend with the atomic radius. While first
ionization energy increases from left to right the atomic radius decreases.
Atomic Radius
(nm)
Ionization Energy
(eV)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Atomic Number
Atomic Radius
2.
Ionization Energy
Does the trend for first ionization energy hold for the third period elements as well?
The trend across the period holds for the third period elements as well.
Atomic Radius
(nm)
Ionization Energy
(eV)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Atomic Number
Atomic Radius
3.
Ionization Energy
Which of the first nineteen elements has the largest first ionization energy?
Helium, He, has the largest first ionization energy of the first nineteen elements.
77
Atomic Radius
(nm)
Ionization Energy
(eV)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Atomic Number
Atomic Radius
4.
Ionization Energy
What is the relationship between atomic radius and first ionization energy?
The larger an elements atomic radius, the smaller its first ionization energy. There is an indirect
relationship between atomic radius and first ionization energy. This means as one variable gets
larger, the other variable gets smaller.
Atomic Radius
(nm)
Ionization Energy
(eV)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Atomic Number
Atomic Radius
Ionization Energy
78
Ethane, C2H6
2
Propane, C3H8
3
n-Butane, C4H10
4
n-Pentane, C5H12
5
Figure 14: Heat of Combustion of Some Alkanes
1.
1561
2219
2879
3509
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
2.
Examine the line graph of the data. What is the relationship between the number of carbon
atoms in an alkane and the heat of combustion?
The larger the number of carbon atoms the higher the heat of combustion according to the graph of
the data.
3.
Predict the value for the heat of combustion for n-hexane, C6H14.
79
Heat of Combustion
(kJ/mol)
y = 655.4x + 245.6
0
Predict the value for the heat of combustion for a substance with no carbon atoms. Why is
the value not 0? (Hint: Consider what remains in the formula when there are no carbon
atoms.)
250 kJ mol1
The same trend line we used in number 3 can be used to estimate the heat of combustion with zero
carbons. Using the formula CnHn+2 a value of zero for n would still give 2 hydrogen atoms in a
molecule. What we are estimating from the trend line is the heat of combustion of H2.
You may also notice that the formula for the trend line is given on the graph. The formula of a
straight line is y = mx + b. The x and y are the two variables being graphed, m is the slope of the
line, and b is the y-intercept. The y-intercept, b, is where the trend line crosses a vertical line
where the number of carbon atoms would be zero. The value of b in the equation is 245.6 kJ
mol1. This is in close agreement with our estimate from the trend line. You can utilize the power
of your graphing software to help you analyze your data.
80
Could you use this same graph to predict the heat of combustion for other kinds of
hydrocarbons? Why or why not?
It is possible that this graph could be used to predict the heat of combustion for other straight
chain hydrocarbons of greater length. However, it is likely that the farther out we estimate from
this data the more inaccurate it will become. It is not possible to use this graph to predict the heat
of combustion of other types of hydrocarbons. If the hydrocarbon is branched, cyclic, or there are
elements besides carbon and hydrogen present this graph would be inappropriate for making any
predictions. A graph can only be used to make predictions and estimates that are appropriate. Do
not generalize to far from a limited set of data in a graph!
Formula
Water
H2O
Benzene
C6H6
Naphthalene
C10H8
Sodium chloride
NaCl
Methane
CH4
Magnesium fluoride MgF2
Methanol
CH3OH
1.
Melting Point
(oC)
0
5
80
800
183
1248
97.8
Molar Mass
(g mol1)
18
78
128
58.5
16
62
32
Stucture
Molecular
Molecular
Molecular
Ionic
Molecular
Ionic
Molecular
Polarity of
Molecule
Polar
Nonpolar
Nonpolar
Not applicable
Nonpolar
Not applicable
polar
Compare the characteristics of methane, benzene, and naphthalene. What factor seems to be
responsible for differences in the melting points of these three substances?
With these three substances molar mass seems to be the factor that explains the differences in
melting point. All three are nonpolar molecules. The melting points increase as the molar mass
increases.
The previous three questions use only some of the information available in the table. Write
two more questions that might be asked about the table.
The questions you write might look at comparisons of polarity or composition and their
relationship to melting point.
3.
It is important to use all of the information available in a table. However, you should not make
sweeping generalizations that are supported by only a small number of facts. Look at your answer
to Question 1 and state what other information you might wish to look up to support your
statement.
Information that might be good to add to this table are: boiling point, density, intermolecular
forces in solids, and shape of molecule.
