REPORT ON

SIGNAL AND TELECOMMUNICATION

SIGNAL & TELECOMMUNICATION

PREFACE

In its broadest sense summer training is necessary to make the students familiar with the
industrial environment prevailing in the world. To be competitive students need to know
the policies, procedures and the trends going on in the present industrial world.
In every professional course, training is an important factor. Professors give us
theoretical knowledge of various subjects in the college but we are practically exposed of
such subjects when we get the training in the organization. It is only the training through
which I come to know that what an industry is and how it works. I can learn about
various departmental operations being performed in the industry, which would, in return,
help me in the future when I will enter the practical field.
Training is an integral part of B.TECH and each and every student has to undergo the
training for 1 month in a company and then prepare a project report on the same after the
completion of training.
During this whole training I got lot of experience and came to know about various
communication techniques and other practices in real that how it differs from those of
theoretical knowledge and the practically in the real life.
In todays globalize world, where cutthroat competition is prevailing in the market,
theoretical knowledge is not sufficient. Beside this one need to have practical
knowledge, which would help an individual in his/her carrier activities and it is true that
Experience is the best teacher.R

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Indian Railway (North eastern Railway) being a strategic organization requires strict and
effective administration in it works. SIGNAL & TELE-COMMUNICATION department
take care of proper functioning of communication and in turn plays a crucial role in
safety of passengers traveling every day.
I am really very thankful of proper guidance of Mr. JAVED ANSARI (JE/TELE) and Mr.
JAGVIR SINGH (SSE) in helping out me to overcome many crucial problems which I
face as a trainee and thanking all the staff for proper guidance and instruction. I am
thankful to Sr. DSTE, DSTE for their support and cooperation.

CONTENTS

1.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

2.

INTRODUCTION

3.

COMMUNICATION

4.

OPTICAL FIBER CABLE

5.

EXCHANGE - ISDN

6.

SDH SYSTEM

7.

PRS AND UTS

8.

CONTROL

9.

10.

CONCLUSION

11.

REFERENCES

REVIATIONS

INTRODUCTION

HISTORY:
The first railway on Indian sub-continent ran over a stretch of 21 miles from Bombay to
Thane.
The idea of a railway to connect Bombay with
Thane, Kalyan and with the Thal and Bhore Ghats
inclines first occurred to Mr. George Clark,sthe
Chief Engineer of the Bombay Government, during
a visit to Bhandup in 1843.
The formal inauguration ceremony was performed
on 16th April 1853, when 14 railway carriages
carrying about 400 guests left Bori Bunder at 3.30
pm "amidst the loud applause of a vast multitude and to the salute of 21 guns."
The first passenger train steamed out of Howrah
station destined for Hooghly, a distance of 24
miles, on 15th August, 1854. Thus the first
section of the East Indian Railway was opened to
public traffic, inaugurating the beginning of
railway transport on the Eastern side of the subcontinent.
In south the first line was opened on Ist July,
1856 by the Madras Railway Company. It ran
between Veyasarpandy and Walajah Road
(Arcot), a distance of 63 miles. In the North a length of 119 miles of line was laid from
Allahabad to Kanpur on 3rd March 1859. The first section from Hathras Road to Mathura
Cantonment was opened to traffic on 19th October, 1875.
These were the small beginnings which is due course developed into a network of railway
lines all over the country. By 1880 the Indian Railway system had a route mileage of
about 9000 miles.

STRUCTURE

Indian Railways has one of the largest and busiest rail networks in the world, transporting
over 18 million passengers and more than 2 million tones of freight daily. It is the world's
largest commercial or utility employer, with more than 1.4 million employees. The
railways traverse the length and breadth of the country, covering 6,909 stations over a
total route length of more than 63,327 kilometers (39,350 mi). As to rolling stock, IR
owns over 200,000 (freight) wagons, 50,000 coaches and 8,000 locomotives. Indian
Railways operates about 9,000 passenger trains and transports 18 million passengers
daily across twenty-eight states and one union territory. Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and
Meghalaya are the only states not connected by rail. The passenger division is the most
preferred form of long distance transport in most of the country.
Indian Railways is divided into zones, which are further sub-divided into divisions. The
number of zones in Indian Railways increased from six to eight in 1951, nine in 1952,
and finally 16 in 2003. Each zonal railway is made up of a certain number of divisions,
each having a divisional headquarters. There are a total of sixty-seven divisions.
Each of the sixteen zones, as well as the Kolkata Metro, is headed by a General Manager
(GM) who reports directly to the Railway Board. The zones are further divided into
divisions under the control of Divisional Railway Managers (DRM). The divisional
officers of engineering, mechanical, electrical, signal & telecommunication, accounts,
personnel, operating, commercial and safety branches report to the respective Divisional
Manager and are in charge of operation and maintenance of assets. Further down the
hierarchy tree are the Station Masters who control individual stations and the train
movement through the track territory under their stations' administration. (See fig.)

RCILROFPSR (
ZONAL RAILWAYS
(16 ZONES)

F(CCECSTE

ENGG.

