Han dynasty

Eastern Hanredirects here. For the Five Dynasties and a seismometer employing an inverted pendulum.
era kingdom, see Northern Han.
The Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation,* [6] defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to subThe Han dynasty (Chinese: ; pinyin: Hn cho) mit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their
was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu of Han (r.
the Qin dynasty (221206 BC) and succeeded by the 14187 BC) launched several military campaigns against
Three Kingdoms period (220280 AD). Spanning over them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually
four centuries, the Han period is considered a golden age forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tribuin Chinese history.* [4] To this day, China's majority eth- taries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty into
nic group refers to itself as the Han peopleand the the Tarim Basin of Central Asia, divided the Xiongnu
Chinese script is referred to as "Han characters".* [5] It into two separate confederations, and helped establish
was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthu- the vast trade network known as the Silk Road, which
mously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briey interrupted reached as far as the Mediterranean world. The terriby the Xin dynasty (923 AD) of the former regent Wang tories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by
Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also
two periods: the Western Han or Former Han (206 BC launched successful military expeditions in the south, an 9 AD) and the Eastern Han or Later Han (25220 nexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC, and in
AD).
the Korean Peninsula where the Xuantu and Lelang ComThe emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He manderies were established in 108 BC.
presided over the Han government but shared power
with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came
largely from the scholarly gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the
Qin known as commanderies, and a number of semiautonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost
all vestiges of their independence, particularly following
the Rebellion of the Seven States. From the reign of Emperor Wu onward, the Chinese court ocially sponsored
Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized
with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty
in AD 1911.

After 92 AD, the palace eunuchs increasingly involved

themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power
struggles between the various consort clans of the empresses and empress dowagers, causing the Han's ultimate downfall. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated
the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice
Rebellion. Following the death of Emperor Ling (r. 168
189 AD), the palace eunuchs suered wholesale massacre by military ocers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and
divide the empire. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped
the throne from Emperor Xian, the Han dynasty ceased
to exist.

The Han dynasty was an age of economic prosperity

and saw a signicant growth of the money economy
rst established during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050
256 BC). The coinage issued by the central government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of
China until the Tang dynasty (618907 AD). The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations.
To pay for its military campaigns and the settlement
of newly conquered frontier territories, the government
nationalized the private salt and iron industries in 117
BC, but these government monopolies were repealed during the Eastern Han period. Science and technology during the Han period saw signicant advances, including
papermaking, the nautical steering rudder, the use of
negative numbers in mathematics, the raised-relief map,
the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere for astronomy,

1 Etymology
According to the Records of the Grand Historian, after the collapse of the Qin dynasty the hegemon Xiang
Yu appointed Liu Bang as prince of the small ef of
Hanzhong, named after its location on the Han River (in
modern southwest Shaanxi). Following Liu Bang's victory in the ChuHan Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong ef.* [7]
1

HISTORY

History

Main article: History of the Han dynasty

See also: List of emperors of the Han dynasty

2.1

Western Han

See also: HanXiongnu War and Southward expansion

China's rst imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty (221
206 BC). The Qin unied the Chinese Warring States
by conquest, but their empire became unstable after the
death of the rst emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four
years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in the face
of rebellion.* [8] Two former rebel leaders, Xiang Yu (d.
202 BC) of Chu and Liu Bang (d. 195 BC) of Han, engaged in a war to decide who would become hegemon of
China, which had ssured into 18 kingdoms, each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang.* [9] Although Xiang Yu proved to be a capable commander,
Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia (202 BC), in
modern-day Anhui. Liu Bang assumed the title emperor (huangdi) at the urging of his followers and is
known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202195
BC).* [10] Chang'an was chosen as the new capital of the
reunied empire under Han.* [11]
At the beginning of the Western Han dynasty, thirteen
centrally controlled commanderiesincluding the capital regionexisted in the western third of the empire,
while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten semiautonomous kingdoms.* [13] To placate his prominent
commanders from the war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu
enfeoed some of them as kings. By 157 BC, the Han
court had replaced all of these kings with royal Liu family
members, since the loyalty of non-relatives to the throne
was questioned.* [13] After several insurrections by Han
kingsthe largest being the Rebellion of the Seven States
in 154 BCthe imperial court enacted a series of reforms beginning in 145 BC limiting the size and power
of these kingdoms and dividing their former territories
into new centrally controlled commanderies.* [14] Kings
were no longer able to appoint their own sta; this duty
was assumed by the imperial court.* [15] Kings became
nominal heads of their efs and collected a portion of tax
revenues as their personal incomes.* [15] The kingdoms
were never entirely abolished and existed throughout the
remainder of Western and Eastern Han.* [16]
To the north of China proper, the nomadic Xiongnu
chieftain Modu Chanyu (r. 209174 BC) conquered various tribes inhabiting the eastern portion of the Eurasian
Steppe. By the end of his reign, he controlled Manchuria,
Mongolia, and the Tarim Basin, subjugating over twenty
states east of Samarkand.* [17] Emperor Gaozu was troubled about the abundant Han-manufactured iron weapons
traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders, and

A silk banner from Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province. It

was draped over the con of Lady Dai (d. 168 BC), wife of
the Marquess Li Cang () (d. 186 BC), chancellor for the
Kingdom of Changsha.* [12]

he established a trade embargo against the group.* [18]

Although the embargo was in place, the Xiongnu found
traders willing to supply their needs. Chinese forces also
mounted surprise attacks against Xiongnu who traded at
the border markets.* [19] In retaliation, the Xiongnu invaded what is now Shanxi province, where they defeated
the Han forces at Baideng in 200 BC.* [20] After negotiations, the heqin agreement in 198 BC nominally held the

2.1

Western Han

3
and benet the Han.* [24] When this plot failed in 133
BC,* [25] Emperor Wu launched a series of massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory. Chinese armies
captured one stronghold after another and established
agricultural colonies to strengthen their hold.* [19] The
assault culminated in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei,
where the Han commanders Huo Qubing (d. 117 BC)
and Wei Qing (d. 106 BC) forced the Xiongnu court to
ee north of the Gobi Desert.* [26]
After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to prevail against
the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye Chanyu (
) (r. 5831 BC) nally submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC. His rival claimant to the throne,
Zhizhi Chanyu (r. 5636 BC), was killed by Chen Tang
and Gan Yanshou ( / ) at the Battle of
Zhizhi, in modern Taraz, Kazakhstan.* [27]

Han dynasty in 100 B.C.

Provinces controlled by Han dynasty in 190 CE

leaders of the Xiongnu and the Han as equal partners in a

royal marriage alliance, but the Han were forced to send
large amounts of tribute items such as silk clothes, food,
and wine to the Xiongnu.* [21]

A gilded bronze oil lamp in the shape of a kneeling female servant, dated 2nd century BC, found in the tomb of Dou Wan, wife
of the Han prince Liu Sheng; its sliding shutter allows for adjustments in the direction and brightness in light while it also traps
smoke within the body.* [28]

Despite the tribute and a negotiation between Laoshang

Chanyu (r. 174160 BC) and Emperor Wen (r. 180
157 BC) to reopen border markets, many of the Chanyu's
Xiongnu subordinates chose not to obey the treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the Great Wall
for additional goods.* [22] In a court conference assembled by Emperor Wu (r. 14187 BC) in 135 BC, the
majority consensus of the ministers was to retain the
heqin agreement. Emperor Wu accepted this, despite
continuing Xiongnu raids.* [23] However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that a
limited engagement at Mayi involving the assassination of
the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos

In 121 BC, Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from a vast

territory spanning the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur. They
repelled a joint Xiongnu-Qiang invasion of this northwestern territory in 111 BC. In that year, the Han court
established four new frontier commanderies in this region: Jiuquan, Zhangyi, Dunhuang, and Wuwei.* [29]
The majority of people on the frontier were soldiers.* [30]
On occasion, the court forcibly moved peasant farmers to
new frontier settlements, along with government-owned
slaves and convicts who performed hard labor.* [31] The
court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired laborers, to voluntarily mi-

4
grate to the frontier.* [32]