81
The graph in Figure 26 shows the approximate level of CO2 in the atmosphere from 1900 to
1990 for available decades. Study the graph and answer these questions:
a.
b.
What other type(s) of graph might also be useful to study this data?
An x-y graph with a mathematically derived trend line would be very useful.
Graphically determine the density of ethylene glycol for the following data collected in the
laboratory. The density will be the slope of the straight line best fit curve for the data points.
Mass
(g)
11.20
16.72
22.14
17.78
33.42
Volume
(mL)
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
82
Mass (g)
10
15
20
25
30
35
Volume (mL)
slope
y 2 y1
x 2 x1
Point A: 22 mL, 25 g
Point B: 31 mL, 35 g
slope
35 g 25 g
10 g
In this case using a trend line mathematically determined by your graphing software might lead to
a problem. There is one data point which does not seem to match the others. It is likely that this is
a result of experimental error. Ideally your analysis should include all the data. However, it is
often the case in the laboratory for a chemistry course that time will be limited so you will not be
able to do extra trials in the case of inconsistent results and some erroneous data points may be
eliminated from your analysis. In a research setting all the data would be included and further
trials would be done to minimize the impact of one stray data point.
3.
The data below was collected when water was heated to its boiling point. Decide which type
of graph to use and graph this data. Answer the questions that follow based upon your
graph.
Time
(seconds)
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Temperature
(oC)
23.0
27.0
34.0
43.0
58.0
69.0
75.0
83
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
83.0
90.0
94.0
96.0
97.0
98.0
99.0
100.0
100.5
Temperature
(oC)
Time (min)
Temperature (oC)
Time (min)
a.
What type of graph did you choose to plot? Explain why you chose this type.
84
A line graph or an x-y graph are the most likely choices here since you are asked to make
some predictions about temperatures. A bar graph could also be used. Regardless of the
type of graph time would be best placed on the x-axis and temperature on the y-axis.
b.
c.
d.
e.
During what time period was there the greatest change in temperature?
The largest increase in temperature comes between 1.5 and 2.0 minutes
2.
3.
2-Dodecanol, CH3(CH2)9CH(OH)CH3
C: 12.01 g mol1 x 12 moles of carbon atoms = 144.12 g
H: 1.01 g mol1 x 26 moles of hydrogen atoms = 26.26 g
O: 16.00 g mol1 x 1 mole of oxygen atoms = 16.00 g
144.12 g + 26.26 g + 16.00 g = 186.38 g is the mass of 1 mole of 2-dodecanol (186.38 g mol1)
4.
Glucose, C6H12O6
85
Ethanol, C2H5OH
C: 12.01 g mol1 x 2 moles of carbon atoms = 24.02 g
H: 1.01 g mol1 x 6 moles of hydrogen atoms = 6.06 g
O: 16.00 g mol1 x 1 mole of oxygen atoms = 16.00 g
24.02 g + 6.06 g + 16.00 g = 46.08 g is the mass of 1 mole of ethanol (46.08 g mol1)
6.
Acetic acid, CH3COOH, and salicylic acid, C7H6O3, combine to form aspirin. If a chemist
uses 5.00 g salicylic acid and 10.53 g acetic acid, calculate the number of moles of each
compound used.
1 mol
5.00 g C 7 H 6 O3
138
.13 g
0.0362 mol C 7 H 6 O3
1 mol
10.53 g CH 3 OOH
60.06 g
2.
500.0 kg C12 H 26 O
1 mol
186
.38 g
86
3.
Calcium chloride hexahydrate, CaCl2 6 H2O, is sprinkled on sidewalks to melt ice and snow.
How many moles of the compound are in a 5.0 kg sack of the material?
NOTE: When finding the molar mass of hydrates you must also include the mass of the water
molecules that are included as water of crystallization with the formula.
The molar mass of CaCl2 is 110.98 g mol1 and the mass of six water molecules is 108.12 g. That
makes the molar mass of the calcium chloride hexahydrate, CaCl26H2O 219.10 g mol1.
1000 g
1 kg
1 mol
219.10 g
5.0 kg CaCl 2 6 H 2 O
4.
23 mol CaCl 2 6 H 2 O
1.5 mol sodium hydroxide, NaOH, are required to prepare a solution. What is the equivalent
number of grams?
40.00 g
1 mol
60. g NaOH
NOTE: It is necessary to put the decimal point in to show that there are 2 significant figures in the
answer.
5.