OPERATING

MECH

PERSONNEL

ELECT

S&T

ACCOUNTS

COMM

SAFETY

ZONAL RAILWAYS AND HEADQUARTER

Sl.
No

Date
Established
November
Central
CR
5, 1951
East
October 1,
ECR
Central
2002
ECoBAprilB B1,
East Coast
R
2003

Headquarte
rs

Eastern

ER

April, 1952

Kolkata

North
Central
North
Eastern
North
Western
Northeast
Frontier

NC
R

AprilB B1,
2003

Allahabad

Allahabad, Agra, Jhansi

NERB1952

Gorakhpur

Izzatnagar, Lucknow, Varanasi

NW
R

Jaipur

Jaipur, Ajmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur

9.

Northern

NR

AprilB B14,
1952

10.

South
Central

SCR

October 2, BSecunderaba
1966
d

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Name

Abb
r.

October 1,
2002

NFRB1958

South East
Central
South
Eastern
South
Western

SECBAprilB B1,
R
2003

14.
15.

11.
12.
13.

16.

Mumbai
Hajipur
hubaneswa
r

Guwahati
Delhi

ilaspur, CG

Divisions
Mumbai,B
husawal,B BPune,
Solapur, Nagpur
Danapur, Dhanbad, Mughalsarai,
Samastipur, Sonpur
KhurdaB BRoad,B BSambalpur,
Visakhapatnam
Howrah,B BSealdah,B BAsansol,
Malda

Alipurduar, Katihar, Lumding,

Rangia, Tinsukia
Delhi,B BAmbala,B BFirozpur,
Lucknow, Moradabad
Secunderabad,
Hyderabad,
Guntakal,B BGuntur,B BNanded,
Vijayawada
ilaspur, Raipur, Nagpur

SERB1955

Kolkata

Adra,
Chakradharpur,
Kharagpur, Ranchi

SW
R

AprilB B1,
2003

Hubli

Hubli, Bengaluru, Mysuru

Southern

SR

AprilB B14,
1951

Chennai

Chennai, Madurai, Palakkad,

Salem,
Tiruchchirapalli,
Thiruvanathapuram

West
Central

WC
R

AprilB B1,
2003

Jabalpur

Jabalpur, Bhopal, Kota

WR

November
5, 1951

Mumbai

MumbaiB Central,B Vadodara,

Ratlam, Ahmedabad, Rajkot,
havnagar

Western

COMMUNICATION
Today, it would be difficult for us to imagine life without the telephone. World-wide,
there are some 750 million telephone connections in use and the number of Internet users
has exploded in the last few years. By the year 2010, according to a forecast from Nortel,
there will be almost 475 million Internet users and the number of services provided will
also grow rapidly.
To control the working of employers and to ensure the proper running of trains, we need
fast and reliable means of communication. To ensure this we have hroabdesys
TELECOMMUNICATIONRALiGSTCLPTnRcL&RiSIrOALRiGTRGPAR IDSUL Rm.:DOiCLPT qR
to communicate. Their work is to provide the line and maintain it.
Railway communication provides uninterrupted motion of trains. Due to faster means of
communication there is increase in the efficiency and greater control. To communicate
we require some media, which carry our signal. In past, railway use iron wires, copper
wires or aluminum wires for signal propagation. Now, a day we railway use Microwave,
Quad cable, Optical Fiber cable & satellite communication.
The explosion in demand for network bandwidth is largely due to the growth in data
traffic, specifically Internet Protocol (IP). Leading service providers report bandwidths
doubling on their backbones about every six to nine months. This is largely in response to
the 300 percent growth per year in Internet traffic, while traditional voice traffic grows at
a compound annual rate of only about 13 percent.

OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE

HISTORY:

jet.

1870: John Tyndall U.K demonstrated the phenomenon of light guiding in a thin water

1880: Sir Alexander Graham Bell invented the PHOTOPHONE. He used sunlight

reflected from thin voice modulated mirror to carry conversation.

1960: Advent of LASER as a coherent optical source.

1966: Kao and Hock man discovered that high loss in fibers was due to impurities in

the material used.

1966: Mr. Kao gave thought of communicating using fiber with loss up to 1000 dB/km.

1970: M/s Corning glass works; USA made fiber giving loss of 20dB/km.

1974: Modified chemical vapour Deposition (MCVP) process developed by M/s

Sumitomo electric & NTT/JAPAN.

1976: First generation systems multimode graded index fiber 850nm (wavelength),

GaAs laser / LEDs as a source & PIN/APD as detector.

1980: Second generation systems multimode fiber at 1300 nm single mode fiber.

1990: Development of longer wavelength fibers, improved version of LASER, APDs

for better performance and to support 565 M bits/sec & 2 G bits/sec.

Optical fiber is generally made of glass & is made into very thin fibers or hair size. It is a nonmetallic conductor that can transmit light energy from one end to the other end by utilizing the
phenomena of Total Internal reflection of light. In conventional cables (copper cables)
electrical energy is transmitted through metallic conductors. An optical fiber communication
system consists of transmitter, which converts the multiplexed electrical signal into an optical
signal. A source of light launches the optical signal through a coupler into the fiber. The fiber
carries this signal to the receiver, where another coupler couples the light from the fiber to the
detector. The transmitter uses either a LASER DIODE or LIGH EMITTED DIODE (LED) for
electrical to optical conversion. The receiver uses either a PIN diode or an AVALANCHE
DIODE (APD) for electrical conversion.