HISTORY

2.2 Wang Mang's reign and civil war

Even before Han's expansion into Central Asia, diplomat Zhang Qian's travels from 139 to 125 BC had es- Main articles: Wang Mang and Xin dynasty
tablished Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered Dayuan (Fergana), Kangju
(Sogdiana), and Daxia (Bactria, formerly the GrecoBactrian Kingdom); he also gathered information on
Shendu (Indus River valley of North India) and Anxi (the
Parthian Empire). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies.* [33] These connections marked
the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire, bringing Han items like
Left
silk to Rome and Roman goods such as glasswares to
image:
A
Western-Han
painted
ceramic
mounted
cavalChina.* [34]
ryman from the tomb of a military general at Xianyang,
From roughly 115 to 60 BC, Han forces fought the Shaanxi
Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Right image: A Western or Eastern Han bronze horse
Basin. Han was eventually victorious and established the statuette with a lead saddle
Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BC, which
dealt with the region's defense and foreign aairs.* [35]
Wang Zhengjun (71 BC13 AD) was rst empress, then
The Han also expanded southward. The naval conquest of
empress dowager, and nally grand empress dowager durNanyue in 111 BC expanded the Han realm into what are
ing the reigns of the Emperors Yuan (r. 4933 BC),
now modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern VietCheng (r. 337 BC), and Ai (r. 71 BC), respectively.
nam. Yunnan was brought into the Han realm with the
During this time, a succession of her male relatives held
conquest of the Dian Kingdom in 109 BC, followed by
the title of regent.* [39] Following the death of Ai, Wang
parts of the Korean Peninsula with the colonial establishZhengjun's nephew Wang Mang (45 BC23 AD) was apments of Xuantu Commandery and Lelang Commandery
pointed regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under
*
in 108 BC. [36] In China's rst known nationwide census
Emperor Ping (r. 1 BC 6 AD).* [40]
taken in 2 AD, the population was registered as having
When Ping died on 3 February 6 AD, Ruzi Ying (d. 25
57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households.* [3]
AD) was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was apTo pay for his military campaigns and colonial expanpointed to serve as acting emperor for the child.* [40]
sion, Emperor Wu nationalized several private industries.
Wang promised to relinquish his control to Liu Ying once
He created central government monopolies administered
he came of age.* [41] Despite this promise, and against
largely by former merchants. These monopolies included
protest and revolts from the nobility, Wang Mang claimed
salt, iron, and liquor production, as well as bronze-coin
on 10 January that the divine Mandate of Heaven called
currency. The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98 to
for the end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of his
81 BC, and the salt and iron monopolies were eventually
own: the Xin dynasty (923 AD).* [40]* [42]
abolished in early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage
remained a central government monopoly throughout the Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that
rest of the Han dynasty.* [37] The government monop- were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included
olies were eventually repealed when a political faction outlawing slavery, nationalizing land to equally distribute
known as the Reformists gained greater inuence in the between households, and introducing new currencies, a
*
court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that change which debased the value of coinage. [43] Alhad dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and though these reforms provoked considerable opposition,
during the subsequent regency of Huo Guang (d. 68 BC). Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the masThe Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansion- sive oods of c. 3 AD and 11 AD. Gradual silt buildup
ary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy gov- in the Yellow River had raised its water level and overernment intervention in the private economy. The Re- whelmed the ood control works. The Yellow River split
formists, however, overturned these policies, favoring a into two new branches: one emptying to the north and
cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, the other to the south of the Shandong Peninsula, though
frugal budget reform, and lower tax-rates imposed on pri- Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by
70 AD.* [44]
vate entrepreneurs.* [38]
The ood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many
of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as
the Red Eyebrows to survive.* [44] Wang Mang's armies
were incapable of quelling these enlarged rebel groups.
Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the
Weiyang Palace and killed Wang Mang.* [45]

2.3

Eastern Han

2.3 Eastern Han

Left

A spade-shaped bronze coin issued during Wang Mang's (r. 923

AD) reign

The Gengshi Emperor (r. 2325 AD), a descendant

of Emperor Jing (r. 157141 BC), attempted to restore the Han dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. However, he was overwhelmed by the Red Eyebrow rebels who deposed, assassinated, and replaced him
with the puppet monarch Liu Penzi.* [46] Emperor Gengshi's brother Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor
Guangwu (r. 2557 AD), after distinguishing himself at
the Battle of Kunyang in 23 AD, was urged to succeed
Gengshi as emperor.* [47]
Under Guangwu's rule the Han Empire was restored.
Guangwu made Luoyang his capital in 25 AD, and by
27 AD his ocers Deng Yu and Feng Yi had forced the
Red Eyebrows to surrender and executed their leaders for
treason.* [48] From 26 until 36 AD, Emperor Guangwu
had to wage war against other regional warlords who
claimed the title of emperor; when these warlords were
defeated, China reunied under the Han.* [49]
The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty
and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han dynasty (simplied Chinese: ; traditional Chinese:
; pinyin: X Hn) or Former Han dynasty (simplied
Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin:
Qinhn) (206 BC 9 AD). During this period the capital was at Chang'an (modern Xi'an). From the reign of
Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang.
The era from his reign until the fall of Han is known
as the Eastern Han dynasty (simplied Chinese: ;
traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Dng Hn) or the
Later Han dynasty (simplied Chinese: ; traditional
Chinese: ; pinyin: Hu Hn) (25220 AD).* [50]

image: Western-Han painted ceramic jar decorated with

raised reliefs of dragons, phoenixes, and taotie
Right image: Reverse side of a Western-Han bronze
mirror with painted designs of a ower motif
The Eastern Han, also known as the Later Han, formally
began on 5 August 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor
Guangwu of Han.* [51] During the widespread rebellion
against Wang Mang, the state of Goguryeo was free
to raid Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not reafrm its control over the region until AD 30.* [52] The
Trng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD
40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan
(d. AD 49) in a campaign from AD 4243.* [53] Wang
Mang renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who were
estranged from Han until their leader Bi (), a rival
claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu (),
submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This
created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu
led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led
by Punu, an enemy of Han.* [54]
During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, Han lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the
Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade
Han's Hexi Corridor in Gansu.* [55] Dou Gu (d. 88 AD)
defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the Battle of Yiwulu
in AD 73, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them
as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at
Hami.* [56] After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu (d. AD 75) was killed by allies of
the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha, the garrison at Hami
was withdrawn.* [57] At the Battle of Ikh Bayan in AD
89, Dou Xian (d. AD 92) defeated the Northern Xiongnu
chanyu who then retreated into the Altai Mountains.* [58]
After the Northern Xiongnu ed into the Ili River valley in AD 91, the nomadic Xianbei occupied the area
from the borders of the Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria
to the Ili River of the Wusun people.* [59] The Xianbei
reached their apogee under Tanshihuai () (d. AD
180), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his

6
death.* [60]

HISTORY

Empress Dowager Dou (d. 97 AD) put under house arrest and her clan stripped of power. This was in revenge
for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother
Consort Liangand then concealing her identity from
him.* [70] After Emperor He's death, his wife Empress
Deng Sui (d. 121 AD) managed state aairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent nancial crisis
and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to
118 AD.* [71]

Ban Chao (d. AD 102) enlisted the aid of the Kushan

Empire, occupying the area of modern India, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, and Tajikistan, to subdue Kashgar and its
ally Sogdiana.* [61] When a request by Kushan ruler
Vima Kadphises (r. c. 90c. 100 AD) for a marriage
alliance with the Han was rejected in AD 90, he sent his
forces to Wakhan (Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The
conict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of
lack of supplies.* [61] In AD 91, the oce of Protector When Empress Dowager Deng died, Emperor An (r.
General of the Western Regions was reinstated when it 106125 AD) was convinced by the accusations of the
was bestowed on Ban Chao.* [62]
eunuchs Li Run () and Jiang Jing () that Deng
and
her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed
In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the
Deng's
clan members from oce, exiled them and forced
Han Empire received gifts from the Parthian Empire,
many
to
commit suicide.* [72] After An's death, his wife,
from a king in modern Burma, from a ruler in Japan,
and initiated an unsuccessful mission to Daqin (Rome) in Empress Dowager Yan (d. 126 AD) placed the child
AD 97 with Gan Ying as emissary.* [63] A Roman em- Marquess of Beixiang on the throne in an attempt to rebassy of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161180 AD) is tain power within her family. However, palace eunuch
recorded in the Hou Hanshu to have reached the court Sun Cheng (d. 132 AD) masterminded a successful overof Emperor Huan of Han (r. AD 146168) in AD throw of her regime to enthrone Emperor Shun of Han
166,* [64]* [65] yet Rafe de Crespigny asserts that this (r. 125144 AD). Yan was placed under house arrest,
was most likely a group of Roman merchants.* [66] Other her relatives were either* killed or exiled, and her eunuch
travelers to Eastern-Han China included Buddhist monks allies were slaughtered. [73] The regent Liang Ji (d. 159
who translated works into Chinese, such as An Shigao of AD), brother of Empress Liang Na (d. 150 AD), had the
Parthia, and Lokaksema from Kushan-era Gandhara, In- brother-in-law of Consort Deng Mengn (later empress)
(d. 165 AD) killed after Deng Mengn resisted Liang Ji's
dia.* [67]
attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who was then forced
to commit suicide.* [74]