The laboratory technician must prepare a solution that requires 0.123 mol silver nitrate,
AgNO3. How many grams are necessary?
169.91 g
1 mol
20.9 g AgNO3
1L
125 mL HCl
1000 mL
B.
0.0996 mol
1L
250.0 mL CH 3 NH 2
1000 mL
C.
1L
5.00 mL CH 3 COOH
1000 mL
2.
0.145 mol
0.03625 mol CH 3 NH 2
1L
0.0100 mol
How many milliliters of 0.0500 M sodium hydroxide, NaOH, are needed to provide 0.025
moles of NaOH?
87
1L
3.
How many milliliters of 0.225 M hydrofluoric acid, HF, are needed to provide 0.0125 moles
of HF?
1L
0.0125 mol HF
0
.
225
mol
4.
1000 mL
55.6 mL HF
1L
How many grams of potassium chlorate, KClO3, are there in 25.00 mL of a 0.l250 M
solution?
1L
25.00 mL KClO3
1000
mL
5.
1000 mL
5.0 x 10 2 mL NaOH
1
L
0.1250 mol
1L
122.55 g
1 mol
0.100 mol
1L
3.
4.
84.01 g
1 mol
2.
.3830 g KClO3
How many grams of sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, are there in 100.00 mL of a 0.100 M ?
1L
100.00 mL NaHCO3
1000 mL
1.
88
0.840 g NaHCO3
5.
6.
7.
MnO2 (s) + HCl (aq) MnCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + Cl2 (g)
MnO2 (s) + 4 HCl (aq) MnCl2 (aq) + 2 H20 (l) + Cl2 (g)
8.
9.
10.
Write the balanced molecular equation for the reactions that occur in each of the following situations.
11.
When liquid benzene, C6H6, reacts with oxygen gas, O2, the products are gaseous carbon
dioxide, CO2, and water, H2O.
When photosynthesis takes place in a green plant, carbon dioxide gas and liquid water
combine to produce solid glucose, C6H12O6, and oxygen gas.
Nitroglycerin, C3H5N3O9, a drug used for heart pain problems, is synthesized from
glycerin, C3H8O3, and nitric acid, HNO3, in the presence of a catalyst. What is also a
product of the reaction.
Some antacids contain solid aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3, which reacts with the aqueous
hydrochloric acid, HCl, in the stomach to produce aqueous aluminum chloride, AlCl3, and
liquid water.
89
15.
An antacid remedy contains solid sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, and solid citric acid,
H3C6H5O7, which react to produce gaseous carbon dioxide (the source of the familiar fizz),
aqueous sodium citrate, Na3C6H5O7, and liquid water.
3 NaHCO3 (s) + H3C6H5O7 (s) 3 CO2 (g) + Na3C6H5O7 (aq) + 3 H2O (l)
16.
When solid table sugar (sucrose), C12H22O11, is heated, gaseous water and solid elemental
carbon are produced.
4 mol CO 2
25.0 mol C 2 H 2
5 mol C 2 H 2
20.0 mol CO 2
NOTE: The coefficients in the balanced equation are treated as exact numbers. That means they
have an infinite number of significant figures. In other words, the coefficients will not be used to
determine the number of significant figures in the answer.
2.
1 mol C 4 H 10
5.0 g C 4 H 10
58.14 g C 4 H 10
3.
8 mol CO
9 mol C 4 H 10
28.01 g CO
2.1 g CO
1 mol CO
15.0 g NaNH2 is required for an experiment. Using the following reaction, what mass of
sodium metal is required to produce the NaNH2?
2 mol N a
2 mol NaNH 2
90
22.99 g Na
8.84 g Na
1 mol Na
4.
Ethanol and acetic acid react to produce ethyl acetate according to the reaction C2H5OH +
CH3C(O)OH CH3C(O)OC2H5 + H2O. If the reaction is only 35% efficient at the conditions
used, what mass of CH3C(O)OH will be necessary to produce 100 g CH3C(O)OC2H5? Assume
that sufficient ethanol is available.
First calculate the theoretical yield as if the reaction is 100 % efficient.
1 mol
100. g CH 3 C (O )OC 2 H 5
88.12 g
1 mol CH 3 COOH
1 mol CH 3 C (O)OC 2 H 5
60.06 g CH 3 COOH
1 mol CH 3 COOH
68.2 g CH 3 CO
Since the reaction is only 35% efficient the starting amount of acetic acid must be larger than 68.2
grams. In fact 68.2 g is 35% of the amount of acetic acid actually needed for this reaction. The
actual starting material multiplied by 0.35 (the decimal equivalent of 35%) will equal 68.2 g.