10

GROWTH OF OPTICAL FIBER

How Fiber Works:

The main job of optical fibers is to guide light waves with a minimum of attenuation (loss
of signal).Optical fibers are composed of fine threads of glass in layers, called the core
and cladding, which can transmit light at about two-thirds the speed of light in a vacuum.
Though admittedly an oversimplification, the transmission of light in optical fiber is
commonly explained using the principle of I nitsb robnitoraird sIb. With
this phenomenon, 100 percent of light that strikes a surface is reflected.
y contrast, a mirror reflects about 90 percent of the light that strikes it.
Light is either reflected (it bounces back) or refracted (its angle is altered while passing
through a different medium) depending upon the angle of incidence (the angle at which
light strikes the interface between an optically denser and optically thinner material).
Total internal reflection happens when the following conditions are met:
LGC RiG RxSICRGRALP

LSRTIRGRpL RALP LRCGTLSOGpnRcLRAOxxLSLPULRNLTeLLPRTLRIiTOUGpR

density of a given material and a vacuum is the materials refractive index.
2-6

Optical Fibers:
The incident angle is less than the critical angle. The critical angle is the maximum angle
of incidence at which light stops being refracted and is instead totally reflected.
The principle of total internal reflection within a fiber core is illustrated in Figure. The
core has a higher refractive index than the cladding, allowing the beam that strikes that

11

surface at less than the critical angle to be reflected. The second beam does not meet the
critical angle requirement and is refracted.

Principle of Total Internal Reflection

An optical fiber consists of two different types of highly pure, solid glass (silica)the
core nrgc pccladdingN n cndpcsepgce clp-ee-cppspr lc-npgcdopantsc icngtl c
their refractive indices. The difference between the refractive indices of the two materials
causes most of the transmitted light to bounce off the cladding and stay within the core.
The critical angle requirement is met by controlling the angle at which the light is
injected into the fiber. Two or more layers of protective coating around the cladding
ensure that the glass can be handled without damage.

TYPE OF OPTICAL FIBERS

Mu ltimode and Single-Mode Fiber:

There are two general categories of optical fiber in use today, multimode fiber and singlemode fiber.
Multimode, the first type of fiber to be commercialized, has a larger core than singlemode fiber. It gets its name from the fact that numerous gIrim, or light rays, can be
carried simultaneously through the waveguide. Figure shows an example of light
transmitted in the first type of multimode fiber, called muiecoariy. Step-index refers to the
fact that there is a uniform index of refraction throughout the core;
Thus there is a step in the refractive index where the core and cladding interface. Notice
that the two modes must travel different distances to arrive at their destinations. This
disparity between the times that the light rays arrive is called gIrbstromeinmoIa. This
phenomenon results in poor signal quality at the receiving end and ultimately limits the
transmission distance. This is why multimode fiber is not used in wide-area applications.

12

To compensate for the dispersion drawback of step-index multimode fiber, graded-index

fiber was invented. knbrircoariytrefers to the fact that the refractive index of the core is
gradedit gradually decreases from the center of the core

Reflected Light in Step-Index Multimode Fiber

Outward. The higher refraction at the center of the core slows the speed of some light
rays, allowing all the rays to reach their destination at about the same time and reducing
modal dispersion.

Reflected Light in Single-Mode Fiber

The second general type of fiber, single-mode, has a much smaller core that allows only
one mode of light at a time through the core. As a result, the fidelity of the signal is better
retained over longer distances, and modal dispersion is greatly reduced. These factors
attribute to a higher bandwidth capacity than multimode fibers are capable of. For its
large information-carrying capacity and low intrinsic loss, single-mode fibers are
preferred for longer distance and higher bandwidth applications, including DWDM.

13

DWDM SYSTEM FUNCTION

The system performs the following main functions:
vLPLSGTOPMRTLR OMPGpNTLR IDSULsRGR IpOA TGTLRpG LSsRCD TRiSIrOALR
specific,
TGNpLRpOMTReOTOPRGR
narrow bandwidth that carries the digital data, modulated as an analog signal.
KICNOPOPMRTLR

OMPGp N-IALSPRY3Y-R & TLC RLCipI&RCDpTOipLbLS RTIRUICNOPLRTLR

signals. There is some inherent loss associated with multiplexing and demultiplexing.
This loss is dependent upon the number of channels but can be mitigated with optical
amplifiers, which boost all the wavelengths at once without electrical conversion.
cSGP COTTOPMRTLR

OMPGp NTLRLxxLUT RIxRUSI TGpFRGPARIiTOUGpR OMPGpRALMSGAGTOIPRISRpI

R
must be reckoned with in fiber optic transmission. These effects can be minimized by
controlling variables such as channel spacing, wavelength tolerance, and laser power
levels. Over a transmission link,
The signal may need to be optically amplified.
uLiGSGTOPMRTLRSLULOrLAR

OMPGp NGTRTLRSLULOrOPMRLPAsRTLRCDpTOipLbLAR OMPGp RCD

TRNLR
separated out. Although this task would appear to be simply the opposite of combining
the signals, it is actually more technically difficult.
oLULOrOPMRTLR

OMPGp NTLRALCDpTOipLbLAR OMPGpRO RSLULOrLARN&RGRiITIRALTLUTISnREPR

addition to these functions, a DWDM system must also be equipped with client-side
interfaces to receive the input signal. This function is performed by transponders. On the
DWDM side are interfaces to the optical fiber that links DWDM systems.