Western-Han pottery tomb statuettes of unclothed servants that

once had wooden arms and miniature silk clothes, which have
eroded over time and since disappeared.* [75]

A female servant and male advisor dressed in silk robes, ceramic

gurines from the Western Han era

Emperor Zhang's (r. 7588 AD) reign came to be viewed

by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house.* [68] Subsequent reigns were increasingly
marked by eunuch intervention in court politics and their
involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial consort clans.* [69] With the aid of the eunuch Zheng
Zhong (d. 107 AD), Emperor He (r. 88105 AD) had

Students from the Imperial University organized a

widespread student protest against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court.* [76] Huan further alienated the
bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction
projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem
at a time of economic crisis.* [77] Palace eunuchs imprisoned the ocial Li Ying () and his associates from
the Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason.
In 167 AD, the Grand Commandant Dou Wu (d. 168
AD) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release
them.* [78] However the emperor permanently barred Li
Ying and his associates from serving in oce, marking
the beginning of the Partisan Prohibitions.* [78]

2.4

End of the Han dynasty

Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor

Chen Fan () (d. 168 AD) attempted a coup d'tat
against the eunuchs Hou Lan (d. 172 AD), Cao Jie (d.
181 AD), and Wang Fu (). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested Empress Dowager Dou (d.
172 AD) and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan ()
favored the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou
Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side
shouted accusations of treason against the other. When
the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced
to commit suicide.* [79]
Under Emperor Ling (r. 168189 AD) the eunuchs had
the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while
themselves auctioning o top government oces.* [80]
Many aairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs Zhao
Zhong (d. 189 AD) and Zhang Rang (d. 189 AD) while
Emperor Ling spent much of his time roleplaying with
concubines and participating in military parades.* [81]
Animalistic guardian spirits of day and night wearing Chinese

2.4

End of the Han dynasty

robes, Han dynasty paintings on ceramic tile; Michael Loewe

writes that the hybrid of man and beast in art and religious beliefs
predated the Han and remained popular during the rst half of
Western Han and the Eastern Han.* [86]

Main article: End of the Han dynasty

Chinese crossbow mechanism with a buttplate from either the late Warring States Period or the early Han
dynasty; made of bronze and inlaid with silver
The Partisan Prohibitions were repealed during the
Yellow Turban Rebellion and Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion in 184 AD, largely because the court did not want
to continue to alienate a signicant portion of the gentry
class who might otherwise join the rebellions.* [82] The
Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two dierent hierarchical Daoist religious societies led by faith healers Zhang Jue (d. 184 AD) and
Zhang Lu (d. 216 AD), respectively. Zhang Lu's rebellion, in modern northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi,
was not quelled until 215 AD.* [83] Zhang Jue's massive rebellion across eight provinces was annihilated by
Han forces within a year, however the following decades
saw much smaller recurrent uprisings.* [84] Although the
Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed
during the crisis never disbanded their assembled militia
forces and used these troops to amass power outside of
the collapsing imperial authority.* [85]

eunuchs' execution.* [87] After a period of hesitation,

Empress He consented. When the eunuchs discovered
this, however, they had her brother He Miao () rescind the order.* [88] The eunuchs assassinated He Jin on
September 22, 189 AD. Yuan Shao then besieged LuAoyang's Northern Palace while his brother Yuan Shu (d.
199 AD) besieged the Southern Palace. On September
25 both palaces were breached and approximately two
thousand eunuchs were killed.* [89] Zhang Rang had previously ed with Emperor Shao (r. 189 AD) and his
brother Liu Xiethe future Emperor Xian of Han (r.
189220 AD). While being pursued by the Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow
River.* [90]
General Dong Zhuo (d. 192 AD) found the young emperor and his brother wandering in the countryside. He
escorted them safely back to the capital and was made
Minister of Works, taking control of Luoyang and forcing Yuan Shao to ee.* [91] After Dong Zhuo demoted
Emperor Shao and promoted his brother Liu Xie as Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led a coalition of former ocials
and ocers against Dong, who burned Luoyang to the
ground and resettled the court at Chang'an in May 191
AD. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao.* [92]

Dong was killed by his adopted son L Bu (d. 198 AD)

in a plot hatched by Wang Yun (d. 192 AD).* [93] Emperor Xian ed from Chang'an in 195 AD to the ruins
of Luoyang. Xian was persuaded by Cao Cao (155220
General-in-Chief He Jin (d. 189 AD), half-brother to AD), then Governor of Yan Province in modern westHenan, to move the capital to
Empress He (d. 189 AD), plotted with Yuan Shao (d. ern Shandong and eastern
*
Xuchang
in
196
AD.
[94]
202 AD) to overthrow the eunuchs by having several generals march to the outskirts of the capital. There, in Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the ema written petition to Empress He, they demanded the peror. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao

3 SOCIETY AND CULTURE

could be enfeoed as marquesses.* [102] By the Eastern

Han period, local elites of unattached scholars, teachers, students, and government ocials began to identify
themselves as members of a larger, nationwide gentry
class with shared values and a commitment to mainstream
scholarship.* [103] When the government became noticeAfter Cao's defeat at the naval Battle of Red Clis in 208 ably corrupt in mid-to-late Eastern Han, many gentrymen
AD, China was divided into three spheres of inuence, even considered the cultivation of morally grounded personal relationships more important than serving in public
with Cao Cao dominating the north, Sun Quan (182252
*
AD) dominating the south, and Liu Bei (161223 AD) oce. [104]
dominating the west.* [96] Cao Cao died in March 220 The farmer, or specically the small landownerAD. By December his son Cao Pi (187226 AD) had cultivator, was ranked just below scholars and ocials in
Emperor Xian relinquish the throne to him and is known the social hierarchy. Other agricultural cultivators were
posthumously as Emperor Wen of Wei. This formally of a lower status, such as tenants, wage laborers, and
ended the Han dynasty and initiated an age of conict in rare cases slaves.* [105] Artisans and craftsmen had a
between three states: Cao Wei, Eastern Wu, and Shu legal and socioeconomic status between that of ownerHan.* [97]
cultivator farmers and common merchants.* [106] Stateregistered merchants, who were forced by law to wear
white-colored clothes and pay high commercial taxes,
were considered by the gentry as social parasites with a
3 Society and culture
contemptible status.* [107] These were often petty shopkeepers of urban marketplaces; merchants such as indusMain article: Society and culture of the Han dynasty
trialists and itinerant traders working between a network
of cities could avoid registering as merchants and were often wealthier and more powerful than the vast majority of
government ocials.* [108] Wealthy landowners, such as
3.1 Social class
nobles and ocials, often provided lodging for retainers
who provided valuable work or duties, sometimes includIn the hierarchical social order, the emperor was at the ing ghting bandits or riding into battle. Unlike slaves,
apex of Han society and government. However the em- retainers could come and go from their master's home as
peror was often a minor, ruled over by a regent such as they pleased.* [109] Medical physicians, pig breeders, and
the empress dowager or one of her male relatives.* [98] butchers had a fairly high social status, while occultist diRanked immediately below the emperor were the kings viners, runners, and messengers had low status.* [110]
who were of the same Liu family clan.* [99] The rest of
society, including nobles lower than kings and all commoners excluding slaves belonged to one of twenty ranks
(ershi gongcheng ).
defeated him at the Battle of Guandu in 200 AD. After
Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan (173
205 AD), who had fought with his brothers over the family inheritance.* [95] His brothers Yuan Shang and Yuan
Xi were killed in 207 AD by Gongsun Kang (d. 221 AD),
who sent their heads to Cao Cao.* [95]

