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Marxisttheoryofthestate(October1969)

Marxisttheoryofthestate(October
1969)
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WithanintroductionbyGeorgeNovack.Downloadedwiththanksfromthe
MandelArchiveatwww.angelfire.com/pr/red/mandel/MarkedupbyEinde
OCallaghanfortheMarxistsInternetArchive.

Foreword
Everybranchofknowledgehasacentralconcept
thatexpressesthefundamentalfeatureor
functionofthesectorofrealityitinvestigateand
dealswith.Thepivotalcategoryofpolitical
scienceisthestate.
Thepoliticalthoughtofthevarioussocialclasses
andgroupingsthroughoutcivilizationisaboveall
characterizedbytheirattitudetowardthestate
andtheirdefinitionofitsessentialnature.Thus
theancientGreekaristocratAristotleconceived
ofthestateor,moreprecisely,thecitystateof
histimeasanassociationforthegoodlife,
basedonthefamilyandvillageexcludedfrom
therightsandbenefitsofcitizenship,however,
werelabourersandartisans,women,foreigners,
andslaves.
ThebourgeoisphilosopherHegel,likehisidealistprecursorPlato,assertedthat
thenationstatewasaproductoftheObjectiveMind,bestgovernedbya
constitutionalmonarchy.
MiddleclassliberalsnowadaysandthereformistsocialistsandStalinistswho
trailintheirwakeandmimictheirideasbelieveintheexistenceofastate
thatstandsasanimpartialarbiterabovetheselfishcontentionofclassesand
dealsjustlywiththerespectiveclaimsofdiverseinterestgroups.Thisexalted
notionofaclasslessstatepresidingoverapuredemocracy,basedonthe
consentofthepeople,ratherthanengagedinthedefenceoftheproperty,
rightsoftherulingclass,isthecoreofbourgeoisdemocraticideology.
Historicalmaterialismtakesamorerealisticviewofthenatureofthestate.
Thestateistheproductofirreconcilableclassconflictwithinthesocial
structure,whichitseekstoregulateonbehalfoftherulingclass.Everystateis
theorganofagivensystemofproductionbaseduponapredominantformof
propertyownership,whichinveststhatstatewithaspecificclassbiasand
content.Everystateistheorganizedpoliticalexpression,theinstrument,ofthe
decisiveclassintheeconomy.
Theprincipalfactorindeterminingthecharacterofthestateisnotits
prevailingformofrule,whichcanvarygreatlyfromtimetotime,butthetype
ofpropertyandproductiverelationsthatitsinstitutionsandprimebeneficiaries
protectandpromote.

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Inantiquity,monarchical,tyrannical,oligarchical,anddemocraticformsofthe
stateroseupontheslavemodeofproduction.Themedievalfeudalstatein
WesternEuropepassedthroughimperialmonarchical,clerical,absolute
monarchical,plutocratic,andrepublicanregimes.
Inthecourseofitsevolution,bourgeoissociety,rootedinthecapitalist
ownershipofthemeansofproduction,hasbeenheadedandgovernedby
variouskindsofmonarchicalsovereignties(fromtheabsolutetothe
constitutional),republicanandparliamentaryregimes,andmilitaryandfascist
dictatorships.
Thetwelveworkersstatesinthepostcapitalistsocieties,whichhavearisen
fromthesocialistrevolutionsinthehalfcenturysincethefoundingofthe
Sovietrepublic,havealreadyexhibitedtwopolartypesofrule.Oneismoreor
lessdemocraticincharacter,expressingthepower,andguardingthewelfare,
oftheworkersandpeasants.Theotherisdespoticandbonapartist,benton
defendingtheprivilegedpositionsofacommandingcasteofbureaucratswho
havesucceededinusurpingthedecisionmakingpowersfromthemasses.
Atthedawnofthebourgeoisera,longbeforeMarx,Engels,andLenin,that
astutepoliticalscientistMachiavellihadexpoundedtheviewthatthestatewas
thesupreme,organized,andlegitimateexpressionofforce.Machiavellis
theory,wrotetheGermanhistorianMeineke,wasaswordwhichwasplunged
intotheflankofthebodypoliticofwesternhumanity,causingittoshriekand
rearup.
Similarly,theteachingoftheMarxists,elaboratedbyLeninandtheBolsheviks,
thatthestatewasbasedupontheprincipleofforce,hascausedthewholeof
bourgeoissocietytoshriekandrearupatitsallegedcynicismand
inhumanity.However,itwouldseemthatthecolossalarsenalsusedintwo
worldwarsandthepreparationsforathird,thedestructivenessoftheUS
militarymachineinVietnam,aswellasthebarbarousreprisalstakenbythe
bourgeoisclassesfromtheGermanyof1933totheIndonesiaof1965
againsttheirowncitizens,shouldhaveamplyvalidatedthatpropositionbynow.
MarxismaddedadeeperdimensiontoMachiavellisobservationbyexposing
andexplainingtheorganicbondbetweentheexistenceandexerciseofstate
forceandthepropertysystemthatconstitutedthefabricofthesocioeconomic
structure.Thecoercionexercisedbythestatewastheultimateresortfor
maintainingthematerialinterestsofthestrongestsectionoftheexploiters.
Itshouldnottakemuchperspicacitytoseethattheindustrialistsandbankers,
whoownandoperatemostoftheresourcesoftheUnitedStatesandcontrol
themajorpoliticalparties,likewisedirecttheemploymentofthemilitary
machineandotherrepressiveagenciesofthefederalgovernmentTheuseof
police,stateguards,andfederaltroopstoputdowntheghettouprisings
testifiestotheopenlyrepressivefunctionofthecapitaliststateapparatus.Yet
liberalAmericansfinditdifficulttogeneralizefromthesequiteflagrantfacts
andthustoacceptthesociologicaldefinitionofstatepowerofferedby
Marxism.
Theyareblindedorbaffledbythreemisconceptions:(1)thatthereareno
clearlydefinedclassformationsinAmericansociety(2)thatthereareno
seriousorirreconcilableconflictsbetweenclassesand(3)thatthegovernment
isnottheexecutivecommitteeadministeringthegeneralaffairsand
furtheringtheaimsofthecapitalistexploiters,butthatitisorcanbemade
intothesupremeagencyfortakingcareofthewelfareofthewholepeople,
ratherthanservingtheinterestsoftheminorityrich.
TheanalysisoftheevolutionandessenceofstatepowergivenbyErnest
Mandelinthesepagesshoulddomuchtodisposeofsuchfalseviews.Heis
editorinchiefoftheBelgianweeklyLaGaucheandprobablythemost
influentialandauthoritativeexponentofthepoliticaleconomyofsocialismin
theWesttoday.HehastakentheleadinbringingtheMarxistteachingsinthis
fielduptodatethroughhismasterfultwovolumeworkentitledMarxist
EconomicTheory.Thisbook,nowavailableinEnglish,hasgonethroughthree
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editionsinFrancesinceitwasfirstpublishedin1962andhasbeentranslated
intomanylanguages,fromGermantoArabic.
Mandelhascontributedmanyarticlesonabroadrangeofsubjectsto
periodicalsthroughouttheworldandhasspokenatleadinguniversitiesinthe
UnitedStatesandCanada.
OnthehundredthanniversaryofthepublicationofDasKapital,MandelsThe
FormationoftheEconomicThoughtofKarlMarx:18431863wasbrought
outbytheFrenchpublishinghouseofMaspero.Hisvolumeanalysingthe
CommonMarketandthepenetrationofAmericancapitalintoWesternEurope,
writteninanswertoJ.J.ServanSchreibersTheAmericanChallenge,was
recentlyabestsellerinGermany.ItwillsoonbeissuedinEnglishtranslation.
MandelspamphletAnIntroductiontoMarxistEconomicTheoryisnowinits
fourthEnglishprintingandiswidelyusedbyteachersandstudentsincourses
throughoutthecountry.ThepresentpamphletontheMarxisttheoryofthestate
servesasavaluablecomplementtothatpopularexpositionofthedynamicsof
thecapitalistsystem.
GeorgeNovack
October1,1969