14

Operation of a Transponder Based DWDM System

Figure shows the end-to-end operation of a unidirectional DWDM system.
Anatomy of a DWDM System

The following steps describe the system shown in Figure:

1. cLRTSGP iIPALSRGUULiT ROPiDTROPRTLRxISCRIxR TGPAGSAR OPMpLCIALRISRCDpTOCIALRpG LSnR
The input can come from different physical media and different protocols and traffic
types.
2. cLReGrLpLPMTRIxRLGUROPiDTR OMPGpRO RCGiiLARTIRGRY3Y-ReGrLpLPMTn
3. Y3Y-ReGrLpLPMT RxSICRTLRTSGP iIPALSRGSLRCDpTOipLbLAROPTIRGR OPMpLRIiTOUGpR OMPGpR
and launched into the fiber. The system might also include the ability to accept direct
optical signals to the multiplexer; such signals could come, for example, from a satellite
node.
4. BRiI TGCipOxOLSRNII T RTLR TSLPMTRIxRTLRIiTOUGpR OMPGpRG ROTRpLGrL RTLR & TLCR
(optional).
5. 2iTOUGpRGCipOxOLS RGSLRD LARGpIPMRTLRxONLSR iGPRG RPLLALARmIiTOIPGpqn
6. BRiSLGCipOxOLSRNII T RTLR OMPGpRNLxISLROTRLPTLS RTLRLPAR & TLCRmIiTOIPGpqn
7. cLROPUICOPMR OMPGpRO RALCDpTOipLbLAROPTIROPAOrOADGpRY3Y-RpGCNAG RmISR
wavelengths).
8. cLROPAOrOADGpRY3Y-RpGCNAG RGSLRCGiiLARTIRTLRSL:DOSLARIDTiDTRT&iLRmxISRLbGCipLsR
OC-48 single-mode fiber) and sent out through the transponder.

Transponder Functions

15

Options for Increasing Carrier Bandwidth

Faced with the challenge of dramatically increasing capacity while constraining costs,
carriers have two options: Install new fiber or increase the effective bandwidth of existing
fiber.
Laying new fiber is the traditional means used by carriers to expand their networks.
Deploying new fiber, however, is a costly proposition. It is estimated at about $70,000
per mile, most of which is the cost of permits and construction rather than the fiber itself.
Laying new fiber may make sense only when it is desirable to expand the embedded base.
Increasing the effective capacity of existing fiber can be accomplished in two ways:
Increase the bit rate of existing systems.
Increase the number of wavelengths on a fiber.

Increase the Bit Rate:

Using TDM, data is now routinely transmitted at 2.5 Gbps (OC-48) and, increasingly, at
10 Gbps(OC-192); recent advances have resulted in speeds of 40 Gbps (OC-768). The
electronic circuitry that makes this possible, however, is complex and costly, both to
purchase and to maintain. In addition, there are significant technical issues that may
restrict the applicability of this approach. Transmission at OC-192 over single-mode
(SM) fiber, for example, is 16 times more affected by chromatic dispersion than the next
lower aggregate speed, OC-48. The greater transmission power required by the higher bit
rates also introduces nonlinear effects that can affect waveform quality. Finally,
polarization mode dispersion, another effect that limits the distance a light pulse can
travel without degradation, is also an issue. These characteristics of light in fiber are
discussed further in the Optical Fibers.

Increase the Number of Wavelengths:

In this approach, many wavelengths are combined onto a single fiber. Using wavelength
division multiplexing (WDM) technology several wavelengths, or light colors, can
simultaneously multiplex signals of 2.5 to 40 Gbps each over a strand of fiber. Without
having to lay new fiber, the effective capacity of existing fiber plant can routinely be
increased by a factor of 16 or 32. Systems with 128 and 160 wavelengths are in operation
today, with higher density on the horizon. The specific limits of this technology are not
yet known.

16

EXCHANGE

I S D N:
ISDN stands for integrated services Digital network was introduced in 1979.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communications standards for
simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over
the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. It was first defined in
1988 in the CCITT red book.
An ISDN is a network, in general evolving from a telephone IDN that provides end to
end digital connectivity to support a wide range of services, to which users have access
by a limited set of standard multipurpose user network interfaces.
Network It is a communication carrying system including medium, switching points
and proper routing. Networks follow certain protocols for transmission.
Digital The communication is digital up to subscribers instrument. But it is also
compatible to analog working instruments, though the transmission is in digital mode.
Services Services to the subscriber like transmission of speech, image and data.
Integrated - All the three services are transmitted simultaneously on a single pair of
wires.
Speech: 64 kbps.
Image 64 kbps (minimum.)
Data 16 kbps
The transmission is possible on the existing copper wire pairs. Even though replacing the
copper wire with fiber is more ideal, the copper cable network, which is already existing
need not be immediately replaced as very high amounts of expenditure is to be incurred
at once which is unnecessary. The existing copper network can be made use upto
5.1 km 0.5 mm gauge copper conductor cable
4.0 km 0.4 mm gauge copper conductor cable