3.2 Marriage, gender, and kinship

Han-dynasty red-and-black lacquerwares, one a bowl,

the other a tray; usually only wealthy ocials, nobles,
and merchants could aord domestic luxury items
like lacquerwares, which were common commodities
produced by skilled artisans and craftsmen.* [100]
Each successive rank gave its holder greater pensions and
legal privileges. The highest rank, of full marquess, came
with a state pension and a territorial efdom. Holders of
the rank immediately below, that of ordinary marquess,
received a pension, but had no territorial rule.* [101]
Ocials who served in government belonged to the wider
commoner social class and were ranked just below nobles in social prestige. The highest government ocials

The Han-era family was patrilineal and typically had four

to ve nuclear family members living in one household.
Two
Multiple generations of extended family members did not
occupy the same house, unlike families of later dynasties.* [111] According to Confucian family norms, various family members were treated with dierent levels
of respect and intimacy. For example, there were different accepted time frames for mourning the death of
a father versus a paternal uncle.* [112] Arranged marriages were normal, with the father's input on his ospring's spouse being considered more important than
the mother's.* [113] Monogamous marriages were also
normal, although nobles and high ocials were wealthy
enough to aord and support concubines as additional
lovers.* [114] Under certain conditions dictated by custom, not law, both men and women were able to divorce
their spouses and remarry.* [115]

3.3

Education, literature, and philosophy

Left
image: A Han pottery female servant in silk robes
Right image: A Han pottery female dancer in silk robes
Apart from the passing of noble titles or ranks,
inheritance practices did not involve primogeniture; each
son received an equal share of the family property.* [116]
Unlike the practice in later dynasties, the father usually
sent his adult married sons away with their portions of
the family fortune.* [117] Daughters received a portion
of the family fortune through their marriage dowries,
though this was usually much less than the shares of
sons.* [118] A dierent distribution of the remainder
could be specied in a will, but it is unclear how common this was.* [119]
Women were expected to obey the will of their father,
then their husband, and then their adult son in old age.
However, it is known from contemporary sources that
there were many deviations to this rule, especially in
regard to mothers over their sons, and empresses who
ordered around and openly humiliated their fathers and
brothers.* [120] Women were exempt from the annual
corve labor duties, but often engaged in a range of
income-earning occupations aside from their domestic
chores of cooking and cleaning.* [121]
The most common occupation for women was weaving clothes for the family, sale at market or for large
textile enterprises that employed hundreds of women.
Other women helped on their brothers' farms or became
singers, dancers, sorceresses, respected medical physicians, and successful merchants who could aord their
own silk clothes.* [122] Some women formed spinning
collectives, aggregating the resources of several dierent
families.* [123]

3.3

Education, literature, and philosophy

A fragment of the 'Stone Classics' ( ); these stonecarved Five Classics installed during Emperor Ling's reign along
the roadside of the Imperial University (right outside Luoyang)
were made at the instigation of Cai Yong (132192 AD), who
feared the Classics housed in the imperial library were being
interpolated by University Academicians.* [124]

shaping government policy.* [125] However, the Han

court under Emperor Wu gave Confucianism exclusive
patronage. He abolished all academic chairs or erudites
(bsh ) not dealing with the Confucian Five Classics
in 136 BC and encouraged nominees for oce to receive
a Confucian-based education at the Imperial University
that he established in 124 BC.* [126] Unlike the original ideology espoused by Confucius, or Kongzi (551479
BC), Han Confucianism in Emperor Wu's reign was the
creation of Dong Zhongshu (179104 BC). Dong was
a scholar and minor ocial who aggregated the ethical
Confucian ideas of ritual, lial piety, and harmonious
relationships with ve phases and yin-yang cosmologies.* [127] Much to the interest of the ruler, Dong's synthesis justied the imperial system of government within
the natural order of the universe.* [128] The Imperial
University grew in importance as the student body grew to
over 30,000 by the 2nd century AD.* [129] A Confucianbased education was also made available at commanderylevel schools and private schools opened in small towns,
where teachers earned respectable incomes from tuition
payments.* [130]

The early Western Han court simultaneously accepted the

philosophical teachings of Legalism, Huang-Lao Daoism, and Confucianism in making state decisions and Some important texts were created and studied by schol-

10

3 SOCIETY AND CULTURE

ars. Philosophical works written by Yang Xiong (53 BC

18 AD), Huan Tan (43 BC 28 AD), Wang Chong (27
100 AD), and Wang Fu (78163 AD) questioned whether
human nature was innately good or evil and posed challenges to Dong's universal order.* [131] The Records of
the Grand Historian by Sima Tan (d. 110 BC) and his son
Sima Qian (14586 BC) established the standard model
for all of imperial China's Standard Histories, such as
the Book of Han written by Ban Biao (354 AD), his
son Ban Gu (3292 AD), and his daughter Ban Zhao
(45116 AD).* [132] There were dictionaries such as the
Shuowen Jiezi by Xu Shen (c. 58 c. 147 AD) and
the Fangyan by Yang Xiong.* [133] Biographies on important gures were written by various gentrymen.* [134]
Han dynasty poetry was dominated by the fu genre, which
achieved its greatest prominence during the reign of Emperor Wu.* [135]

dogs (various types were bred specically for food, while

most were used as pets). Turtles and sh were taken from
streams and lakes. Commonly hunted game, such as owl,
pheasant, magpie, sika deer, and Chinese bamboo partridge were consumed.* [144] Seasonings included sugar,
honey, salt and soy sauce.* [145] Beer and wine were regularly consumed.* [146]

3.6 Clothing

Woven

3.4

Law and order

Han scholars such as Jia Yi (201169 BC) portrayed the

previous Qin dynasty as a brutal regime. However, archaeological evidence from Zhangjiashan and Shuihudi
reveal that many of the statutes in the Han law code compiled by Chancellor Xiao He (d. 193 BC) were derived
from Qin law.* [136]

silk textile from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha,

Hunan province, China, 2nd century BC
The types of clothing worn and the materials used during
the Han period depended upon social class. Wealthy folk
could aord silk robes, skirts, socks, and mittens, coats
made of badger or fox fur, duck plumes, and slippers with
inlaid leather, pearls, and silk lining. Peasants commonly
wore clothes made of hemp, wool, and ferret skins.* [147]

Various cases for rape, physical abuse and murder were

prosecuted in court. Women, although usually having
fewer rights by custom, were allowed to level civil and 3.7
criminal charges against men.* [137] While suspects were
jailed, convicted criminals were never imprisoned. Instead, punishments were commonly monetary nes, periods of forced hard labor for convicts, and the penalty
of death by beheading.* [138] Early Han punishments of
torturous mutilation were borrowed from Qin law. A
series of reforms abolished mutilation punishments with
progressively less-severe beatings by the bastinado.* [139]

Religion, cosmology, and metaphysics

Acting as a judge in lawsuits was one of many duties of

the county magistrate and Administrators of commanderies. Complex, high prole or unresolved cases were
often deferred to the Minister of Justice in the capital or
even the emperor.* [140] In each Han county was several
districts, each overseen by a chief of police. Order in the
cities was maintained by government ocers in the marketplaces and constables in the neighborhoods.* [141]
An Eastern-Han bronze statuette of a mythical chimera (qilin),
1st century AD

3.5

Food

The most common staple crops consumed during Han

were wheat, barley, foxtail millet, proso millet, rice,
and beans.* [142] Commonly eaten fruits and vegetables included chestnuts, pears, plums, peaches, melons,
apricots, strawberries, red bayberries, jujubes, calabash,
bamboo shoots, mustard plant and taro.* [143] Domesticated animals that were also eaten included chickens,
Mandarin ducks, geese, cows, sheep, pigs, camels and

Families throughout Han China made ritual sacrices

of animals and food to deities, spirits, and ancestors
at temples and shrines, in the belief that these items
could be utilized by those in the spiritual realm.* [148]
It was thought that each person had a two-part soul: the
spirit-soul (hun ) which journeyed to the afterlife paradise of immortals (xian), and the body-soul (po )
which remained in its grave or tomb on earth and was
only reunited with the spirit-soul through a ritual ceremony.* [149] These tombs were commonly adorned with