I.OriginandDevelopmentoftheStateintheHistory
ofSocieties
A.Primitivesocietyandtheoriginsofthestate
Thestatedidnotalwaysexist.
Certainsociologistsandotherrepresentativesofacademicpoliticalscienceare
inerrorwhentheyspeakofthestateinprimitivesocieties.Whattheyare
reallydoingisidentifyingthestatewiththecommunity.Insodoing,theystrip
thestateofitsspecialcharacteristic,i.e.,theexerciseofcertainfunctionsis
removedfromthecommunityasawholetobecometheexclusiveprerogative
ofatinyfractionofthemembersofthiscommunity.
Inotherwords,theemergenceofthestateisaproductofthesocialdivisionof
labour.
Solongasthissocialdivisionoflabourisonlyrudimentary,allmembersofthe
societyinturnexercisepracticallyallitsfunctions.Thereisnostate.Thereare
nospecialstatefunctions.
InconnectionwiththeBushmen,FatherVictorEllenbergerwritesthatthistribe
knewneitherprivatepropertynorcourts,neithercentralauthoritynorspecial
bodiesofanykind.(LafintragiquedesBushmen,pp.7073[Paris:Amiot
Dumont,1953])Anotherauthorwritesofthissametribe:Theband,andnot
thetribe,istherealpoliticalbodyamongtheBushmen.Eachbandis
autonomous,leadingitsownlifeindependentlyoftheothers.Itsaffairsareas
aruleregulatedbytheskilledhuntersandtheolder,moreexperiencedmenin
general.(I.Shapera,TheKhoisanPeoplesofSouthAfrica,p.76[London:
GeorgeRoutledgeandSonsLtd.,1930])
ThesameholdstrueforthepeoplesofEgyptandMesopotamiainremote
antiquity:Thetimeisnomoreripeforthepatriarchalfamilywithpaternal
authoritythanitisforareallycentralizedpoliticalgrouping...Activeand
passiveobligationsarecollectiveintheregimeofthetotemicclan.Powerand
responsibilityinthissocietystillhaveanindivisiblecharacter.Weareherein
thepresenceofacommunalandegalitariansociety,withinwhichparticipation
inthesametotem,theveryessenceofeachindividualandthebasisforthe
cohesionofall,placesallmembersoftheclanonanequalfooting.(A.Moret
andG.Davy,DesClansauxEmpires,p.17[Paris:LaRenaissanceduLivre,
1923])

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Buttotheextentthatsocialdivisionoflabourdevelopsandsocietyisdivided
intoclasses,theStateappearsanditsnatureisdefined:Themembersofthe
collectivityasawholearedeniedtheexerciseofacertainnumberoffunctions
asmallminority,alone,takesovertheexerciseofthesefunctions.
Twoexampleswillillustratethisdevelopment,whichconsistsintakingaway
fromamajorityofthemembersofthesocietycertainfunctionstheyformerly
exercised(collectivelyinthebeginning)inordertoarrogatethesefunctionsto
asmallgroupofindividuals.
Firstexample:Arms.
Thisisanimportantfunction.Engelssaidthatthestateis,inthefinalanalysis,
nothingotherthanabodyofarmedmen.
Intheprimitivecollectivity,allmalemembersofthegroup(andsometimes
evenalladults,maleandfemale)arearmed.
Insuchasocietytheconceptthatthebearingofarmsistheparticular
prerogativeofsomespecialinstitutioncalledarmy,police,orconstabulary,
doesnotexist.Everyadultmalehastherighttobeararms.(Incertain
primitivesocieties,theceremonyofinitiation,whichmarkscomingofage,
conferstherighttobeararms.)
Itisexactlythesameinsocietiesthatarestillprimitivebutalreadycloseto
thestageofdivisionintoclasses.Forexample,thisholdstruefortheGermanic
peoplesataboutthetimetheyattackedtheRomanEmpire:allfreemenhad
therighttobeararmsandtheycouldusethemtodefendtheirpersonandtheir
rights.Theequalityofrightsamongfreementhatweseeinprimitive
Germanicsocietiesisinfactequalityamongsoldierswhichtheanecdoteof
theSoissonsvase[1]illustratessowell.
InancientGreeceandRome,thestrugglesbetweenpatriciansandplebeians
oftenrevolvedaboutthisquestionoftherighttobeararms.
Secondexample:Justice.
Ingeneral,writingisunknowntoprimitivesociety.Thustherearenowritten
codesoflaw.Moreover,theexerciseofjusticeisnottheprerogativeof
particularindividualsthisrightbelongstothecollectivity.Apartfromquarrels
decidedbyfamiliesorindividualsthemselves,onlycollectiveassembliesare
empoweredtorenderjudgments.InprimitiveGermanicsociety,thepresident
ofthepeoplestribunaldidnotpassjudgment:hisfunctionconsistedinseeing
thatcertainrules,certainforms,wereobserved.
Theideathattherecouldbecertainmendetachedfromthecollectivityto
whomwouldbereservedtherightofdispensingjustice,wouldseemtocitizens
ofasocietybasedonthecollectivismoftheclanorthetribejustas
nonsensicalasthereverseappearstomostofourcontemporaries.
Tosumup:Atacertainpointinthedevelopmentofsociety,beforeitisdivided
intosocialclasses,certainfunctionssuchastherighttobeararmsorto
administerjusticeareexercisedcollectivelybyalladultmembersofthe
community.Itisonlyasthissocietydevelopsfurther,tothepointwheresocial
classesappear,thatthesefunctionsaretakenawayfromthecollectivitytobe
reservedtoaminoritywhoexercisethesefunctionsinaspecialway.
Whatarethecharacteristicsofthisspecialway?
LetusexamineourWesternsocietyattheperiodwhenthefeudalsystem
beginstobethedominantone.
Theindependence(notformal,notjuridical,butveryrealandalmosttotal)of
thegreatfeudalestatescanbeshownbythefactthatthefeudallord,andonly
he,exercisesthroughouthisdomainallthefunctionsenumeratedabove,
functionsthathaddevolvedontheadultcollectivityinprimitivesocieties.
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Thisfeudallordistheabsolutemasterofhisrealm.Heistheonlyonewhohas
therighttobeararmsatalltimesheistheonlypoliceman,theonly
constableheisthesolejudgeheistheonlyonewhohastherighttocoin
moneyheisthesoleministeroffinance.Heexercisesthroughouthisdomain
alltheclassicfunctionsperformedbyastateasweknowittoday.
Later,anevolutionwilltakeplace.Aslongastheestateremainsfairlysmall,
itspopulationlimited,thestatefunctionsofthelordrudimentaryandnotvery
complicated,andaslongasexercisingthesefunctionstakesonlyalittleofthe
lordstime,heanhandlethesituationandexerciseallthesefunctionsin
person.
Butwhenthedomaingrowsandthepopulationincreases,thefunctionsfor
whichthefeudallordisresponsiblebecomemoreandmorecomplexandmore
andmoredetailedandburdensome.Itbecomesimpossibleforonemanto
exerciseallthesefunctions.
Whatdoesthefeudallordthendo?
Hepartiallydelegateshispowerstoothersbutnottofreemen,sincethe
latterbelongtoasocialclassinoppositiontotheseignorialclass.
Thefeudallorddelegatespartofhispowertopeoplecompletelyunderhis
control:serfswhoarepartofhisdomesticstaff.Theirservileoriginisreflected
inmanypresentdaytitles:constablecomesfromcomesstabuli,headserfof
thestablesministeristheserfministrable,i.e.,theserfassignedbythelord
toministertohisneedstoactashisattendant,servant,assistant,agentetc.
marshalistheserfwhotakescareofthecarriages,thehorses,etc.(from
marahscalc,OldHighGermanforkeeperofthehorses).
Totheextentthatthesepeople,thesenonfreemen,thesedomestics,are
completelyunderhiscontrol,doestheseigneurpartiallydelegatehispowersto
them.
Thisexampleleadsustothefollowingconclusionwhichistheveryfoundation
oftheMarxisttheoryofthestate:
Thestateisaspecialorganthatappearsatacertainmomentinthehistorical
evolutionofmankindandthatiscondemnedtodisappearinthecourseofthis
sameevolution.Itisbornfromthedivisionofsocietyintoclassesandwill
disappearatthesametimethatthisdivisiondisappears.Itisbornasan
instrumentinthehandsofthepossessingclassforthepurposeofmaintaining
thedominationofthisclassoversociety,anditwilldisappearalongwiththis
classdomination.
Comingbacktofeudalsociety,itshouldbenotedthatstatefunctionsexercised
bytherulingclassdonotonlyconcernthemostimmediateareasofpower,
suchasthearmy,justice,finances.Alsoundertheseigneursthumbare
ideology,law,philosophy,science,art.Thosewhoexercisethesefunctionsare
poorpeoplewho,inordertolive,havetoselltheirtalentstoafeudallordwho
cantakecareoftheirneeds.(Headsofthechurchhavetobeincludedinthe
classoffeudallords,inasmuchasthechurchwastheproprietorofvastlanded
estates.)Undersuchconditions,atleastaslongasdependenceistotal,the
developmentofideologyiscontrolledentirelybytherulingclass:italone
ordersideologicalproductionitaloneiscapableofsubsidisingthe
ideologues.
Thesearethebasicrelationshipsthatwehavetokeepconstantlyinmind,ifwe
dontwanttogetlostinatangleofcomplicationsandfinedistinctions.
Needlesstosay,inthecourseoftheevolutionofsociety,thefunctionofthe
statebecomesmuchmorecomplex,withmanymorenuances,thanitisina
feudalregimesuchaswehavejustveryschematicallydescribed.
Nevertheless,wemuststartfromthistransparentlyclearandobvioussituation
inordertounderstandthelogicoftheevolution,theoriginofthissocial
divisionoflabourthatisbroughtabout,andtheprocessthroughwhichthese
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differentfunctionsbecomemoreandmoreautonomousandbegintoseem
moreandmoreindependentoftherulingclass.