17

ISDN is intended to be a worldwide public telecommunications network to replace the

existing telecommunications networks and deliver a wide variety of services. The ISDN
is defined by the standardization of user interfaces and will be implemented as a set of
digital switches and paths supporting a broad range of traffic types and providing value
added processing services. In, practice there will be multiple networks, implemented
within the national boundaries, but from the users point of view, there will be a single,
uniformly accessible, worldwide network.
ISDN has emerged as a powerful tool for provision of voice, data and image by means of
existing network.
There are two basic types of ISDN service: Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and Primary Rate
Interface (PRI). BRI consists of two 64 kb/s B channels and one 16 kb/s D channel for a
total of 144 kb/s. This basic service is intended to meet the needs of most individual
users.
PRI is intended for users with greater capacity requirements. Typically the channel
structure is 23 B channels plus one 64 kb/s D channel for a total of 1536 kb/s. In Europe,
PRI consists of 30 B channels plus one 64 kb/s D channel for a total of 1984 kb/s. It is
also possible to support multiple PRI lines with one 64 kb/s D channel using Non-Facility
Associated Signaling (NFAS).
H channels provide a way to aggregate B channels. They are implemented as:
H0=384 kb/s (6 B channels)
H10=1472 kb/s (23 B channels)
H11=1536 kb/s (24 B channels)
H12=1920 kb/s (30 B channels) - International (E1) only
To access BRI service, it is necessary to subscribe to an ISDN phone line. Customer must
be within 18000 feet (about 3.4 miles or 5.5 km) of the telephone company central office
for BRI service; beyond that, expensive repeater devices are required, or ISDN service
may not be available at all. Customers will also need special equipment to communicate
with the phone company switch and with other ISDN devices. These devices include
ISDN Terminal Adapters (sometimes called, incorrectly, "ISDN Modems") and ISDN
Routers.

18

The early phone network consisted of a pure analog system that connected telephone
users directly by a mechanical interconnection of wires. This system was very inefficient,
was very prone to breakdown and noise, and did not lend itself easily to long-distance
connections. Beginning in the 1960s, the telephone system gradually began converting its
internal connections to a packet-based, digital switching system. Today, nearly all voice
switching in the U.S. is digital within the telephone network. Still, the final connection
from the local central office to the customer equipment was, and still largely is, an analog
Plain-Old Telephone Service (POTS) line.
Most recently, ISDN service has largely been displaced by broadband internet service,
such as xDSL and Cable Modem service. These services are faster, less expensive, and
easier to set up and maintain than ISDN. Still, ISDN has its place, as backup to dedicated
lines, and in locations where broadband service is not yet available

Speed:
The modem was a big breakthrough in computer communications. It allowed computers
to communicate by converting their digital information into an analog signal to travel
through the public phone network. There is an upper limit to the amount of information
that an analog telephone line can hold. Currently, it is about 56 kb/s bidirectional.
Commonly available modems have a maximum speed of 56 kb/s, but are limited by the
quality of the analog connection and routinely go about 45-50 kb/s. Some phone lines do
not support 56 kb/s connections at all.

Mu ltiple Devices:
Previously, it was necessary to have a separate phone line for each device you wished to
use simultaneously. For example, one line each was required for a telephone, fax,
computer, bridge/router, and live video conference system. Transferring a file to someone
while talking on the phone or seeing their live picture on a video screen would require
several potentially expensive phone lines. ISDN allows multiple devices to share a single
line. It is possible to combine many different digital data sources and have the
information routed to the proper destination. Since the line is digital, it is easier to keep
the noise and interference out while combining these signals. ISDN technically refers to a

19

specific set of digital services provided through a single, standard interface. Without
ISDN, distinct interfaces are required instead.

Signaling:
Instead of the phone company sending a ring voltage signal to ring the bell in your phone
("In-Band signal"), it sends a digital packet on a separate channel ("Out-of-Band signal").
The Out-of-Band signal does not disturb established connections, no bandwidth is taken
from the data channels, and call setup time is very fast. For example, a V.90 or V.92
modem typically takes 30-60 seconds to establish a connection; an ISDN call setup
usually takes less than 2 seconds. The signaling also indicates who is calling, what type
of call it is (data/voice), and what number was dialed. Available ISDN phone equipment
is then capable of making intelligent decisions on how to direct the call.

ADVANTAGES OF ISDN

High speed and high quality communication

Reliability and security.

etter use of existing facility

International standardization

Simplified wiring

Efficiency of network usage

Standard data transport rate

20

SDH SYSTEM

SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) is a standard for telecommunications transport

formulated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), previously called the
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT). SDH was first
introduced into the telecommunications network in 1992 and has been deployed at rapid
rates since then. Its deployed at all levels of the network infrastructure, including the
access network and the long-distance trunk network. Its based on overlaying a
synchronous multiplexed signal onto a light stream transmitted over fiber-optic cable.
SDH is also defined for use on radio relay links, satellite links, and at electrical interfaces
between equipment. The comprehensive SDH standard is expected to provide the
transport infrastructure for worldwide telecommunications for at least the next two or
three decades. The increased configuration flexibility and bandwidth availability of SDH
provides significant advantages over the older telecommunications system. These
advantages include:
A reduction in the amount of equipment and an increase in network reliability.
The provision of overhead and payload bytes the overhead bytes permitting
management of the payload bytes on an individual basis and facilitating centralized fault
section.
The definition of a synchronous multiplexing format for carrying lower-level digital
signals (such as 2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s, 140 Mbit/s) which greatly simplifies the interface to
digital switches, digital cross-connects, and add/drop multiplexers.
The availability of a set of generic standards, which enable multi-vendor
interoperability.
The definition of a flexible architecture capable of accommodating future applications,
with a variety of transmission rates. In brief, SDH defines synchronous transport modules
(STMs) for the fiber-optic based transmission hierarchy.