11
uniquely decorated hollow clay tiles that function also as of Wisdom, Shurangama Sutra, and Pratyutpanna Sua doorjamb to the tomb. Otherwise known as tomb tiles, tra.* [160]
these artifacts feature holes in the top and bottom of the
tile allowing it to pivot. Similar tiles have been found in
the Chengdu area of Sichuan province in south-central 4 Government
China.* [150]
In addition to his many other roles, the emperor acted Main article: Government of the Han dynasty
as the highest priest in the land who made sacrices to
Heaven, the main deities known as the Five Powers, and
the spirits (shen ) of mountains and rivers.* [151] It
was believed that the three realms of Heaven, Earth, and 4.1 Central government
Mankind were linked by natural cycles of yin and yang
and the ve phases.* [152] If the emperor did not behave
according to proper ritual, ethics, and morals, he could
disrupt the ne balance of these cosmological cycles and
cause calamities such as earthquakes, oods, droughts,
epidemics, and swarms of locusts.* [153]
A
pottery model of a palace from a Han-dynasty tomb; the
entrances to the emperor's palaces were strictly guarded
by the Minister of the Guards; if it was found that a
commoner, ocial, or noble entered without explicit
permission via a tally system, the intruder was subject to
execution.* [161]

A rubbing of a Han pictorial stone showing an ancestral worship

hall (citang )

It was believed that immortality could be achieved if one

reached the lands of the Queen Mother of the West or
Mount Penglai.* [154] Han-era Daoists assembled into
small groups of hermits who attempted to achieve immortality through breathing exercises, sexual techniques
and use of medical elixirs.* [155] By the 2nd century AD,
Daoists formed large hierarchical religious societies such
as the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice. Its followers believed that the sage-philosopher Laozi (. 6th century
BC) was a holy prophet who would oer salvation and
good health if his devout followers would confess their
sins, ban the worship of unclean gods who accepted meat
sacrices and chant sections of the Daodejing.* [156]
Buddhism rst entered China during the Eastern Han
and was rst mentioned in 65 AD.* [157] Liu Ying (d.
71 AD), a half-brother to Emperor Ming of Han (r.
5775 AD), was one of its earliest Chinese adherents,
although Chinese Buddhism at this point was heavily
associated with Huang-Lao Daoism.* [158] China's rst
known Buddhist temple, the White Horse Temple, was
erected outside the wall of the capital, Luoyang, during
Emperor Ming's reign.* [159] Important Buddhist canons
were translated into Chinese during the 2nd century AD,
including the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters, Perfection

In Han government, the emperor was the supreme judge

and lawgiver, the commander-in-chief of the armed
forces and sole designator of ocial nominees appointed
to the top posts in central and local administrations; those
who earned a 600-bushel salary-rank or higher.* [162]
Theoretically, there were no limits to his power. However, state organs with competing interests and institutions such as the court conference (tingyi )where
ministers were convened to reach majority consensus on
an issuepressured the emperor to accept the advice of
his ministers on policy decisions.* [163] If the emperor
rejected a court conference decision, he risked alienating
his high ministers. Nevertheless, emperors sometimes
did reject the majority opinion reached at court conferences.* [164]
Below the emperor were his cabinet members known as
the Three Councillors of State (San gong ). These
were the Chancellor or Minister over the Masses (Chengxiang or Da situ ), the Imperial Counselor
or Excellency of Works (Yushi dafu or Da
sikong ), and Grand Commandant or Grand Marshal (Taiwei or Da sima ).* [165]
The Chancellor, whose title was changed to 'Minister over
the Masses' in 8 BC, was chiey responsible for drafting the government budget. The Chancellor's other duties included managing provincial registers for land and
population, leading court conferences, acting as judge
in lawsuits and recommending nominees for high oce.
He could appoint ocials below the salary-rank of 600
bushels.* [166]
The Imperial Counselor's chief duty was to conduct disci-

12

4 GOVERNMENT

plinary procedures for ocials. He shared similar duties clusively, providing him with entertainment and amusewith the Chancellor, such as receiving annual provincial ments, proper food and clothing, medicine and physical
reports. However, when his title was changed to Minis- care, valuables and equipment.* [177]
ter of Works in 8 BC, his chief duty became oversight of
public works projects.* [167]

4.2 Local government

A scene of historic paragons of lial piety conversing with one

another, Chinese painted artwork on a lacquered basketwork
box, excavated from an Eastern-Han tomb of what was the Chinese Lelang Commandery in modern North Korea

The Grand Commandant, whose title was changed to

Grand Marshal in 119 BC before reverting to Grand
Commandant in 51 AD, was the irregularly posted commander of the military and then regent during the Western Han period. In the Eastern Han era he was chiey a
civil ocial who shared many of the same censorial powers as the other two Councillors of State.* [168]
Ranked below the Three Councillors of State were the
Nine Ministers (Jiu qing ), who each headed a specialized ministry. The Minister of Ceremonies (Taichang
) was the chief ocial in charge of religious rites,
rituals, prayers and the maintenance of ancestral temples
and altars.* [169] The Minister of the Household (Guang
lu xun ) was in charge of the emperor's security
within the palace grounds, external imperial parks and
wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot.* [170]
The Minister of the Guards (Weiwei ) was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls, towers, and
gates of the imperial palaces.* [171] The Minister Coachman (Taipu ) was responsible for the maintenance of
imperial stables, horses, carriages and coach-houses for
the emperor and his palace attendants, as well as the supply of horses for the armed forces.* [172] The Minister of
Justice (Tingwei ) was the chief ocial in charge of
upholding, administering, and interpreting the law.* [173]
The Minister Herald (Da honglu ) was the chief
ocial in charge of receiving honored guests at the imperial court, such as nobles and foreign ambassadors.* [174]
The Minister of the Imperial Clan (Zongzheng )
oversaw the imperial court's interactions with the empire's nobility and extended imperial family, such as
granting efs and titles.* [175] The Minister of Finance
(Da sinong ) was the treasurer for the ocial bureaucracy and the armed forces who handled tax revenues
and set standards for units of measurement.* [176] The
Minister Steward (Shaofu ) served the emperor ex-

A pottery dog found in a Han tomb wearing a decorative dog

collar, indicating their domestication as pets,* [178] while it is
known from written sources that the emperor's imperial parks
had kennels for hunting dogs.* [179]

The Han Empire, excluding kingdoms and marquessates,

was divided, in descending order of size, into political units of provinces (zhou), commanderies (jun), and
counties (xian).* [180] A county was divided into several
districts, the latter composed of a group of hamlets, each
containing about a hundred families.* [181]* [182]
The heads of provinces, whose ocial title was changed
from Inspector to Governor and vice versa several
times during Han, were responsible for inspecting several commandery-level and kingdom-level administrations.* [183] On the basis of their reports, the ocials in
these local administrations would be promoted, demoted,
dismissed or prosecuted by the imperial court.* [184]
A governor could take various actions without permission
from the imperial court. The lower-ranked inspector had
executive powers only during times of crisis, such as raising militias across the commanderies under his jurisdiction to suppress a rebellion.* [180]
A commandery consisted of a group of counties, and

4.4

Military

was headed by an Administrator.* [180] He was the top

civil and military leader of the commandery and handled defense, lawsuits, seasonal instructions to farmers
and recommendations of nominees for oce sent annually to the capital in a quota system rst established
by Emperor Wu.* [185] The head of a large county of
about 10,000 households was called a Prefect, while the
heads of smaller counties were called Chiefs, and both
could be referred to as Magistrates.* [186] A Magistrate
maintained law and order in his county, registered the
populace for taxation, mobilized commoners for annual
corve duties, repaired schools and supervised public
works.* [187]

4.3

13
full marquess's ef were appointed by the central government. A marquess's Chancellor was ranked as the equivalent of a county Prefect. Like a king, the marquess collected a portion of the tax revenues in his ef as personal
income.* [192]

Kingdoms and marquessates

Main article: Kings of the Han dynasty

Kingdomsroughly the size of commanderieswere

The physical exercise chart; a painting on silk depicting the practice of Qigong Taiji; unearthed in 1973 in Hunan Province,
China, from the 2nd-century BC Western Han burial site of
Mawangdui, Tomb Number 3.

ruled exclusively by the emperor's male relatives as semiautonomous efdoms. Before 157 BC some kingdoms
were ruled by non-relatives, granted to them in return
for their services to Emperor Gaozu. The administration
of each kingdom was very similar to that of the central
government.* [188] Although the emperor appointed the An Eastern-Han pottery soldier, with a now-faded coating of
Chancellor of each kingdom, kings appointed all the re- paint, is missing a weapon.
maining civil ocials in their efs.* [189]
However, in 145 BC, after several insurrections by
the kings, Emperor Jing removed the kings' rights to
appoint ocials whose salaries were higher than 400
bushels.* [190] The Imperial Counselors and Nine Ministers (excluding the Minister Coachman) of every kingdom were abolished, although the Chancellor was still appointed by the central government.* [190]
With these reforms, kings were reduced to being nominal
heads of their efs, gaining a personal income from only
a portion of the taxes collected in their kingdom.* [191]
Similarly, the ocials in the administrative sta of a