B.Themodernbourgeoisstate
Bourgeoisoriginofthemodernstate
Here,too,thesituationisfairlyclear.Modernparliamentarismfindsitsoriginin
thebattlecrythattheEnglishbourgeoisiehurledattheking,Notaxation
withoutrepresentation!Inplainwordsthismeans:Notacentwillyouget
fromusaslongaswehavenosayinhowyouspendit.
Wecanimmediatelyseethatthisisnotmuchmoresubtlethantherelationship
betweenthefeudallordandtheserfassignedtothestables.AndaStuartking,
CharlesI,diedonthescaffoldfornothavingrespectedthisprinciple,which
becamethegoldenruleallrepresentatives,directorindirect,ofthestate
apparatushavehadtoobeysincetheappearanceofmodernbourgeoissociety.
Thebourgeoisstate,aclassstate
Thisnewsocietyisnolongerdominatedbyfeudallordsbutbycapitalism,by
moderncapitalists.Asweknow,themonetaryneedsofthemodernstatethe
newcentralpower,moreorlessabsolutemonarchybecomegreaterand
greater,fromthefifteenthtosixteenthcenturyonward.Itisthemoneyofthe
capitalists,ofthemerchantandcommercialbankers,thatinlargepartfillsthe
coffersofthestate.Eversincethattime,totheextentthatthecapitalistspay
fortheupkeepofthestate,theywilldemandthatthelatterplaceitself
completelyattheirservice.Theywillmakethisquiteclearlyfeltand
understoodbytheverynatureofthelawstheyenactandbytheinstitutions
theycreate.
Severalinstitutionswhichtodayappeardemocraticinnature,forexamplethe
parliamentaryinstitution,clearlyrevealtheclassnatureofthebourgeoisstate.
Thus,inmostofthecountriesinwhichparliamentarisrnwasinstituted,onlythe
bourgeoisiehadtherighttovote.ThisstateofaffairslastedinmostWestern
countriesuntiltheendofthelastcenturyoreventhebeginningofthetwentieth
century.Universalsuffrageis,aswecansee,ofrelativelyrecentinventionin
thehistoryofcapitalism.Howisthisexplained?
Easilyenough.Intheseventeenthcentury,whentheEnglishcapitalists
proclaimedNotaxationwithoutrepresentation.Itwasonly,representationfor
thebourgeoisiethattheyhadinmindfortheideathatpeoplewhoowned
nothingandpaidnotaxescouldvote,seemedabsurdandridiculoustothem.
Isntparliamentcreatedfortheverypurposeofcontrollingexpendituresmade
withthetaxpayersmoney?
Thisargument,extremelyvalidfromthepointofviewofthebourgeoisie,was
takenupanddevelopedbyourDoctrinaire[2]bourgeoisieatthetimeofthe
demandforuniversalsuffrage.Forthisbourgeoisie,theroleofparliament
consistedincontrollingbudgetsandexpenditures.Andonlythosewhopay
taxesmayvalidlyexercisethiscontrolbecausethosewhodonotpaytaxes
wouldconstantlyhavethetendencytoincreaseexpenditures,sincetheyare
notfootingthebill.
Lateron,thebourgeoisieregardedthisprobleminanotherway.Alongwith
universalsuffragewasbornuniversaltaxation,whichweighsmoreandmore
heavilyontheworkers.Inthiswaythebourgeoisiereestablishedtheinherent
justiceofthesystem.
Theparliamentaryinstitutionisatypicalexampleoftheverydirectvery
mechanicalbondthatexistseveninthebourgeoisstatebetweenthe
dominationoftherulingclassandtheexerciseofstatepower.
Thereareotherexamples.Letuslookatthejuryinthejudicialsystem.The
juryappearstobeaninstitutioneminentlydemocraticincharacter,especially
whencomparedtotheadministrationofjusticebyirremovablejudges,all
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membersoftherulingclassoverwhomthepeoplehavenocontrol.
Butfromwhatsociallayerwereandstillinverylargemeasuretoday,are
themembersofajurychosen?Fromthebourgeoisie.Therewereevenspecial
qualifications,comparabletopropertyholdingrequirementsforvoting,for
beingabletositonajuryajurorhadtobeahomeowner,payacertain
amountoftaxes,etc.Toillustratethisverydirectlinkbetweenthemachinery
ofthestateandtherulingclassinthebourgeoisera,wecanalsocitethe
famousLeChapelierlaw,passedduringtheFrenchRevolution,which,under
pretextofestablishingequalityamongallcitizens,forbidsbothemployers
organizationsandworkersorganisations.Thus,underpretextofbanning
employerscorporationswhenindustrialsocietyhasgonebeyondthe
corporationstagetradeunionsareoutlawed.Inthiswaytheworkersare
renderedpowerlessagainstthebosses,sinceonlyworkingclassorganization
can,toacertainextent(amuchtoolimitedextent),serveasacounterweight
tothewealthoftheemployers.

