Quality (Part 8)

Quality Assurance
Chapter 42

Quality Definitions
Quality is defined as those products and/or service
features that meet or exceed customer expectations
Quality Assurance (QA) is proactive to quality
planning, instituting system improvements, such
as defects and reliability, while upholding the
after-the-fact QC and audit functions
Quality Control (QC): a system that identifies and
responds to nonconformities, such as defects and
is reactive in nature

Total Quality Management

(TQM)
A system that ensures that quality is the constant
focus and continuous improvement never stops
Primary goal is to achieve increasingly higher
levels of customer satisfaction while continuously
improving processes linked to business
measurables such as cost and productivity
Driven by customer needs and maintains a
constant sense of urgency to improve

Quality Costs
Poor quality ranges from 20-40% of sales,
therefore, exceeding the profit margin
Four categories:

internal failure
external failure
appraisal
prevention

Internal Failure Costs

Costs of defects identified prior to the
customers receipt of the product or service
Examples: rework, unrepairable scrap,
sorting bad lots and decreasing selling price
due to poor quality

External Failure Costs

The monetary value assigned to defects
found after product shipment
Examples: warranty charges, complaint
adjustments, and cost to return material

Appraisal Costs
Expenditures related to determine the
degree of conformance to product
requirements
Examples: incoming inspection and testing,
final inspection and testing, quality audits of
in-process and finished products, calibration
of instruments, and measuring devices

Prevention Costs
Incurred to reduce expenditure on failure
and appraisal costs
Examples: Quality and process planning,
process control, evaluating suppliers and
training

International Organization
for Standards (ISO) 9000
Primary function is the development of international
standards to facilitate international trade
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is the U.S.
representative to (ISO)
Published in U.S. as the ANSI/ASQ Q9000 series
ISO commonly used as criteria for third party audits
between a supplier of production parts, components, or
equipment and in original equipment manufacturer (OEM)
ISO 9000 certification implies that a quality system is in
place

Malcom Baldrige National

Quality Award (MBNQA)
Created to improve quality and competitiveness
from American companies
Public Law 100-107, Passed in 1987
Instituted by the federal government in reaction to
serious foreign encroachment in the domestic
market
Granted annually up to six winners in three
categories: large manufacturing, large service
companies, and small businesses

MBNQA Criteria
1.
2.
3.
4.

Leadership (9.5%)
Information and analysis (7.5%)
Strategic quality planning (6%)
Human resources development and management
(15%)
5. Management of process quality (14%)
6. Quality and operational results (18%)
7. Customer focus and satisfaction (30%)

Statistical Methods of
Quality Control
Chapter 43

Inspection
Inspection is the process of checking the
conformance of a final product to its
specifications
Inspection must be a continuous activity
because raw material machines and
operators are all subject to variability

Quality Assurance
Inspection of variables requires the
quantitative measurement of characteristics
such as dimensions and other physical or
mechanical properties
Attribute inspection offers the direct
comparison of a dimension to a
specification. Example: Go/No-Go Gage,
presence of a flaw

Contemporary Approach: Is Preventing

Rather than Identifying Defects
Reducing the impact of variation through
robust design
Anticipating problems through design for
manufacturability and assembly
The use of mistake and error proofing and
Attacking common-cause variation to push
process-capability indices high enough to
eliminate the need for inspection

Statistical Quality Control (SQC)

Used to Detect Process Variability
Natural Variability: is the inherent,
uncontrolled changes that occur in the
composition of material, the performance of
the operator, and the operation of machines
Assignable Variability: can be traced to a
specific, controllable cause

Statistical Process Control

A method to systematically detect
assignable variability in a process

Distribution of Shaft Diameters

F 43-1

Continuous Distribution of Shaft

Diameters

F 43-2

Normal Distribution With

Different Means and Dispersions

F 43-3

Control Charts
Purpose: to determine whether the quality
characteristic is varying within acceptable
limits for natural variability or whether the
process is out of control
Used to track down assignable causes for
changes in process performance as a part of
process improvement investigation

Most Used Control Charts

X Chart shows the quality
characteristic of the average of the
sample
R Chart shows the quality
characteristic of the range of the
sample

Control charts for Average

Dimension and range

F 43-6

X bar R Chart
x grand average and represents the population mean
R average range and represents the typical variance
x1 x2 xn
x
n
R1 R2 Rn
R
n

n number of samples

X bar and R Control Limits

UCLx x 3 x x A2 R
LCLx x 3 x x A2 R
UCLR R 3 R D4 R
LCLR R 3 R D3 R

Control Chart Constants

Sample Size A2

D4

D3

d2

1.880 3.267 0

1.128

1.023 2.575 0

1.693

0.729 2.282 0

2.059

0.577 2.115 0

2.326

0.483 2.004 0

2.534

0.419 1.924 0.076 2.704

0.373 1.864 0.136 2.847

0.337 1.816 0.184 2.970

10

0.308 1.777 0.223 3.078

Various Conditions Monitored on

an X control chart

F 43-9

Process Capability Analysis

A method to determine or assure that a
process can meet specifications
A process is capable if it is able to
consistently produce parts within
specification
Process capability ratios above 1.33 are
capable of producing good parts

Relationship of Specified Limits

and Natural Limits

F 43-10

Process Capability
USL LSL
Cp
6

USL upper specified limit

LSL lower specified limit
process standard deviation

R

d2

Cpk
Process capability (Cp) does not account for where the
process distribution is relative to the center of the
tolerance.
A process may have a high capability but produce bad
parts if it is centered towards one of the specifications.
Cpk indicates where the process is located with respected
to the upper and lower limits of the tolerance.