4.4 Military
At the beginning of the Han dynasty, every male commoner aged twenty-three was liable for conscription into
the military. The minimum age for the military draft was
reduced to twenty after Emperor Zhao's (r. 8774 BC)
reign.* [193] Conscripted soldiers underwent one year
of training and one year of service as non-professional
soldiers. The year of training was served in one of
three branches of the armed forces: infantry, cavalry or
navy.* [194] The year of active service was served either

14

5 ECONOMY

on the frontier, in a king's court or under the Minister not reduced until 175 BC when Emperor Wen allowed
of the Guards in the capital. A small professional (paid) private minters to manufacture coins that were precisely
standing army was stationed near the capital.* [194]
2.6 g (0.09 oz) in weight.* [200]
During the Eastern Han, conscription could be avoided
if one paid a commutable tax. The Eastern Han court
favored the recruitment of a volunteer army.* [195] The
volunteer army comprised the Southern Army (Nanjun
), while the standing army stationed in and near the
capital was the Northern Army (Beijun ).* [196] Led
by Colonels (Xiaowei ), the Northern Army consisted of ve regiments, each composed of several thousand soldiers.* [197] When central authority collapsed after 189 AD, wealthy landowners, members of the aristocracy/nobility, and regional military-governors relied upon
their retainers to act as their own personal troops (buqu
).* [198]

In 144 BC Emperor Jing abolished private minting in favor of central-government and commandery-level minting; he also introduced a new coin.* [201] Emperor Wu
introduced another in 120 BC, but a year later he abandoned the ban liangs entirely in favor of the wuzhu ()
coin, weighing 3.2 g (0.11 oz).* [202] The wuzhu became
China's standard coin until the Tang dynasty (618907
AD). Its use was interrupted briey by several new currencies introduced during Wang Mang's regime until it
was reinstated in 40 AD by Emperor Guangwu.* [203]
Since commandery-issued coins were often of inferior
quality and lighter weight, the central government closed
commandery mints and monopolized the issue of coinage
in 113 BC. This Central government issuance of coinage
was overseen by the Superintendent of Waterways and
Parks, this duty being transferred to the Minister of Finance during Eastern Han.* [204]

During times of war, the volunteer army was increased,

and a much larger militia was raised across the country to supplement the Northern Army. In these circumstances, a General (Jiangjun ) led a division, which
was divided into regiments led by Colonels and sometimes Majors (Sima ). Regiments were divided into
companies and led by Captains. Platoons were the small- 5.2 Taxation and property
est units of soldiers.* [199]
Aside from the landowner's land tax paid in a portion
of their crop yield, the poll tax and property taxes were
paid in coin cash.* [205] The annual poll tax rate for adult
5 Economy
men and women was 120 coins and 20 coins for minors. Merchants were required to pay a higher rate of
Main article: Economy of the Han dynasty
240 coins.* [206] The poll tax stimulated a money economy that necessitated the minting of over 28,000,000,000
coins from 118 BC to 5 AD, an average of 220,000,000
coins a year.* [207]

5.1

Variations in currency

Left

A wuzhu () coin issued during the reign of Emperor Wu (r.

14187 BC), 25.5 mm in diameter

image: Eastern-Han tomb models of towers with

dougong brackets supporting balconies, 1st2nd century
AD. Zhang Heng (78139 AD) described the large
imperial park in the suburbs of Chang'an as having
tall towers where archers would shoot stringed arrows
from the top in order to entertain the Western Han
emperors.* [208]
Right image: A painted ceramic architectural model
found in an Eastern-Han tomb at Jiazuo, Henan province
depicting a fortied manor with towers, a courtyard,
verandas, tiled rooftops, dougong support brackets, and
a covered bridge extending from the third oor of the
main tower to the smaller watchtower.* [209]

The Han dynasty inherited the ban liang coin type from
the Qin. In the beginning of the Han, Emperor Gaozu
closed the government mint in favor of private minting
of coins. This decision was reversed in 186 BC by his
widow Grand Empress Dowager L Zhi (d. 180 BC),
who abolished private minting.* [200] In 182 BC, L Zhi The widespread circulation of coin cash allowed successissued a bronze coin that was much lighter in weight than ful merchants to invest money in land, empowering the
previous coins. This caused widespread ination that was very social class the government attempted to suppress

15
through heavy commercial and property taxes.* [210]
Emperor Wu even enacted laws which banned registered
merchants from owning land, yet powerful merchants
were able to avoid registration and own large tracts of
land.* [211]
The small landowner-cultivators formed the majority of
the Han tax base; this revenue was threatened during
the latter half of Eastern Han when many peasants fell
into debt and were forced to work as farming tenants for
wealthy landlords.* [212] The Han government enacted
reforms in order to keep small landowner-cultivators out
of debt and on their own farms. These reforms included
reducing taxes, temporary remissions of taxes, granting
loans and providing landless peasants temporary lodging
and work in agricultural colonies until they could recover
from their debts.* [213]
In 168 BC, the land tax rate was reduced from onefteenth of a farming household's crop yield to onethirtieth,* [214] and later to a one-hundredth of a crop
yield for the last decades of the dynasty. The consequent
loss of government revenue was compensated for by increasing property taxes.* [215]
The labor tax took the form of conscripted labor for one
month per year, which was imposed upon male commoners aged fteen to fty-six. This could be avoided in Eastern Han with a commutable tax, since hired labor became
more popular.* [216]

5.3

olies.* [218] By Eastern Han times, the central government monopolies were repealed in favor of production
by commandery and county administrations, as well as
private businessmen.* [219]
Liquor was another protable private industry nationalized by the central government in 98 BC. However, this
was repealed in 81 BC and a property tax rate of two coins
for every 0.2 L (0.05 gallons) was levied for those who
traded it privately.* [220] By 110 BC Emperor Wu also
interfered with the protable trade in grain when he eliminated speculation by selling government-stored grain at
a lower price than demanded by merchants.* [221] Apart
from Emperor Ming's creation of a short-lived Oce for
Price Adjustment and Stabilization, which was abolished
in 68 AD, central-government price control regulations
were largely absent during the Eastern Han.* [222]

6 Science, technology, and engineering

Main article: Science and technology of the Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was a unique period in the development

Private manufacture and government

monopolies

The ruins of a Han-dynasty watchtower made of rammed earth

at Dunhuang, Gansu province, the eastern edge of the Silk Road

of premodern Chinese science and technology, comparable to the level of scientic and technological growth
during the Song dynasty (9601279).* [223]

A Han-dynasty iron Ji (halberd) and iron dagger

In the early Western Han, a wealthy salt or iron industrialist, whether a semi-autonomous king or wealthy merchant, could boast funds that rivaled the imperial treasury
and amass a peasant workforce of over a thousand. This
kept many peasants away from their farms and denied
the government a signicant portion of its land tax revenue.* [217] To eliminate the inuence of such private entrepreneurs, Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron
industries in 117 BC and allowed many of the former industrialists to become ocials administering the monop-

6.1 Writing materials

In the 1st millennium BC, typical ancient Chinese writing
materials were bronzewares, animal bones, and bamboo
slips or wooden boards. By the beginning of the Han dynasty, the chief writing materials were clay tablets, silk
cloth, and rolled scrolls made from bamboo strips sewn
together with hempen string; these were passed through
drilled holes and secured with clay stamps.* [224]
The oldest known Chinese piece of hard, hempen
wrapping paper dates to the 2nd century BC. The standard papermaking process was invented by Cai Lun (50

16

121 AD) in 105 AD.* [225] The oldest known surviving

piece of paper with writing on it was found in the ruins of
a Han watchtower that had been abandoned in 110 AD,
in Inner Mongolia.* [226]

6.2

Metallurgy and agriculture

Evidence suggests that blast furnaces, that convert raw

iron ore into pig iron, which can be remelted in a cupola
furnace to produce cast iron by means of a cold blast and
hot blast, were operational in China by the late Spring and
Autumn period (722481 BC).* [227] The bloomery was
nonexistent in ancient China; however, the Han-era Chinese produced wrought iron by injecting excess oxygen
into a furnace and causing decarburization.* [228] Cast
iron and pig iron could be converted into wrought iron
and steel using a ning process.* [229]