II.TheBourgeoisState:theFaceofEverydayReality
Throughthestrugglewagedbythelabourmovementcertaininstitutionsofthe
bourgeoisstatebecomebothmoresubtleandmorecomplex.Universal
suffragewassubstitutedforsuffrageforpropertyownersonlymilitaryservice
hasbecomecompulsoryeverybodypaystaxes.Theclasscharacterofthe
statethenbecomesalittlelesstransparent.Thenatureofthestateasan
instrumentofclassdominationislessevidentthanatthetimeofthereignof
theclassicalbourgeoisie,whentherelationshipsbetweenthedifferentgroups
exercisingstatefunctionswerejustastransparentasinthefeudalera.The
analysisofthemodernstate,therefore,willalsohavetobealittlemore
complex.
First,letusestablishahierarchyamongthedifferentfunctionsofthestate.
Inthisdayandage,nobodybutthemostnaivebelievesthatparliamentreally
doesthegoverning,thatparliamentismasterofthestatebasedonuniversal
suffrage.(Thatillusionis,however,morewidespreadinthosecountriesin
whichparliamentisafairlyrecentinstitution.)
Thepowerofthestateisapermanentpower.Thispowerisexercisedbya
certainnumberofinstitutionsthatareisolatedfromandindependentofso
changeableandunstableaninfluenceasuniversalsuffrage.Thesearethe
institutionsthatmustbeanalysedifwearetolearnwheretherealpowerlies:
Governmentscomeandgovernmentsgo,butthepoliceandtheadministrators
remain.
Thestateis,aboveall,thesepermanentinstitutions:thearmy(thepermanent
partofthearmythegeneralstaff,specialtroops)thepolice,specialpolice,
secretpolice,thetopadministratorsofgovernmentdepartments(keycivil
servants),thenationalsecuritybodies,thejudges,etc.everythingthatis
freeoftheinfluenceofuniversalsuffrage.
Thisexecutivepowerisconstantlybeingreinforced.Totheextentthat
universalsuffrageappearsandacertaindemocratisation,albeitcompletely
formal,ofcertainrepresentativeinstitutionsdevelops,itcanbeshownthatreal
powerslipsfromthoseinstitutionstowardsothersthataremoreandmore
removedfromtheinfluenceofparliament.
Ifthekingandhisfunctionariesloseaseriesofrightstoparliamentduringthe
ascendingphaseofparliamentarism,onthecontrary,withthedeclineof
parliamentarism(whichbeginswiththewinningofuniversalsuffrage),a
continuousseriesofrightsarelostbyparliamentandreverttothepermanent
andirremovableadministrationsofthestate.Thisphenomenonisageneralone
throughoutWesternEurope.ThepresentFifthRepublicinFranceispresently
themoststrikingandmostcompleteexampleofthisphenomenon.
Shouldthisturnabout,thisreversal,beseenasadiabolicalplotagainst
universalsuffragebythewickedcapitalists?Amuchdeeperobjectiverealityis
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involved:therealpowersaretransferredfromthelegislativetotheexecutive
thepoweroftheexecutiveisreinforcedinapermanentandcontinuousfashion
asaresultofchangesthatarealsotakingplacewithinthecapitalistclass
itself.
ThisprocessbeganatthetimeofWorldWarIinmostofthebelligerent
countriesandhassincecontinuedwithoutinterruption.Butthephenomenon
oftenexistedmuchearlierthanthat.Thus,intheGermanEmpirethispriority
oftheexecutiveoverthelegislativeappearedconcomitantlywithuniversal
suffrage.BismarckandtheJunkersgranteduniversalsuffrageinordertouse
theworkingclasstoacertainextentasaleveragainsttheliberalbourgeoisie,
thusassuring(inthatalreadyessentiallycapitalistsociety)therelative
independenceoftheexecutivepowerexercisedbythePrussiannobility.
Thisprocessshowsfullwellthatpoliticalequalityismoreapparentthanreal
andthattherightofthecitizenvoterisnothingbuttherighttoputalittlepiece
ofpaperinaballotboxeveryfouryears.Therightgoesnofarther,nor,above
all,doesitreachtherealcentresofdecisionmakingandpower.

Themonopoliestakeoverfromparliament
Theclassicaleraofparliamentarisinwastheeraoffreecompetition.Atthat
timetheindividualbourgeois,theindustrialist,thebanker,wasverystrongas
anindividual.Hewasveryindependent,veryfreewithinthelimitsofbourgeois
freedom,andcouldriskhiscapitalonthemarketinanyhewished.Inthat
atomizedbourgeoissociety,parliamentplayedaveryuseful,andeven
indispensable,objectiveroleinthesmoothfunctioningofeverydayaffairs.
Actually,itwasonlyinparliamentthatthecommondenominatorofthe
interestsofthebourgeoisiecouldbedetermined.Dozensofseparatecapitalist
groupscouldbelisted,groupsopposedtooneanotherbyamultitudeof
sectional,regional,andcorporativeinterests.Thesegroupscouldgettogether
inanorderlyfashiononlyinparliament.(Itstruethattheydidmeetonthe
markettoo,butthereitwaswithknives,notwords!)Itwasonlyinparliament
thatamiddlelinecouldbehammeredout,alinethatwouldexpressthe
interestsofthecapitalistclassasawhole.
Becausethatwasthenthefunctionofparliament:toserveasacommon
meetingplacewherethecollectiveinterestsofthebourgeoisiecouldbe
formulated.Letusrecallthatintheheroiceraofparliamentarismitwasnot
onlywithwordsandvotesthatthiscollectiveinterestwashammeredoutfists
andpistolswereused,too.DidnttheConvention,thatclassicalbourgeois
parliamentduringtheFrenchRevolution,sendpeopletotheguillotinebythe
slimmestofmajorities?
Butcapitalistsocietyisnotgoingtoremainatomized.Littlebylittle,itcallbe
seenorganizingitselfandstructuringitselfinamoreandmoreconcentrated,
moreandmorecentralizedway.Freecompetitionfadesaway:itisreplacedby
monopolies,trusts,andothercapitalistgroupings.

Capitalistpoweriscentralizedoutsideparliament
Nowarealcentralizationoffinancecapital,bigbanksandfinancialgroups,
takesplace.IftheAnalytique[3]ofparliamentexpressedthewillofthe
Belgianbourgeoisieacenturyago,todayitisabovealltheannualreportofthe
SocitGnrale[4]orofBrufina[5],preparedfortheirstockholders
meetings,thatmustbestudiedtoknowtherealopinionsofthecapitalists.
Thesereportscontaintheopinionsofthecapitalistswhoreallycount,thebig
financialgroupswhodominatethelifeofthecountry.
Thus,capitalistpowerisconcentratedoutsideparliamentandoutsidethe
institutionsbornofuniversalsuffrage.Inthefaceofsohighpowereda
concentration(weneedonlyrememberthatinBelgiumadozenfinancialgroups
controltheeconomiclifeofthenation),therelationshipsbetweenparliament
andgovernmentofficials,policecommissionersandthosemultimillionairesisa
relationshipburdenedverylittlebytheory.Itisaveryimmediateandpractical
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relationship:andtheconnectinglinkisthepayoff.

Thebourgeoisiesvisiblegoldenchainsthenationaldebt
Parliamentand,evenmore,thegovernmentofacapitaliststate,nomatter
howdemocraticitmayappeartobe,aretiedtothebourgeoisiebygolden
chains.Thesegoldenchainshaveanamethepublicdebt.
Nogovernmentcouldlastmorethanamonthwithouthavingtoknockonthe
doorofthebanksinordertopayitscurrentexpenses.Ifthebankswereto
refuse,thegovernmentwouldgobankrupt.Theoriginsofthisphenomenonare
twofold.Taxesdontenterthecofferseverydayreceiptsareconcentratedin
oneperiodoftheyearwhileexpensesarecontinuous.Thatishowtheshort
termpublicdebtarises.Thisproblemcouldbesolvedbysometechnical
gimmick.Butthereisanotherproblemamuchmoreimportantone.All
moderncapitaliststatesspendmorethantheyreceive.Thatisthelongterm
publicdebtforwhichbanksandotherfinancialestablishmentscanmosteasily
advancemoney,atheavyinterest.Thereinliesadirectandimmediate
connection,adailylink,betweenthestateandbigbusiness.

Thehierarchyinthestateapparatus...
Othergoldenchains,invisiblechains,makethestateapparatusatoolinthe
handsofthebourgeoisie.
Ifweexaminethemethodofrecruitingcivilservicepeople,forexample,we
seethattobecomeajuniorclerkinaministry,itisnecessarytopassan
examination.Theruleseemsverydemocraticindeed.Ontheotherhand,not
justanyonecantakeanyexaminationatallforanylevelwhatsoever.The
examinationisnotthesameforthepositionofsecretarygeneralofaministry
orchiefofthearmygeneralstaffasitisforjuniorclerkinasmallgovernment
bureau.Atfirstglance,thistoowouldseemnormal.
Butabigbuttheresaprogressionintheseexaminationsthatgivesthema
selectivecharacter.Youhavetohavecertaindegrees,youhavetohavetaken
certaincourses,toapplyforcertainpositions,especiallyimportantpositions.
Suchasystemexcludesahugenumberofpeoplewhowerenotabletogeta
universityeducationoritsequivalent,becauseequalityofeducational
opportunitydoesntreallyexist.Evenifthecivilserviceexaminationsystemis
democraticonthesurface,itisalsoaselectiveinstrument.