NearestSpec X
Cpk
3

Acceptable Sampling
Used to determine if parts that have already
been produced are acceptable
Less than 100% of produced parts
inspected. Example: destructive testing
Creates the risk of rejecting good lots and
accepting bad parts
Does not guarantee that all parts in a lot are
good

Types of Sampling Plans

Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (LTPD)
plan specifies a certain quality level with
respect to a percent defect at a given risk of
being accepted by the customer
Acceptable Quality Level (AQL) plan
specifies a certain quality level with respect
to a percent defective at a given risk of
being accepted by the customer

Dimensional Metrology
Chapter 44

Terminology For Dimensional

Metrology
Accuracy is the closeness to the true answer
Precision refers to the dispersion of
measurements or fineness of the readings
Reliability is the probability of achieving a
desired outcome
Repeatability of a group of measurements
taken with the same instruments taken with
the same instrument on the same part is the
extent to which they are in agreement

Terminology Continued
Sensitivity is the minimum input required to
produce a noticeable output
Resolution, in reference to dial indicators
and other similar instruments, is the ratio of
one scale division to the width of the dial
hand
Discrimination refers to the fineness of an
instruments scale divisions

Precision and Accuracy

F 44-1 (Wick and Veilleux, 1987)

Types of Measurements
Absolute or direct measurement
Comparative measurement

Absolute or Direct Measurement Instruments

Metric (mm)

U.S. (in)

Rules and scales

.5

.01 or 1/64

Slide calipers

.5

.01 or 1/64

Vernier

.02

.001

Caliper height gages

.01

.001

Dial calipers

.02

.001

Digital calipers (LCD) displays

Micrometers: outside, inside, depth

One-Inch Micrometer

What is the micrometer reading?

Answer - 0.167 Inches
F 44-2

What is the micrometer reading?

Answer - 0.385 Inches

What is the micrometer reading?

Answer - 0.778 Inches

What is the micrometer reading?

Answer - 0.639 Inches

Comparison Measurement Instruments

(Greater Accuracy than Direct Measurement)

Type A Spindle parallel to the dial

face (Dial Indicator)
Type B Spindle at right angle to the
dial face (Dial Indicator)
Type C Measuring contact is a lever
(Test Indicator)

Dial Indicator

F 44-3 (Wick and Veilleux, 1987)

Continuous and Balanced Indicators

F 44-4

Typical Test Indicator

F 44-5 (Wick and Veilleux, 1987)

Optical Comparators or Profile Projector

A measuring microscope for small

parts
Magnifications up to 500X
Only limitation is the size of the screen

Horizontal Shadow-Lighted Optical

Comparator

F 44-6 (Wick and Veilleux, 1987)

Coordinate Measurement
A two or three-dimensional process to
locate the position of holes, surfaces,
centerlines and slopes
Six sides of a cube shaped part may be
inspected without repositioning

Elements of a Coordinate
Measuring Machine (CMM)

X-Y-Z positioning device machine structure

Probing system to collect data
Machine control and computer hardware
Software for geometry analysis
Configurations: cantilever, column, bridge,
horizontal arm and gantry

Moving-Bridge Coordinate
Measuring Machine

F 44-7 (Wick and Veilleux, 1987)

Advantages of Using CMMs

Flexibility
Reduced set up time
Reduced operator influence
Improved accuracy
Improved productivity

Types of Measurement Error

Instrument Inherent accuracy limitations
due to construction and calibration
Parallax Reader to instrument position
Bias Operator will unconsciously
influence a measurement
Technique Manipulate or using the
instrument incorrectly
Condition Temperature error

Snap and Plug Gage

F 44-8

Qualifying Gages
Snap Gage: used for external
dimensions (shafts)
Plug gage: used for internal
dimensions (holes)
Gage design principle - It is better to
reject a good part than declare a bad
part to be within specifications

Gage Tolerances
Gage Tolerance: the permissible
variation in the manufacture of the
gage. Typically 10% or less of the
working tolerance
Wear Allowance: compensates for the
wear of the gage surface as a result of
repeated use

Standard Gagemakers
Tolerances

F 44-1

Gage Block Types

Class B

Working Blocks

Class A

Reference Blocks

Class AA

Master Blocks

Sizes of Gage Blocks in 81-Block Set

One Ten-Thousandth Series 9 Blocks
.1001

.1002

.1003

.1004

.1005

.1006

.1007

.1008

1009

One Thousandth Series 49 Blocks

.101
.111
.121
.131
.141

.102
.112
.122
.132
.142

.103
.113
.123
.133
.143

.104
.114
.124
.134
.144

.105
.115
.125
.135
.145

.106
.116
.126
.136
.146

.107
.117
.127
.137
.147

.108
.118
.128
.138
.148

.109
.119
.129
.139
.149

.110
.120
.130
.140
.150

.400
.900

.450
.950

.500

Fifty Thousandth Series 19 Blocks

.050
.550

.100
.600

.150
.650

.200
.700

.250
.750

.300
.800

.350
.850

Inch Series 4 Blocks

1.000

2.000

3.000

4.000

2.6437
.1007
2.5430
.103
2.440
.140
2.300
.300
2.000
2.000
.000

5 BLOCKS

2.6437
,1007
2.5430
.1430
2.4000
.400
2.000
2.000
.000

4 BLOCKS