A pair of Eastern-Han iron scissors

The Han-era Chinese used bronze and iron to make a

range of weapons, culinary tools, carpenters' tools and
domestic wares.* [230] A signicant product of these improved iron-smelting techniques was the manufacture of
new agricultural tools. The three-legged iron seed drill,
invented by the 2nd century BC, enabled farmers to carefully plant crops in rows instead of casting seeds out by
hand.* [231] The heavy moldboard iron plow, also invented during the Han dynasty, required only one man
to control it, two oxen to pull it. It had three plowshares,
a seed box for the drills, a tool which turned down the soil
and could sow roughly 45,730 m2 (11.3 acres) of land in

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND ENGINEERING

a single day.* [232]

To protect crops from wind and drought, the Grain Intendant Zhao Guo () created the alternating elds
system (daitianfa ) during Emperor Wu's reign.
This system switched the positions of furrows and ridges
between growing seasons.* [233] Once experiments with
this system yielded successful results, the government
ocially sponsored it and encouraged peasants to use
it.* [233] Han farmers also used the pit eld system (aotian ) for growing crops, which involved heavily fertilized pits that did not require plows or oxen and could
be placed on sloping terrain.* [234] In southern and small
parts of central Han-era China, paddy elds were chiey
used to grow rice, while farmers along the Huai River
used transplantation methods of rice production.* [235]

6.3 Structural engineering

A stone-carved pillar-gate, or que (), 6 m (20 ft) in total height,

located at the tomb of Gao Yi in Ya'an, Sichuan province, Eastern
Han dynasty* [236]

Timber was the chief building material during the Han

dynasty; it was used to build palace halls, multi-story residential towers and halls and single-story houses.* [237]
Because wood decays rapidly, the only remaining evidence of Han wooden architecture is a collection of
scattered ceramic roof tiles.* [238] The oldest surviving
wooden halls in China date to the Tang dynasty (618
907 AD).* [239] Architectural historian Robert L. Thorp
points out the scarcity of Han-era archaeological remains,
and claims that often unreliable Han-era literary and

6.4

Mechanical and hydraulic engineering

17

artistic sources are used by historians for clues about lost Underground mine shafts, some reaching depths over 100
Han architecture.* [240]
metres (330 ft), were created for the extraction of metal
*
Though Han wooden structures decayed, some Han- ores. [251] Borehole drilling and derricks were used to
dynasty ruins made of brick, stone, and rammed earth re- lift brine to iron pans where it was distilled into salt.
funmain intact. This includes stone pillar-gates, brick tomb The distillation furnaces were heated by natural gas
*
neled
to
the
surface
through
bamboo
pipelines.
[252]
chambers, rammed-earth city walls, rammed-earth and
brick beacon towers, rammed-earth sections of the Great Dangerous amounts of additional gas were siphoned o
Wall, rammed-earth platforms where elevated halls once via carburetor chambers and exhaust pipes.
stood, and two rammed-earth castles in Gansu.* [241]
The ruins of rammed-earth walls that once surrounded
6.4
the capitals Chang'an and Luoyang still stand, along
with their drainage systems of brick arches, ditches,
and ceramic water pipes.* [242] Monumental stone pillargates, twenty-nine of which survive from the Han period, formed entrances of walled enclosures at shrine and
tomb sites.* [243] These pillars feature artistic imitations
of wooden and ceramic building components such as roof
tiles, eaves, and balustrades.* [244]

Mechanical and hydraulic engineering

The courtyard house is the most common type of home

portrayed in Han artwork.* [237] Ceramic architectural
models of buildings, like houses and towers, were found
in Han tombs, perhaps to provide lodging for the dead
in the afterlife. These provide valuable clues about lost
wooden architecture. The artistic designs found on ceramic roof tiles of tower models are in some cases exA Han-dynasty pottery model of two men operating a winnowing
act matches to Han roof tiles found at archaeological machine with a crank handle and a tilt hammer used to pound
*
sites. [245]
grain.

An Eastern-Han vaulted tomb chamber at Luoyang made of

small bricks

Over ten Han-era underground tombs have been found,

many of them featuring archways, vaulted chambers, and
domed roofs.* [246] Underground vaults and domes did
not require buttress supports since they were held in place
by earthen pits.* [247] The use of brick vaults and domes
in aboveground Han structures is unknown.* [247]
From Han literary sources, it is known that woodentrestle beam bridges, arch bridges, simple suspension
bridges, and oating pontoon bridges existed in Han
China.* [248] However, there are only two known references to arch bridges in Han literature,* [249] and only
a single Han relief sculpture in Sichuan depicts an arch
bridge.* [250]

Chinese scholars and ocials traditionally considered

scientic and engineering pursuits to be the domain of artisans and craftsmen (gongren ), far beneath the ideal
Confucian literary gentleman.* [253] Accordingly, evidence of Han-era mechanical engineering comes largely
from the choice observational writings of sometimes
disinterested Confucian scholars. Professional artisanengineers (jiang ) did not leave behind detailed records
of their work.* [254] Han scholars, who often had little or
no expertise in mechanical engineering, sometimes provided insucient information on the various technologies they described.* [255] Nevertheless, some Han literary sources provide crucial information. For example,
in 15 BC the philosopher Yang Xiong described the invention of the belt drive for a quilling machine, which
was of great importance to early textile manufacturing.
The inventions of the artisan-engineer Ding Huan ()
are mentioned in the Miscellaneous Notes on the Western
Capital.* [256] Around 180 AD, Ding created a manually operated rotary fan used for air conditioning within
palace buildings.* [257] Ding also used gimbals as pivotal
supports for one of his incense burners and invented the
world's rst known zoetrope lamp.* [258]
Modern archaeology has led to the discovery of Han artwork portraying inventions which were otherwise absent
in Han literary sources. As observed in Han miniature
tomb models, but not in literary sources, the crank handle was used to operate the fans of winnowing machines
that separated grain from cha.* [259] The odometer cart,

18
invented during Han, measured journey lengths, using
mechanical gures banging drums and gongs to indicate
each distance traveled.* [260] This invention is depicted
in Han artwork by the 2nd century AD, yet detailed written descriptions were not oered until the 3rd century
AD.* [261] Modern archaeologists have also unearthed
specimens of devices used during the Han dynasty, for
example a pair of sliding metal calipers used by craftsmen for making minute measurements. These calipers
contain inscriptions of the exact day and year they were
manufactured. These tools are not mentioned in any Han
literary sources.* [262]

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND ENGINEERING

the reservoir and inow vessel.* [269] Zhang also invented a device he termed anearthquake weathervane
(houfeng didong yi ), which the British scientist Joseph Needham described as the ancestor of
all seismographs.* [270] This device was able to detect the exact cardinal or ordinal direction of earthquakes
from hundreds of kilometers away.* [271] It employed
an inverted pendulum that, when disturbed by ground
tremors, would trigger a set of gears that dropped a metal
ball from one of eight dragon mouths (representing all
eight directions) into a metal toad's mouth.* [272] The account of this device in the Book of the Later Han (Hou
Han shu ) describes how, on one occasion, one
of the metal balls was triggered without any of the observers feeling a disturbance. Several days later, a messenger arrived bearing news that an earthquake had struck
in Longxi Commandery (in modern Gansu Province),
the direction the device had indicated, which forced the
ocials at court to admit the ecacy of Zhang's device.* [273]