...mirrorofthehierarchyincapitalistsociety
Theseinvisiblegoldenchainsarealsofoundintheremunerationreceivedby
membersofthestateapparatus.
Allgovernmentagencies,thearmyincluded,developthispyramidalaspect,
thishierarchicalstructure,thatcharacterizesbourgeoissociety.Weareso
influencedbyandsoimbuedwiththeideologyoftherulingclassthatwetend
toseenothingabnormalinthefactthatasecretarygeneralofaministry
receivesasalarytentimeshigherthanthatofajuniorclerkinthesame
ministryorthatofthewomanwhocleansitsoffices.Thephysicaleffortofthis
charwomaniscertainlygreaterbutthesecretarygeneraloftheministry,he
thinks!which,aseveryoneknows,ismuchmoretiring.Inthesameway,the
payofthechiefofthegeneralstaff(again,someonewhothinks!)ismuch
greaterbyfarthanthataccordedtoasecondclassprivate.
Thishierarchicalstructureofthestateapparatusleadsustoemphasize:Inthis
apparatustherearesecretariesgeneral,generalsofthearmy,bishops,etc.,
whohavethesamesalarylevel,andthereforehavethesamestandardof
living,asthebigbourgeoisie,sothattheyarepartofthesamesocialand
ideologicalclimate.Thencomethemiddlefunctionaries,themiddleofficials,
whoareonthesamesociallevelandhavethesameincomeasthepettyand
middlebourgeoisie.Andfinally,themassofemployeeswithouttitles,
charwomen,communityworkers,whoveryoftenearnlessthanfactory
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workers.Theirstandardoflivingclearlycorrespondstothatoftheproletariat.
Thestateapparatusisnotahomogeneousinstrument.Itinvolvesastructure
thatrathercloselycorrespondstothestructureofbourgeoissociety,witha
hierarchyofclassesandidenticaldifferencesbetweenthem.
Thispyramidalstructurecorrespondstoarealneedofthebourgeoisie.They
wishtohaveattheirdisposalaninstrumenttheycanmanipulateatwill.Itis
quiteobviouswhythebourgeoisiehasbeentryingforalongtime,andtrying
veryhard,todenypublicserviceworkerstherighttostrike.

Isthestatesimplyanarbiter?
ThispointisimportantIntheveryconceptofthebourgeoisstateregardless
ofwhetheritmaybemoreorlessdemocraticinformthereisa
fundamentalpremise,linked,moreover,totheveryoriginofthestate:Byits
naturethestateremainsantagonistic,orrathernonadaptive,totheneedsof
thecollectivity.Thestateis,bydefinition,agroupofmenwhoexercisethe
functionsthatinthebeginningwereexercisedbyallmembersofthe
collectivity.Thesemencontributenoproductivelabourbutaresupportedbythe
othermembersofsociety.
Innormaltimes,thereisnotmuchneedforwatchdogs.EveninMoscow,for
example,thereisnooneinchargeofcollectingfaresonbuses:passengers
deposittheirkopeckonboarding,whetherornotanyoneiswatchingthem.In
societieswherethelevelofdevelopmentoftheproductiveforcesislow,where
everyoneisinaconstantstrugglewitheveryoneelsetogetenoughtoliveon
forhimselfoutofanationalincometoosmalltogoaround,alargesupervisory
apparatusbecomesnecessary.
Thus,duringtheGermanoccupation[ofBelgium],anumberofspecialized
supervisoryservicesproliferated(specialpoliceintherailwaystations,
supervisionofprintshops,ofrationing,etc.).Intimeslikethat,theareaof
conflictissuchthatanimposingsupervisoryapparatusprovesindispensable.
Ifwethinkabouttheproblemabit,wecanseethatallwhoexercisestate
functions,whoarepartofthestateapparatus,areinonewayoranother
watchdogs.Specialpoliceandregularpolicearewatchdogs,butsoaretax
collectors,judges,paperpushersingovernmentoffices,farecollectorson
buses,etc.Insum,allfunctionsofthestateapparatusarereducedtothis:
surveillanceandcontrolofthelifeofthesocietyintheinterestsoftheruling
class.
Itisoftensaidthatthecontemporarystateplaystheroleofarbiter.This
statementisquiteclosetowhatwehavejustsaid:surveillanceand
arbitratingarenttheybasicallythesamething?
Twocommentsarecalledfor.First,thearbiterisnotneutral.Asweexplained
above,thetopmeninthestateapparatusarepartandparcelofthebig
bourgeoisie.Arbitrationthusdoesnottakeplaceinavacuumittakesplacein
theframeworkofmaintainingexistingclasssociety.Ofcourse,concessionsto
theexploitedcanbemadebyarbitratorsthatdependsessentiallyonthe
relationshipofforces.Butthebasicaimofarbitrationistomaintaincapitalist
exploitationassuch,ifnecessarybycompromisingabitonsecondary
questions.

Thewatchdogstate,testimonytothepovertyofsociety
Second,thestateisanentitycreatedbysocietyforthesurveillanceofthe
everydayfunctioningofsociallifeitisattheserviceoftherulingclassforthe
purposeofmaintainingthedominationofthatclass.Thereisanobjective
necessityforthiswatchdogorganization,anecessityverycloselylinkedtothe
degreeofpoverty,totheamountofsocialconflictthatexistsinthesociety.
Inamoregeneral,historicalway,theexerciseofstatefunctionsisintimately
connectedwiththeexistenceofsocialconflicts.Inturn,thesesocialconflicts
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areintimately,connectedwiththeexistenceofacertainscarcityofmaterial
goods,ofwealth,ofresources,ofthenecessarymeansforsatisfactionof
humanneeds.Thisfactshouldbeemphasized:Aslongasthestateexists,it
willbeproofofthefactthatsocialconflicts(thereforetherelativescarcityof
goodsandservicesaswell)remain.Withthedisappearanceofsocialconflicts,
thewatchdogs,rendereduselessandparasitical,willdisappearbutnot
before!Society,ineffect,paysthesementoexercisethefunctionsof
surveillance,aslongasthatisintheinterestsofpartofsociety.Butitisquite
evidentthatfromthemomentnogroupinsocietyhasastakeinthewatchdog
functionbeingexercised,thefunctionwilldisappearalongwithitsusefulness.
Atthesametime,thestatewilldisappear.
Theveryfactthatthestatesurvivesprovesthatsocialconflictsremain,that
theconditionofrelativescarcityofgoodsremainsthehallmarkofthatvast
periodinhumanhistorybetweenabsolutepoverty(theconditionduring
primitivecommunism)andplenty(theconditionofthefuturesocialistsociety).
Aslongasweareinthistransitionalperiodthatcoverstenthousandyearsof
humanhistory,aperiodthatalsoincludesthetransitionbetweencapitalismand
socialism,thestatewillsurvive,socialconflictswillremain,andtherewillhave
tobepeopletoarbitratetheseconflictsintheinterestoftherulingclass.
Ifthebourgeoisstateremainsfundamentallyaninstrumentintheserviceof
therulingclasses,doesthatmeanthattheworkersshouldbeindifferenttothe
particularformthatthisstatetakesparliamentarydemocracy,military,
dictatorship,fascistdictatorship?Notatall!Themorefreedomtheworkers
havetoorganizethemselvesanddefendtheirideas,themorewilltheseedsof
thefuturesocialistdemocracygrowwithincapitalistsociety,andthemorewill
theadventofsocialismbehistoricallyfacilitated.Thatiswhy,theworkersmust
defendtheirdemocraticrightsagainstanyandeveryattempttocurtailthem
(antistrikelaws,institutionofastrongstate)ortocrushthem(fascism).

III.TheProletariatinPower
Theforegoingservestoanswersomequestionsthatariseaboutthestateand
aboutsocialism.