Synchronization Hierarchy:
Digital switches and digital cross-connect systems are commonly employed in the digital
network synchronization hierarchy. The network is organized with a master-slave
relationship with clocks of the higher-level nodes feeding timing signals to clocks of the
lower-level nodes. All nodes can be traced up to a Primary Reference Clock (PRC).

Synchronizing SDH:
The internal clock of an SDH terminal may derive its timing signal from a
Synchronization Supply Unit (SSU) used by switching systems and other equipment.
Thus, this terminal can serve as a master for other SDH nodes, providing timing on its
outgoing STM-N signal. Other SDH nodes will operate in a slave mode with their
internal clocks timed by the incoming STM-N signal. Present standards specify that an
SDH network must ultimately be able to derive its timing from a PRC.
21

SDH FRAME STRUCTURE:

The STM-1 frame is the basic transmission format for SDH. The frame lasts for 125
microseconds; therefore, there are 8000 frames per second. The STM-1 frame consists of
overhead plus a virtual container capacity (see Figure 2). The first nine columns of each
frame make up The Section Overhead, and the last 261 columns make up the Virtual
Container (VC) capacity. The VC plus the pointers (H1, H2, and H3 bytes) is called the
AU (Administrative Unit). Carried within the VC capacity, which has its own frame
structure of nine rows and 261 columns, is the Path Overhead and the Container (see
Figure). The first column is for Path Overhead; its followed by the payload container,
which can itself carry other containers.
Virtual Containers can have any phase alignment within the Administrative Unit, and this
alignment is indicated by the Pointer in row four, as described later in the Pointers
section. Within the Section Overhead, the first three rows are used for the Regenerator
Section Overhead, and the last five rows are used for the Multiplex Section Overhead.
The STM frame is transmitted in a byte-serial fashion, row by- row, and is scrambled
immediately prior to transmission to ensure adequate clock timing content for
downstream regenerators.

Virtual Container:
SDH supports a concept called virtual containers (VC). Through the use of pointers and
offset values, VCs can be carried in the SDH Payload as independent data packages. VCs
are used to transport lower-speed tributary signals. Figure illustrates the location of a VC4 within the STM-1 frame. Note that it can start (indicated by the J1 path overhead byte)
at any point within the STM-1 frame. The start location of the J1 byte is indicated by the
pointer byte values. Virtual containers can also be concatenated to provide more capacity
in a flexible fashion. Table lists the names and some of the parameters of the virtual
containers.s
VIRTUAL CONTAINER (VC)

22

STM-1 FRAME STRUCTURE

Virtual container structure showing VC-4

SDH Network Configurations:

Point-to-Point:-

The simplest network configuration involves two terminal multiplexers linked by

fibre with or without a regenerator in the link (sees Figure). In this configuration, the

23

SDH path and the Service path (for example, E1 or E3 links end to-end) are identical and
this synchronous island can exist within an asynchronous network world. In the future,
point-to-point service path connections will span across the whole network and will
always originate and terminate in a multiplexer.

Point-to-Multipoint:-

A point-to-multipoint (linear add/drop) architecture includes adding and dropping circuits

along the way (see Figure). The SDH ADM (add/drop multiplexer) is a unique network
element specifically designed for this task. It avoids the current cumbersome network
architecture of demultiplexing, cross-connecting, adding and dropping channels, and then
re-multiplexing. The ADM typically is placed in an SDH link to facilitate adding and
dropping tributary channel sat intermediate points in the network.

Mesh Architecture:-

The meshed network architecture accommodates unexpected growth and change more
easily than simple point-to-point networks. A cross-connects function concentrates traffic
at a central site and allows easy re-provisioning of the circuits (see Figure). There are two
possible implementations of this type of network function:
1. Cross-connection at higher-order path levels, for example, using AU-4 granularity in
the switching matrix.
2. Cross-connection at lower order path levels, for example, using TU-12 granularity in
the switching matrix.
24

Ring Architecture:-

The SDH building block for ring architecture is the ADM (see Figure). Multiple ADMs
can be put into a ring configuration for either Bidirectional or Uni-directional traffic. The
main advantage of the ring topology is its survivability; if a fiber cable is cut, for
example, the multiplexers have the local intelligence to send the services affected via an
alternate path through the ring without a lengthy interruption.
The demand for survivable services, diverse routing of fiber facilities, flexibility to
rearrange services to alternate serving nodes, as well as automatic restoration within
seconds, have made rings a popular SDH topology.

25

Benefits of SDH Conclusions

A transport network using SDH provides much more powerful networking capabilities
than existing asynchronous systems. The key benefits provided by SDH are the
following.

Pointers, MUX/DEMUX:-

As a result of SDH transmission, the network clocks are referenced to a highly stable
reference point; so the need to align the data streams using non-deterministic bit-stuffing
is unnecessary. Therefore, a lower rate channel such as E1 is directly accessible, and
intermediate demultiplexing is not needed to access the bit streams.
For those situations in which synchronisation reference frequency and phase may vary,
SDH uses pointers to allow the streams to float within the payload. Pointers are the key
to synchronous timing; they allow a very flexible allocation and alignment of the payload
within the transmission frame.