Solving for the starting material will involving dividing both sides by 0.35.
Heating CaCO3 yields CaO and CO2. Write the balanced equation. Calculate the mass of
CaCO3 consumed when 4.65 g of CaO forms.
1 mol CaO
56.08 g CaO
4.65 g CaO
1 mol CaCO3
1 mol CaO
100.09 g CaCO3
1 mol CaCO3
8.30 g CaCO3
In the synthesis of sodium amide (NaNH2), what is the maximum mass of NaNH2 possible if
50.0 g of Na and 50.0 g NH3 were used?
2 Na(l) + 2 NH3(g) 2 NaNH2(s) +H2(g)
1 mol Na
50.0 g Na
22.99 g Na
2 mol NaNH 2
2 mol Na
1 mol NH 3
50.0 g NH 3
17.04 g NH 3
39.02 g NaNH 2
1 mol NaNH 2
2 mol NaNH 2
2 mol NH 3
84.9 g NaNH 2
39.02 g NaNH 2
1 mol NaNH 2
114 g NaNH 2
Starting with 50.0 grams of each reactant the maximum amount of product that can be
theoretically made is 84.9 g. There is only enough sodium, Na, present to produce this much
product.
NOTE: In the last unit conversion the molar mass of NaNH2 is used. It is still the number of
grams per one mole regardless of the coefficients in the balanced equation.
91
2.
The fuel methanol, CH3OH, can be made directly from carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen
(H2).
a.
1 mol CO
5.75 g CO
28
.
01
g
CO
1 mol H 2
10.0 g H 2
2.02 g H 2
1 mol CH 3 OH
1 mol CO
1 mol CH 3 OH
2 mol H 2
32.05 g CH 3 OH
1 mol CH 3 OH
32.05 g CH 3 OH
1 mol CH 3 OH
6.58 g CH 3 OH
79.3 g CH 3 OH
Starting with 5.75 g carbon monoxide, CO, and 10.0 g hydrogen, H2, the maximum
amount of product that can be made is 6.58 g.
c.
d.
1 mol CO
28
.
01
g
CO
5.75 g CO
2 mol H 2
1 mol CO
2.02 g H 2
1 mol H 2
0.829 g H 2 used
Aspirin (C7H8O4) is synthesized in the laboratory from salicylic acid (C7H6O3) and acetic
anhydride (C4H6O3):
C7H6O3(s) + C4H6O3(l) C9H8O4(s) +CH3COOH(l)
a.
What is the theoretical yield of aspirin if you started with 15.0 g salicylic
acid and 15.0 g acetic anhydride?
1 mol C 7 H 6 O3
15.0 g C 7 H 6 O3
138.13 g C 7 H 6 O3
1 mol C4 H 6O3
15.0 g C4 H 6O3
102
.
10
g
C
H
O
4
6 3
1 mol C 9 H 8 O 4
1 mol C 7 H 6 O3
180.17 g C 9 H 8 O4
1 mol C 9 H 8 O 4
1 mol C9 H 8O4
1 mol C4 H 6O3
180.17 g C9 H 8O4
1 mol C9 H 8O4
19.6 g C 9 H 8 O 4
26.5 g C9 H 8O4
Start with 15.0 g each of the two reactions the maximum amount of aspirin that can be
synthesized is 19.6 g.
92
b.
c.
1 mol C7 H 6O3
15.0 g C7 H 6O3
138.13 g C7 H 6O3
1 mol C4 H 6O3
1 mol C7 H 6O3
101.10 g C4 H 6O3
11.1 g C4 H 6O3 used
1 mol C4 H 6O3
Once the 32 valence electrons are distributed among these five atoms all them has an octet of
electrons.
2.
After all the electrons have been distributed the three oxygen atoms each have an octet of electrons.
However, the carbon atom only has 6 electrons around it. It is necessary to make a double
bond, i.e., share two pairs of electrons, between one of the oxygen atoms and the carbon
atom. Once the double bond is made all four atoms have an octet of electrons.
3.
93
After the 18 valence electrons are distributed among the three atoms the sulfur atom remains
without an octet of electrons. The formation of a double bond between one of the oxygen atoms
and the sulfur atoms solves this problem.
4.
It is necessary to form a double bond between one of the oxygen atoms and the sulfur atom in
order to have an octet of electrons for all four atoms.