Doestheworkingclassneedastate?
Whenwesaythatthestateremainsinexistenceuptoandincludingthe
transitionalsocietybetweencapitalismandsocialism,thequestionarises
whethertheworkingclassstillneedsastatewhenittakespower.
Couldnottheworkingclass,assoonasittakespower,abolishthestate
overnight?Historyhasalreadyansweredthisquestion.Certainly,onpaper,the
workingclasscoulddoawaywiththestateHowever,thiswouldbeonlya
formal,juridicalacttotheextentthattheworkershadnotseizedpowerina
societyalreadysorichandwithsuchanabundanceofmaterialgoodsand
servicesthatsocialconflictsassuch,thatis,centringonthedistributionof
theseproducts,coulddisappearandthatthenecessityforarbiters,watchdogs,
police,tocontrolallthatchaosdisappearedatthesametimeasdidthe
relativescarcityofgoods.Thishasneverhappenedinthepastanditishardly
likelythatiteverwill.
Totheextentthattheworkingclasstakespowerinacountryinwhichthereis
stillapartialscarcityofgoods,orinwhichacertainamountofpovertyexists,
ittakespoweratatimewhenthesocietycannotasyetfunctionwithouta
state.Amassofsocialconflictsremain.
Onecanalwaysresorttoahypocriticalattitude,asdocertainanarchists:Lets
abolishthestateandcallthepeoplewhoexercisestatefunctionsbyanother
name.Butthatsapurelyverbaloperation,apaperabolitionofthestate.As
longassocialconflictsremain,thereisarealneedforpeopletoregulatethese
conflicts.Now,peoplewhoregulateconflictsthatswhatthestateis.Itis
impossibleforhumanity,collectively,toregulateconflictsinasituationofreal
inequalityandofrealincapacitytosatisfytheneedsofeveryone.
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Equalityinpoverty
Thereisanobjectionthatcanberaisedtothis,althoughitisalittleabsurdand
notmanypeopleraiseitanymore.
Asocietycanbeimaginedinwhichtheabolitionofthestatewouldbelinkedto
thereductionofhumanneedsinsuchasocietyperfectequalitycouldbe
established,which,ofcourse,wouldbenothingbutequalityinpoverty.Thus,if
theworkingclassweretotakepowerinBelgiumtomorrow,everyonecould
havebreadandbutterandevenalittlemorethanthat.
Butitisimpossibleartificiallytodenyhumanneedscreatedbythe
developmentoftheproductiveforcesneedsthathaveappearedasaresultof
thefactthatsocietyhasreachedacertainstageofdevelopment.When
productionofawholerangeofgoodsandservicesisnotsufficienttocover
everyonesneeds,banningthosegoodsandserviceswillalwaysbeineffective.
Suchabanwouldonlycreateidealconditionsforablackmarketandforthe
illegalproductionofthosegoods.
Thusallthecommunistsectswhich,duringtheMiddleAgesandmoderntimes,
soughttoorganizetheperfectcommunistsocietyimmediately,basedon
perfectequalityofitsmembers,forbadeproductionofluxuryitems,ofitemsof
ordinarycomfortincludingprinting!Alltheseexperimentsfailed,because
humannatureissuchthatfromthemomentamanbecomesawareofcertain
needs,thesecannotbeartificiallyrepressed.Savonarola[6],preaching
repentanceandabstinence,inveighedagainstluxuriesanddemandedthatall
paintingsbeburnedhewouldnothavebeenabletopreventsomeincorrigible
orother,aloverofbeauty,frompaintinginsecret.
Theproblemofdistributionofsuchillegalproducts,whichwouldthenbecome
evenscarcerthanformerly,wouldstillariseagaininevitably.

Theproletariatsgamble
Anotherreason,althoughlessimportant,shouldbeaddedtowhatwassaidat
thebeginningofthischapter.
Whentheproletariatcomestopower,itdoessounderveryspecialconditions,
differentfromtheseizureofpowerbyanyotherprevioussocialclass.Inthe
courseofhistory,whenallothersocialclassesseizedpower,theyalreadyheld
theactualpowerofsocietyintheirhandseconomic,intellectual,andmoral.
Thereisnotasingleexample,beforethatoftheproletariat,ofasocialclass
comingtopowerwhileitwasstilloppressedfromtheeconomic,intellectual,
andmoralstandpoint.Inotherwords,postulatingthattheproletariatcallseize
powerisalmostagamble,becausecollectively,asaclassinthecapitalist
system,thisproletariatisdowntroddenandpreventedfromfullydevelopingits
creativepotential.Forwecannotfullydevelopourintellectualandmoral
capacitieswhenweworkeight,nine,ortenhoursadayinaworkshop,a
factory,anoffice.Andthatisstilltheproletarianconditiontoday.
Asaresult,thepoweroftheworkingclass,whenitcomestopower,isvery
vulnerable.Inmanyareas,thepoweroftheworkingclassmustbedefended
againstaminoritythatwillcontinue,forthedurationofanentirehistorical
periodoftransition,toenjoyenormousadvantagesintheintellectualareaand
intheirmaterialpossessionsatleastintheirstockofconsumergoodsin
relationtotheworkingclass.
Anormalsocialistrevolutionexpropriatesthebigbourgeoisieasholdersofthe
meansofproductionbutitdoesnotstripthebourgeoisholdersoftheir
accumulatedpossessionsordiplomas.Stilllesscanitexpropriatetheirbrains
andknowledge:duringtheentireperiodprecedingthetakingofpowerbythe
workingclass,itwasthebourgeoisiewhohadanalmostexclusivemonopolyin
education.
Thus,inasocietywheretheproletariathasheldpowerforonlyalittlewhile
(politicalpower,powerofarmedmen),manyleversofrealpowerareand
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remaininthehandsofthebourgeoisiemoreexactly,inthehandsofapartof
thebourgeoisie,whichmightbecalledtheintelligentsiaortheintellectualand
technologicalbourgeoisie.

Workerspowerandbourgeoistechnicians
Leninhadsomebitterexperiencesonthisscore.Actually,itcanbeprovedthat
nomatterhowyoulookattheproblem,nomatterwhatlaws,decrees,
institutionsarepromulgated,ifthereisaneedforprofessors,highlevel
functionaries,engineers,highlytrainedtechnicalpeopleatalllevelsofthe
socialmachinery,itisverydifficulttoplaceproletariansinthesepositions
overnightandevenfiveorsixyearsaftertheconquestofpower.
DuringtheearlyyearsofSovietpower,Lenin,armedwithatheoretically
correctalthoughslightlyincompleteformula,said:Todayengineersworkfor
thebourgeoisietomorrowtheywillworkfortheproletariatforthattheywill
bepaidand,ifnecessary,theywillbeforcedtowork.Theimportantthingis
thattheybecontrolledbytheworkers.Butafewyearslater,shortlybeforehis
death,Lenin,drawingabalancesheetofthatexperience,askedhimselfthe
question:Whocontrolswhom?Aretheexpertscontrolledbythecommunists,
oristhereversehappening?
Whenwegrapplewiththisquestiondayafterdayandinconcretetermsinthe
underdevelopedcountries,whenweseewhatitmeansinpracticeinacountry
likeAlgeria,werealizefullwellthatthisisaproblemthatcanbesolvedeasily
enoughonpaperwithafewmagicalformulas,butthatitisacompletely
differentmatterwhentheproblemhastobesolvedinarealcountry,inreal
life.InacountrylikeAlgeria,forexample,itmeansuttercontroltheprivilege
ofuniversityeducation(oranykindofeducation)ispossessedbyan
infinitesimalminorityofsociety,whilethegreatmassofpeople,whofought
heroicallytowinindependence,findthemselves,whenthetimecomesto
exercisepower,confrontedwiththeirlackofknowledge,knowledgetheymust
nowonlybegintoacquire.Andtheyfindthat,intheinterim,theymust
completelysurrendertotheeducatedfewthepowertheysoheroicallyfought
forandwon.
Themostheroicexperimentinthisarea,themostradicalandthemost
revolutionaryinallhumanhistory,istheoneundertakenbytheCuban
revolution.Drawinglessonsfromallthevariedexperiencesofthepast,the
Cubanrevolutionundertooktoresolvethisproblemonabroadscaleandina
minimumoftimebyconductinganextraordinaryeducationalcampaign*to
transformtensofthousandsofilliterateworkersandpeasantsintothatmany
teachers,professorsanduniversitystudentsandinaminimumoftime.At
theendoffiveorsixyearswork,theresultsobtainedareconsiderable.
Nevertheless,asingleengineerorasingleagronomistinadistrictcontaining
tensofthousandsofworkerscaninpracticebecome,despitetherevolutionary
spiritoftheCubanpeople,masterofthedistrict,ifhehasamonopolyonthe
technicalknowledgevitaltothedistrict.Hereagain,thefalsesolutionwouldbe
toreverttososimplealevelthattechnicianswouldnotbeneeded.Thatisa
reactionaryutopia.