Reduced Back-to-Back Multiplexing:-

In the asynchronous PDH systems, care must be taken when routing circuits in order to
avoid multiplexing and demultiplexing too many times since electronics (and their
associated capital cost) are required every time an E1 signal is processed. With SDH, E1s
can be multiplexed directly to the STM-N rate. Because of synchronisation, an entire
optical signal doesnt have to be demultiplexed only the individual VC or STM signals
that need to be accessed.

Optical Interconnect:-

A major SDH benefit is that it allows mid-span meet with multi-vendor compatibility.
Todays SDH standards contain definitions for fibre-to-fibre interfaces at the physical
level. They determine the optical line rate, wavelength, power levels, pulse shapes, and
coding. The current standards also fully define the frame structure, overhead, and payload
mappings.
Enhancements are being developed to define the messages in the overhead channels to
provide increased OAM functionality.SDH allows optical interconnection between
network providers regardless of who makes the equipment. The network provider can
purchase one vendors equipment and conveniently interface with other vendors SDH
equipment at either operator locations or customer premises. Users may now obtain the
STM-N equipment of their choice and meet with their network provider of choice at that
STM-N level.

26

Mu lti-point Configurations:-

Most existing asynchronous transmission systems are only economic for point-to-point
applications, whereas SDH can efficiently support a multi-point or cross-connected
configuration.
The cross-connect allows many nodes or sites to communicate as a single network
instead of as separate systems. Cross-connecting reduces requirements for back-to-back
multiplexing and demultiplexing, and helps realize the benefits of traffic grooming.
Network providers no longer need to own and maintain customer-located equipment. A
multi-point implementation permits STM-N interconnects and mid-span meets, allowing
network providers and their customers to optimize their shared use of the SDH
infrastructure.

Grooming:-

Grooming refers to either consolidating or segregating traffic to make more efficient use
of the network facilities. Consolidation means combining traffic from different locations
onto one facility, while segregation is the separation of traffic.
Grooming eliminates inefficient techniques such as back-hauling. Its possible to groom
traffic on asynchronous systems, however to do so requires expensive back-to-back
configurations and manual or electronic cross-connects. By contrast, an SDH system can
segregate traffic at either an STM-1 or VC level to send it to the appropriate nodes.
Grooming can also provide segregation of services. For example, at an interconnect
point, an incoming SDH line may contain different types of traffic, such as switched
voice, leased circuits for data, or video. An SDH network can conveniently segregate the
switched and non-switched traffic.

Enhanced OAM:-

SDH allows integrated network OAM, in accordance with the philosophy of single-ended
maintenance. In other words, one connection can reach all network elements within a
given architecture; separate links are not required for each network element. Remote
provisioning provides centralized maintenance and reduced travel for maintenance
personnel which translate to expense savings.

27

UTS AND PRS

In 1982, Government set up Freight Operations information Systems (FOIS) for freight
operations computerization on Indian Railways, later in 1986, Ministry of Railways
established mIbt Iski s doeHdDsobki gdtoibsrDrtIgr (CRIS) an
umbrella for all computer activities on Indian Railways (IR). They also entrusted it with
the task of design, development and implementation of the FOIS, along with its
associated communications infrastructure. The Centre started functioning from July,
1987. It is an autonomous organization headed by Managing Director. CRIS is mainly a
project oriented organization engaged in development of major computer systems on the
Railways. CRIS has acquired special knowledge and expertise in the field of informatics.
With such a rich practical experience, a dedicated team of professionals and its own R&D
effort. At present Indian Railways is one of the most advanced ministries in India, with
an innovative and extensive IT environment.

TERMINALS
SNL Line
G 703

switch

V.35

LTS
J panel
(Inbuilt)

Patch
card
(RJ47)

RCIL
OFC

ROUTER
G 703

V.35

SWITCH

SERVER

PRS (LOCAL TERMINAL SERVER)

28

Passenger Reservation System (PRS) & UTS:

A countrywide online passenger reservation and ticketing system developed and
maintained by CRIS, is a complex online distributed client server application developed
in C and Fortran programming languages on Digital OpenVMS operating system using
RTR (Reliable Transaction Router) as middleware. CONCERT (Country-wide Network
of Computerized Enhanced Reservation & Ticketing) interconnects the five regional
computing systems at New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Secunderabad into a
National PRS grid. It allows a passenger from any location to book train tickets from any
station to any station. It handles reservations, modifications, and cancellations / refunds.
It performs reservation for over 995,000 seats and berths (peak rush as high as 1,017,000)
daily. It has complex rules, validations and fare computation techniques interwoven in the
application.
The computerization of the c.vw,wvGwNstpT&wPp.Jsr3,Pw( (UTS) of Indian Railways.
Unreserved ticketing constitutes a major component of the Indian Railways overall
ticketing volume and is an important source of revenue. UTS delivers fast and efficient
unreserved ticketing from dedicated counters replacing manual Printed Card Tickets/
EFTs/ BPTs with centralized online sales accounting. The solution architecture lends
itself to easy integration with handheld terminals, smart cards, automatic vending
machines, etc.
Main server of PRS is situated in Delhi. There are two channels (lines) connecting server
and hub: RCIL & BSNL (lease line). Cable used to connect the equipment is serial cable/
smart cable. We distribute the line through CAT-5 cable. There is one router, which
selects the shortest available path for data transmission. The switch is used to increase the
number of connections and these connections are given by JET Panel.