5.
methanol, CH3OH
C: 4 valence electrons; H: 1 valence electron; O: 6 valence electrons
14 valence electrons to distribute
Here is a situation where the bonding patterns for hydrocarbons can be applied. Knowing that
hydrogen will form only one bond it is clearly not put between two other atoms. Since carbon can
make four bonds it is logical to put it as the central atom. If carbon is placed as the central atom
the oxygen logically is bonded to the carbon and one of the hydrogen atoms. The condensed
formula that was given, CH3OH, helps guide the bonding as well. It would have been more
challenging if the molecular formula, CH4O, would have been given. However, applying the
bonding patterns for hydrocarbons and the other rules for writing Lewis structures would have still
lead to a successful representation of methanol.
94
6.
acetone, CH3C(O)CH3
C: 4 valence electrons; H: 1 valence electron; O: 6 valence electrons
24 valence electrons to distribute
In this case there must be a double bond between one of the carbon atoms and the oxygen atom so
that the octet rule can be satisfied for every atom in the molecule. This is also consistent with
the bonding patterns for hydrocarbons. In the final Lewis structure all the hydrogen atoms
make one bond, the three carbon atoms make four bonds each and the oxygen atom makes
two bonds. Remember that a double bond counts as two bonds in the bonding pattern. This
is appropriate since the double bond is a sigma and a pi bond between those two atoms.
Chapter 5 gives more details about the bonding between atoms.
7.
Remember that the Lewis structures for polyatomic ions should be written within brackets and the
charge of the ion should be placed at the upper right-hand corner of the brackets.
95
8.
The phosphate ion is a polyatomic anion with a 3 charge. The brackets are used to indicate that
this is an ion and the charge in the upper right-hand corner tells how many addition electrons are
present in this anion.
9.
The brackets and charge are once again used to indicate that the ammonium ion is a polyatomic
cation with a 1+ charge.
10.
With only 10 electrons to distribute it is necessary to make a triple bond between the carbon and
nitrogen atoms. Hydrogen will only make one bond in the hydrocarbon molecules. Carbon makes
four bonds and the nitrogen makes three bonds with the triple bond between them. A triple bond is
a sigma bond and two pi bonds between two atoms. Chapter 5 in the textbook gives more
information about the bonding in this molecule.
96
H
H
B
O
Does the formal charge help you pick the more probable formula?
Structural formula A:
Structural formula B:
FChydrogen = 1 ((2) + 0) = 0
FCcarbon = 4 ((8) + 0) = 0
FCcarbon = 4 ((4) + 4) = 2
FCoxygen = 6 ((4) + 4) = 0
FCoxygen = 6 ((4) + 4 ) = 0
FChydrogen = 1 ((2) + 0) = 0
FChydrogen = 1 ((2) + 0) = 0
FCcarbon = 4 ((8) + 0) = 0
FCcarbon = 4 ((8) + 0) = 0
FCoxygen = 6 ((4) + 4) = 0
FCoxygen = 6 ((4) + 4) = 0
FChydrogen = 1 ((2) + 0) = 0
The formal charges of all the atoms in the structural formula B are zero. This would indicate that
this structural formula is the more likely of the two given here. The second structural formula is
also consistent with the bonding patterns seen for hydrocarbons.
2.
O ]
[ N
O ]
[ N
O ]
Assign formal charges to each atom. Use the formal charges to predict which structure is
most probable.
Formula A
FCnitrogen = 5 ((2) + 6) = 2
FCcarbon = 4 ((8) + 0) = 0
FCoxygen = 6 ((6) + 2) = +1
Formula B
FCnitrogen = 5 ((4) + 4) = 1
FCcarbon = 4 ((8) + 0) = 0
FCoxygen = 6 ((4) + 4 ) = 0
Formula C
FCnitorgen = 5 ((6) + 2) = 0
FCcarbon = 4 ((8) + 0) = 0
FCoxygen = 6 ((2) + 6) = 1
The formal charges add up to 1 for all three structural formulas. Since this is an anion with a 1
charge this is appropriate and does not help determine which is the most likely structural formula
of the three. Formula A is probably least likely since it has two atoms with formal charges that are
97
not zero and the formal charge of oxygen is +1. In this case assigning formal charge will not help
us determine the more likely structural formula between Formula B and C. Further knowledge
about bonding is necessary to make the determination. It is clear that both of those structural
formula satisfy all the rules for writing Lewis structures and give reasonable values for formal
charge. Look in Chapter 6 to get more insight into the structure of molecules.