Thestate,guardianofworkerspower
Allthesedifficultiesindicatethenecessityfortheproletariat,thenewruling
class,toexercisestatepoweragainstallthosewhomightwrestpowerfromit,
whetherbitbybitorallatonce.Theproletariatmustexercisestatepowerin
thisnewandtransitionalsocietyinwhichitpossessespoliticalpowerandthe
principalleversofeconomicpower,butinwhichitisheldincheckbyawhole
constellationofweaknessesandnewlymadeenemies.Thisisthesituationthat
makesitnecessaryfortheworkingclasstomaintainastateafteritsconquest
ofpowerandthatmakesitimpossibletoabolishthestateovernight.Butthis
workingclassstatemustbeofaveryspecialkind.

Natureandcharacteristicsoftheproletarianstate
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Theworkingclass,byitsspecialpositioninsociety(whichhasjustbeen
described),isobligedtomaintainastate.Butinordertopreservethepowerof
thatstate,thelatterhastoberadicallydifferentfromthestatewhichinthe
pastupheldthepowerofthebourgeoisie,orthefeudalorslaveholdingclass.
Theproletarianstateis,atoneandthesametime,astateandnotastate.It
becomeslessandlessastate.Itisastatethatbeginstowitherawayatthe
verymomentitisborn,asMarxandLenincorrectlysaid.Marx,developingthe
theoryoftheproletarianstate,ofthedictatorshipoftheproletariat,ashe
calledit,thestatethatwithersaway,gaveitseveralcharacteristics,examples
ofwhichwerefoundintheParisCommuneof1871.Therearethreeessential
characteristics:
(1)Nodistinctseparationbetweentheexecutiveandlegislativepowers.
Bodiesareneededwhichenactlawsandatthesametimeenforcethem,In
short,itisnecessarytoreverttothestatethatwasbornoftheprimitive
communismoftheclanandthetribeandthatcanstillbefoundintheancient
Athenianpopularassembly.
Thisisimportant.Itisthe,bestwayofreducingasmuchaspossiblethe
cleavagebetweenrealpower,moreandmoreconcentratedinthehandsof
permanentbodies,andtheincreasinglyfictitiouspowerthatisleftto
deliberativeassemblies.Thiscleavageisthecharacteristicofbourgeois
parliamentarism.Itisnotenoughtoreplaceonedeliberativeassemblywith
another,ifnothingisessentiallychangedregardingthiscleavage.The
deliberativeassembliesmusthaverealexecutivepowerattheirdisposal.
(2)Publicofficestobeelective,tothegreatestextent.Itisnotonly
membersofthedeliberativeassemblieswhoshouldbeelected.Judges,high
levelfunctionaries,officersofthemilitia,supervisorsofeducation,managers
ofpublicworks,shouldalsobeelected.Thismaybeabitofashockto
countrieswithanultrareactionaryNapoleonictradition.Butcertainspecifically
bourgeoisdemocracies,theUnitedStates,Switzerland,Canada,orAustraliafor
example,haveconservedtheelectivecharacterofacertainnumberofpublic
functions.Thus,intheUnitedStatesthesheriffiselectedbyhisfellowcitizens.
Intheproletarianstate,thiselectingofpublicofficialsmustbeaccompaniedin
allcasesbytherightofrecall,i.e.,votingunsatisfactoryofficialsoutofoffice
atanytime.
Thus,permanentandextensivecontrolbythepeopleoverthoseexercising
statefunctionsmustbemadepossible,andtheseparationbetweenthosewho
exercisestatepowerandthoseinwhosenameitisexercisedmustbeassmall
aspossible.Thatiswhyitisnecessarytoassureaconstantchangingofelected
officials,topreventpeoplefromremaininginofficepermanently.Thefunctions
ofthestatemust,onaneverwiderscale,beexercisedinturnbythemasses
asawhole.
(3)Noexcessivesalaries.Noofficial,nomemberofrepresentativeand
legislativebodies,noindividualexercisingastatepower,shouldreceivea
salaryhigherthanthatofaskilledworker.Thatistheonlyvalidmethodof
preventingpeoplefromseekingpublicofficeasawayoffeatheringtheirnests
andspongingonsociety,theonlyvalidwaytogetridofthecareerhuntersand
parasitesknowntoallprevioussocieties.
TogetherthesethreeruleswellexpressthethinkingofMarxandLenin
concerningtheproletarianstate.Thisstatenolongerresemblesanyofits
predecessors,becauseitisthefirststatethatbeginstowitherawayatthe
verymomentofitsappearancebecauseitisastatewhoseapparatusis
composedofpeoplenolongerprivilegedinrelationtothemassofsociety
becauseitisastatewhosefunctionsaremoreandmoreexercisedby
membersofthesocietyasawholewhokeeptakingeachothersplace
becauseitisastatethatisnolongeridenticalwithagroupofpeoplewhoare
detachedfromthemassesandexercisefunctionsseparateandapartfromthe
masses,butwhich,onthecontrary,isindistinguishablefromthepeople,from
thelabouringmassesbecauseitisastatethatwithersawaywiththewithering
awayofsocialclasses,socialconflicts,moneyeconomy,marketproduction,
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commodities,money,etc.Thiswitheringawayofthestateshouldbeconceived
ofasselfmanagementandselfgovernmentofproducersandcitizenswhich
expandsmoreandmoreuntil,underconditionsofmaterialabundanceanda
highculturalleveloftheentiresociety,thelatterbecomesstructuredintoself
governingproducerconsumercommunities.

WhatabouttheSovietUnion?
WhenwelookatthehistoryoftheUSSRinthepastthirtyyears,theconclusion
tobedrawnconcerningthestateissimple:astatewithapermanentarmya
stateinwhichcanbefoundmarshals,managersoftrusts,andevenplaywrights
andballerinaswhoearnfiftytimesasmuchitsamanuallabourerora
domesticworkerwheretremendousselectivityforcertainpublicfunctionshas
beenestablished,makingaccesstothesefunctionspracticallyimpossiblefor
thevastmajorityofthepopulation:whererealpowerisexercisedbysmall
committeesofpeoplewhosetenureisrenewedinmysteriouswaysandwhose
powerremainsfixedandpermanentforlonghistoricalperiodssuchastate,
obviously,isnotintheprocessofwitheringaway.

Why?
Theexplanationforthisissimple.IntheSovietUnionthestatehasnot
witheredawaybecausesocialconflictshavenotwitheredaway.Socialconflicts
havenotwitheredawaybecausethedegreeofdevelopmentoftheproductive
forceshasnotpermittedthiswitheringawaybecausethesituationofsemi
scarcitythatcharacteriseseventhemostadvancedcapitalistcountries
continuestocharacterisethesituationintheSovietstate.Andaslongasthese
conditionsofsemiscarcityexist,controllers,watchdogs,specialpoliceare
necessary.Ofcourse,inaproletarianstate,thesepeoplewouldbeservinga
bettercause,atleasttotheextenttowhichtheydefendthesocialisteconomy.
Butitmustalsoberecognizedthattheyaredetachedfrontthebodyofsociety,
thattheyareinlargemeasureparasites.Theirdisappearanceisdirectlylinked
tothelevelofdevelopmentoftheproductiveforces,whichalonecanpermit
thewitheringawayofsocialconflictsandtheabolitionoffunctionslinkedto
theseconflicts.
Andtotheextentthatthesewatchdogs,thesecontrollers,moreandmore
monopolizetheexerciseofpoliticalpower,tothatextentobviouslycantheybe
assuredofincreasingmaterialprivileges,thechoicemorselsintherelative
scarcitythatdominatesdistribution.Theythusconstituteaprivileged
bureaucracy,beyondthereachofcontrolbytheworkersandpronetodefend
firstandforemosttheirownprivileges.