29

CONTROL
VOICE FREQUENCY COMMUNICATION SYSTEM FOR
UNDERGROUND 4/6 QUAD CABLE:
The voice frequency system is used for underground PET 4/6 Quad cable of 0.9mm
diameter, having characteristic impedance of 470 , for telecommunication between way
side stations and control office/test room. The PET Quad need not be loaded to
compensate uneven attenuation characteristics over the voice band. There shall be no
need for balancing also. Every, way side station is provided with V.F communication
system having equalized amplifiers. The complete system works on 12 V DC. All
components used are of reputed makes and the connections/Terminals used are of
international standards to achieve best reliability and long life.

Test Room Monitor:

Remote monitor having a control panel with LED displays and LEDs used for internal
and remote maintenance operation as well as calling any station or subscriber on the
Control station. It has a hand micro phone the monitoring is done on the control desk and
also inside the test room rack.
It can execute the following functions:
The command called station code appears in the LED display. The response from the
remote sensor for the called way side station also displayed identifying its own code. On
failure of AC fuse Remote sensor automatically send fuse fail signal to the test Room
Remote Monitor. Suitable password codes are provided to prevent unauthorized
initiation.
Remote monitoring facility is provided for remote monitoring and fault localization from
the test room. Remote monitoring facility for Emergency Control and section control
circuits are separately provided whereas for the remaining two control circuit it is
combined.
The test room control equipment has 4 numbers of seven segment LED display unit and
segment LED display unit & 16 numbers LED on the front panel. It is possible to carry
out following functions using remote monitoring facility from test room and executes the
following operations on receipt of valid DTMF commands.

REMOTE SENSING MODULE:

30

The sensing circuit is wired in between the integrated protection module and the
equalizer amplifier input. This sensing circuit consists mainly of 12 V DC to changeover
DIP relays, a micro controller and a DTMF encoder/decoder. The command received
from the remote monitor of the test room is accepted by the DTMF decoder and the micro
controller executes the function and sends the response in the form of DTMF codes to the
remote monitor. The connection to this circuit is made through the Mother Board for easy
wiring.

31

ABBREVIATIONS

ADM
AGGR
AUX
CID
ECC
EMC
ETSI

ITU
LAPS
LCAS
LED
MAC
MDI
MDIX
MTBF
MLM
MPLS

Add/Drop Multiplexer
Aggregate
Auxiliary Alarm
Consecutive Identical Digit
Embedded Communications Channel
Electromagnetic Compatibility
European Telecommunications Standards
Institute
Generic Framing Procedure
Identification
International Electro technical
Commission
The Internet Engineering Task Force
Community
Input/Output
Internet Protocol
Telecommunication Standardization
Sector
International Telecommunication Union
Link Access Procedure - SDH
Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme
Light Emitting Diode
Media Access Control
Media Dependent Interface
MDI cross-over
Mean Time between Failures
Multi Longitudinal Mode Laser
Multi-Protocol Label Switching

NA
PDH
PIN
PPP
PRC
RFC
S4
S12
SDH

Not Applicable
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
P-doped, Intrinsic, N-doped
Point-to-Point Protocol
Primary Reference Clock
Request for Comments
VC-4 path layer
VC-12 path layer
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

GFP
ID
IEC
IETF
I/O
IP
ITU

32

SEC
SFP
SIR
SLM
SNC/I
SNMP
STM
SW
T0
T1
T2
T3
TCP
TDEV
TM
TRIB
UDP
VC-4
VC-12

Synchronous Equipment Clock

Small Form Pluggable
Signal / Interference Ratio
Single Longitudinal Mode Laser
Inherently monitored Sub-Network
Connection protection
Simple Network Management Protocol
Synchronous Transport Module
Software
Outgoing SDH timing reference point
Incoming SDH timing reference point
Incoming PDH timing reference point
External 2.048 MHz reference timing
source
Transmission Control Protocol
Time Deviation
Terminal Multiplexer
Tributary
User Datagram Protocol
Virtual Container of 4'th order
Virtual Container of 1st order

33

CONCLUSION

Indian Railways is the largest rail network in Asia and the worlds second largest under
one management.
This Signal and telecommunication is the most important field in Railway. It deals with
the Control, Exchange, Unreserved ticketing system and Passenger reservation system
etc.
The control of the train is controlled by the control room. They use various techniques
and softwares to deal with it. A new technology is introduced in Railway is VSAT that is
very small aperture terminal by which any person in control room can deal with the
accidental remote area. Earlier it takes hours to reach to the accidental areas.
Earlier we use Omni bus communication which was full of losses and coaxial cobles. The
overhead lines were used. Now we use quad cables, which have better efficiency and less
loss. In some parts we also use Optical fiber cable.
In exchange, railway provides its own telephone network in its offices. It has its own
broadband internet facility, which they provide in their offices.

34

REFERENCES

www.en.wikipedia.org

www.en.wikipedia.org

www.indianrailways.gov.in/indianrailways/indexhome.jsp

Railway Manual for ISDN.

Indian Railway Chapter V for train traffic control.

35