The volume of a sample of gas is expanded from 2.5 L to 4.5 L. If the original pressure was
855 mm Hg, what is the pressure after the gas is expanded?
This is a Boyles law problem.
V1
P
2 or V1P1 = V2P2
V2
P1
V1 = 2.5 L
V2 = 4.5 L
P1 = 855 mm Hg
P2 = ?
P2
2.
P1 V1
(855 mm Hg ) ( 2.5 L)
475 mm Hg
V2
4.5 L
The volume of a sample of gas is compressed from 7.5 L to 1.0 L. If the initial temperature is
24.0 oC, what is the temperature of the gas after it has been compressed?
This is a Charles law problem.
V1
T
1 or V1T2 = V2T1
V2
T2
V1 = 7.5 L
V2 = 1.0 L
T1 = 24.0 oC = 297 K
T2 = ?
NOTE: Temperatures must always be expressed in Kelvin! K = oC + 273
T2
3.
V 2 T1
(1.0 L) ( 297 K )
39 K 230 o C
V1
7.5 L
A sample of gas occupying a volume of 75.0 mL contains 0.0250 moles. Gas is released until
the volume reaches 50.0 mL. How many moles of gas remain in the container?
This is an Avogadros law problem.
V1
n
1 or V1n2 = V2n1
V2
n2
V1 = 75.0 mL
V2 = 50.0 mL
n1 = 0.0250 mol
n2 = ?
98
n2
4.
0.0167 mol
V1
(75.0 mL)
The pressure of a gas is decreased from 950.0 mmHg to 720.0 mmHg. If the temperature is
26.5 oC initially, what is the temperature after the pressure has been reduced?
This is a problem requiring Gay-Lussacs law.
T1
P
1 or T1P2 = T2P1
T2
P2
P1 = 950.0 mm Hg
P2 = 720.0 mm Hg
T1 = 26.5 oC = 299.8 K
T2 = ?
T2
5.
T1 P2
( 299.5 K ) (720.0 mm Hg )
227 K 46.0 o C
P1
(950.0 mm Hg )
A 120.0 mL sample of nitrogen gas, N2, has a pressure of 1.25 atm at 45.0 oC. What volume
will it occupy at STP?
This problem requires the use of the combined gas law.
P1V1
PV
2 2 or P1V1n2T2 =
n1T1
n2T2
P2V2n1T1
P1 = 1.25 atm
V1 = 120.0 mL
T1 = 45.0 oC = 318.0 K
V2
6.
P1 V1 T2
(1.25 atm) (120.0 mL) ( 273 K )
129 mL
T1 P2
(318.0 K ) (1 atm)
A 75.0 mL sample of hydrogen gas, H2, has a pressure of 0.850 atm at 20.0 oC. What volume
will it occupy at 2.25 atm and 60.0 oC?
This is another problem that will use the combined gas law.
P1 = .850 atm
V1 = 75.0 mL
T1 = 20.0 oC = 293.0 K
V2
P2 = 2.25 atm
V2 = ?
T2 = 60.0 oC = 333.0 K
P1 V1 T2
(0.850 atm) (75.0 mL) (333.0 K )
32.2 mL
T1 P2
(293.0 K ) ( 2.25 atm)
99
7.
What would be the pressure of a 45.0 mL sample of hydrogen gas containing 0.750 moles at
31.0 oC?
This problem will use the ideal gas law. PV = nRT
P=?
V = 45.0 mL = 0.0450 L
N = 0.750 mole
R = 0.08206 L atm mol1 K1
T = 31.0 oC = 304.0 K
NOTE: If this value of R is used the volume must be expressed in liters and the pressure in
atmospheres. There are other values of R that can be used, e.g., 62.364 L Torr mol1 K1 or
8.31451 L kPa mol1 K1. In every case volume is still expressed in liters. Temperature is always
expressed in Kelvin. The only thing that varies among the possible values of the gas constant R is
the units of pressure.
8.
n RT
(0.750 mol ) (0.08206 L atm mol 1 K 1 ) (304.0 K )
416 atm
V
(0.0450 L)
What would the temperature of 500.0 mL of oxygen gas be if there were 1.10 moles of gas at
a pressure of 850.0 mmHg?
The ideal gas law is most appropriate for solving this problem.
PV = nRT
PV
(1.118 atm) (0.5000 L )
6.19 K
nT
(1.10 mol ) (0.08206 L atm mol 1 K 1
100