Theargumentofthecordonsanitaire[7]
Thedangersresultingfrombeingsurroundedbycapitalismarealwayscitedby
thosewhoobjecttotheabovecriticisms.Theargumentgoes:Aslongasan
externaldangerexists,astatewillbenecessary,asStalinsaid,ifonlyto
defendthecountryagainstthehostilitythatsurroundsit.
Thisargumentisbasedonamisunderstanding.Theonlythingthatthe
existenceofathreateningcapitalistencirclementcanproveisthenecessityfor
armamentandforamilitaryinstitution,butthatdoesnotjustifytheexistence
ofmilitaryinstitutionsseparateandapartfromthebodyofsociety.The
existenceofsuchmilitaryinstitutions,separatefromsocietyasawhole,
indicatesthatwithinthissocietythereremainsasubstantialamountofthe
socialtensionwhichpreventsgovernmentsfrompermittingthemselvesthe
luxuryofarmingthepeople,whichmakestheleadersafraidtotrustthepeople
tosolvethemilitaryproblemsofselfdefenceintheirownway.Thisthepeople
wouldbeabletodoifthecollectivityreallyhadthatdegreeofextraordinary
superioritythatatrulysocialistsocietywouldhaveinrelationtocapitalist
society.
Inreality,theproblemofexternalenvironmentisonlyasecondaryaspectofa
muchmoregeneralphenomenon:Thelevelofdevelopmentoftheproductive
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forces,theeconomicmaturityofthecountry,isfarfromthelevelthatwould
havetoexistforasocietytobeasocialistsociety.TheSovietUnionhas
remainedatransitionalsocietywhoselevelofdevelopmentofproductiveforces
iscomparabletothatofanadvancedcapitalistsociety.Itmust,therefore,fight
withcomparableweapons.Nothavingeliminatedsocialconflicts,theUSSR
mustmaintainallorgansofcontrolandsurveillanceofthepopulationand,
becauseofthis,mustmaintainandevenreinforcethestateinsteadofallowing
ittowitheraway.Fornumerousspecificreasons,thishasfosteredbureaucratic
deformationsanddegenerationsinthistransitionalsociety,whichhaveclone
thecauseofsocialismgraveinjury,especiallytotheextentthatthelabel
socialisthasbeenattachedtoSovietsocietyforfearoftellingthetruth:We
arestilltoopoorandtoobackwardtobeabletocreateatruesocialistsociety.
Andtotheextentthattheywantedtousethelabelsocialistatallcostsfor
propagandareasons,theynowhavetoexplaintheexistenceofsuchthingsas
socialistpurges,socialistconcentrationcamps,socialistunemployment,
socialistviolationsoftherightsofnationalminorities,etc.,etc.

Guaranteesagainstbureaucracy
Whatguaranteescanbeintroducedinthefuturetoavoidtheabnormalgrowth
ofthebureaucracythatappearedintheUSSR?

1. Scrupulouslyrespectthethreerulesenumeratedaboveconcerningthe
beginningofthewitheringawayoftheworkersstate(andespeciallythe
rulelimitingsalariesofalladministratorseconomicandpolitical).
2. Scrupulouslyrespectthedemocraticcharacterofmanagementofthe
economy:workersselfmanagementcommitteeselectedinthe
enterprisesacongressofproducers(economicsenate)electedby
thesecommittees,etc.Inthelastanalysisthosewhocontrolthesurplus
socialproductcontroltheentiresociety.
3. Scrupulouslyrespecttheprinciplethatiftheworkersstatemustof
necessityrestrictthepoliticallibertiesofallclassenemieswhoare
opposedtotheadventofsocialism(arestrictionthatshouldbein
proportiontotheviolenceoftheirresistance),itshouldatthesametime
extendthesesamelibertiesforallworkers:freedomforallpartiesthat
respectsocialistlegalityfreedomofthepressforallnewspapersthatdo
thesamefreedomofassembly,association,demonstrationforthe
workerswithoutanyrestrictionsrealindependenceofthetradeunions
fromthestate,withrecognizedrighttostrike.
4. Respectthedemocraticandpubliccharacterofalldeliberativeassemblies
andtheirfullfreedomofdebate.
5. Respecttheprincipleofawrittenlaw.

Theoryandpractice
Marxisttheoryconcerningthewitheringawayofthestatehasnowbeenfully
developedformorethanahalfcentury.InBelgiumthereisonlyonelittle
detailmissing,onelittlethingwestillhavetodoputthistheoryintopractice.

Notes
1.AnecdoteoftheSoissonsvase.LegendaryaccountofanincidentduringthereignofKingClovisofthe
Franks,inthefifthcenturyAD.(CloviswasthefirstFrankishkingtoembraceChristianity,anditwas
duringhisreignthatmostofwhatisnowBelgiumandFrancewasunitedintoakingdom.)Aftera
victoriousbattleatSoissons(486AD),whenthebootywastobedividedequallyamongallthesoldiers,
Cloviswantedtokeepacertainvaseforhimself.Asoldierthereuponstrodeoutoftheranksand
smashedthevasewithhissword,toindicatethatnofighterhadtherighttoanyspecialprivilegein
sharingthebooty.
2.Doctrinaire.MembersoftheconservativewingoftheLiberalPartyinnineteenthcenturyBelgiumwere
calledDoctrinaires.Theywereviolentlyopposedtouniversalsuffrage,whereasthesocalledProgressives
intheLiberalPartywerereadytoacceptit.

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Marxisttheoryofthestate(October1969)
3.Analytique.TheequivalentinBelgiumoftheUSCongressionalRecord.
4.SocitGnrale.Belgiumsmostimportantcapitalistgroupingsinceitsindependencein1830.
Originallyorganizedintheformofamerchantbank,theSocitGnralewasaforerunneroffinance
capital,whichbecamegeneralinothercapitalistcountriesonlyinthelastquarterofthenineteenth
century.ThisresultedfromtheSocitsearlypossessionofcontrollinginterestsinmanyjointstock
companies,especiallyincoalandsteel.LateritcontrolledthefamousUnionMinireduHautKatanga,as
wellasothercompaniesintheCongo.
Todayithasreorganisedintheformofacentralholdingcompanythatcontrolsstockinmanyapparently
independentcompanies,amongthemBelgiumsmainsavingsbank.
5.Brufina.Belgiumssecondlargestcapitalistgrouping,BrufinagrewoutoftheBanquedeBruxelles,the
secondlargestBelgianbank.
6.Savonarola(14521498).Italianreligiousreformerandmassleaderwhoattackedcorruptionandvice
infieryoratory.IncurredtheenmityofPopeAlexanderVIasaresultofscandalsheuncovered,and
publicised,inthepopescourt.Accusedofheresy,hewasburnedtodeathatthestakeinFlorence.
7.Cordonsanitaire.Literally,thesanitarycordonorquarantineplacedaroundtheyoungSoviet
republicbytheUnitedStatesanditsWorldWarIallies.TheSovietUnionwasisolatedorcordonedoff
fromdiplomatic,commercialandideologicalintercoursewiththerestoftheworldbythebeltofcountries
encirclingitandalliednaviespatrollingthesealanes.Thispolicy,whichcausedtremendoushardshipsin
theSovietUnionbutwhichultimatelyfailed,wasanearlierversionofWashingtonscurrentattemptto
destroytheCubanrevolutionbyeconomicblockadeandtoquarantinetherevolutionaryinfectionby
forbiddingtravelthere.

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