6.5 Mathematics
Three Han mathematical treatises still exist. These are
the Book on Numbers and Computation (Suan shu shu
), the Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the
Circular Paths of Heaven (Zhou bi suan jing )
and the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (Jiu zhang
suan shu ). Han-era mathematical achievements include solving problems with right-angle triangles,
square roots, cube roots, and matrix methods,* [274] ndA modern replica of Zhang Heng's seismometer
ing more accurate approximations for pi,* [275] providing
*
The waterwheel appeared in Chinese records during the mathematical proof of the Pythagorean theorem, [276]
use of the decimal fraction, Gaussian elimination to solve
Han. As mentioned by Huan Tan in about 20 AD,
*
they were used to turn gears that lifted iron trip ham- linear equations, [277] and continued fractions to nd the
roots of equations.
mers, and were used in pounding, threshing and polishing
*
grain. [263] However, there is no sucient evidence for One of the Han's greatest mathematical advancements
the watermill in China until about the 5th century.* [264] was the world's rst use of negative numbers. NegaThe Nanyang Commandery Administrator Du Shi (d. tive numbers rst appeared in the Nine Chapters on the
38 AD) created a waterwheel-powered reciprocator that Mathematical Art as black counting rods, where positive
worked the bellows for the smelting of iron.* [265] Water- numbers were represented by red counting rods.* [278]
wheels were also used to power chain pumps that lifted Negative numbers are used in the Bakhshali manuscript
water to raised irrigation ditches. The chain pump was of ancient India, but its exact date of compilation is unrst mentioned in China by the philosopher Wang Chong known.* [279] Negative numbers were also used by the
Greek mathematician Diophantus in about 275 AD, but
in his 1st-century-AD Balanced Discourse.* [266]
were
not widely accepted in Europe until the 16th century
The armillary sphere, a three-dimensional representation
AD.
of the movements in the celestial sphere, was invented in
Han China by the 1st century BC.* [267] Using a water
clock, waterwheel and a series of gears, the Court Astronomer Zhang Heng (78139 AD) was able to mechanically rotate his metal-ringed armillary sphere.* [268]
To address the problem of slowed timekeeping in the
pressure head of the inow water clock, Zhang was
the rst in China to install an additional tank between

The Han applied mathematics to various diverse disciplines. In musical tuning, Jing Fang (7837 BC) realized that 53 perfect fths was approximate to 31 octaves
while creating a musical scale of 60 tones, calculating the
dierence at 177147 176776 (the same value of 53 equal
temperament discovered by the German mathematician
Nicholas Mercator [16201687], i.e. 353 /284 ).* [280]

6.7

Cartography, ships, and vehicles

19

A Han-dynasty era mold for making bronze gear wheels

(Shanghai Museum)

6.6

Astronomy

An early Western-Han silk map found in tomb 3 of Mawangdui,

depicting the Kingdom of Changsha and Kingdom of Nanyue in
southern China (note: the south direction is oriented at the top).

Mathematics were essential in drafting the astronomical

calendar, a lunisolar calendar that used the Sun and Moon
as time-markers throughout the year.* [281] Use of the
ancient Sifen calendar (), which measured the
tropical year at 3651 4 days, was replaced in 104 BC with
the Taichu calendar () that measured the tropical
year at 365385 1539 days and the lunar month at 2943 81
days.* [282] However, Emperor Zhang later reinstated the
Sifen calendar.* [283]
Han Chinese astronomers made star catalogues and detailed records of comets that appeared in the night sky,
including recording the 12 BC appearance of the comet
now known as Halley's comet.* [284]
An Eastern-Han pottery ship model with a steering rudder at the
Han-era astronomers adopted a geocentric model of the
universe, theorizing that it was shaped like a sphere surrounding the earth in the center.* [285] They assumed
that the Sun, Moon, and planets were spherical and not
disc-shaped. They also thought that the illumination
of the Moon and planets was caused by sunlight, that
lunar eclipses occurred when the Earth obstructed sunlight falling onto the Moon, and that a solar eclipse occurred when the Moon obstructed sunlight from reaching the Earth.* [286] Although others disagreed with his
model, Wang Chong accurately described the water cycle
of the evaporation of water into clouds.* [287]

6.7

Cartography, ships, and vehicles

Evidence found in Chinese literature, and archaeological evidence, show that cartography existed in China before the Han.* [288] Some of the earliest Han maps discovered were ink-penned silk maps found amongst the
Mawangdui Silk Texts in a 2nd-century-BC tomb.* [289]
The general Ma Yuan created the world's rst known
raised-relief map from rice in the 1st century AD. This

stern and anchor at the bow

date could be revised if the tomb of Qin Shi Huang is excavated and the account in the Records of the Grand Historian concerning a model map of the empire is proven to
be true.
Although the use of the graduated scale and grid reference
for maps was not thoroughly described until the published
work of Pei Xiu (224271 AD), there is evidence that in
the early 2nd century AD, cartographer Zhang Heng was
the rst to use scales and grids for maps.* [290]
The Han-era Chinese sailed in a variety of ships differing from those of previous eras, such as the tower
ship. The junk design was developed and realized during Han. Junks featured a square-ended bow and stern,
a at-bottomed hull or carvel-shaped hull with no keel or
sternpost, and solid transverse bulkheads in the place of
structural ribs found in Western vessels.* [291] Moreover,
Han ships were the rst in the world to be steered using a
rudder at the stern, in contrast to the simpler steering oar
used for riverine transport, allowing them to sail on the
high seas.* [292]

20

REFERENCES

Although ox-carts and chariots were previously used in 8 References

China, the wheelbarrow was rst used in Han China in
the 1st century BC.* [293] Han artwork of horse-drawn
8.1 Citations
chariots shows that the Warring-States-Era heavy wooden
yoke placed around a horse's chest was replaced by the [1]MAPPING HISTORY WORLD HISTORY, Dr. Ian
softer breast strap.* [294] Later, during the Northern Wei
Barnes.ISBN 978-1-84573-323-0
(386534 AD), the fully developed horse collar was in[2] Taagepera, Rein (1979).
Size and Duration of
vented.* [294]

6.8

Medicine

Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600

A.D.. Social Science History 3 (3/4): 115138.
doi:10.1017/S014555320002294X. JSTOR 1170959.

[3] Nishijima (1986), pp. 595596.

Han-era medical physicians believed that the human body

was subject to the same forces of nature that governed
the greater universe, namely the cosmological cycles of
yin and yang and the ve phases. Each organ of the
body was associated with a particular phase. Illness was
viewed as a sign that qi or vital energychannels leading to a certain organ had been disrupted. Thus, Hanera physicians prescribed medicine that was believed
to counteract this imbalance.* [295] For example, since
the wood phase was believed to promote the re phase,
medicinal ingredients associated with the wood phase
could be used to heal an organ associated with the re
phase.* [296] To this end, the physician Zhang Zhongjing
(c. 150c. 219 AD) prescribed regulated diets rich
in certain foods that were thought to cure specic illnesses. These are now known to be nutrition disorders
caused by the lack of certain vitamins consumed in one's
diet. Besides dieting, Han physicians also prescribed
moxibustion, acupuncture, and calisthenics as methods of
maintaining one's health.* [297] When surgery was performed by the physician Hua Tuo (d. 208 AD), he used
anesthesia to numb his patients' pain and prescribed a rubbing ointment that allegedly sped the process of healing
surgical wounds.* [298]

See also
List of emperors of the Han dynasty
Han Emperors family tree
Battle of Jushi
Campaign against Dong Zhuo

[4] Zhou (2003), p. 34.

[5] Schaefer (2008), p. 279.
[6] Bailey (1985), pp. 2526.
[7] Loewe (1986), p. 116.
[8] Ebrey (1999), pp. 6061.
[9] Loewe (1986), pp. 116122.
[10] Davis (2001), pp. 4446.
[11] Loewe (1986), p. 122.
[12] Hansen (2000), pp. 117119.
[13] Loewe (1986), pp. 122125.
[14] Loewe (1986), pp. 139144.
[15] Bielenstein (1980), p. 106; Ch' (1972), p. 76.
[16] Bielenstein (1980), p. 105.
[17] Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 175189, 196198; Torday
(1997), pp. 8081; Y (1986), pp. 387388.
[18] Torday (1997), pp. 7577.
[19] Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1993), 37.
[20] Torday (1997), pp. 7577; Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 190
192.
[21] Y (1967), pp. 910; Morton & Lewis (2005), p. 52; Di
Cosmo (2002), pp. 192195.
[22] Y (1986), pp. 388389; Torday (1997), pp. 77, 8283;
Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 195196.

Early Imperial China

[23] Torday (1997), pp. 8384; Y (1986), pp. 389390.

First Chinese domination (History of Vietnam)

[24] Y (1986), pp. 389391; Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 211

214.

Mawangdui

[25] Torday (1997), pp. 9192.

Shuanggudui

[26] Y (1986), p. 390; Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 237240.

Southward expansion of the Han dynasty

[27] Loewe (1986), pp. 196197, 211213; Y (1986), pp.

395398.

Ten Attendants

[28] Ebrey (1999), p. 66; Wang (1982), p. 100.

8.1

Citations

21

[29] Chang (2007), pp. 58; Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 241242;

Y (1986), p. 391.

[54] Bielenstein (1986), pp. 237238; Y (1986), pp. 399

400.

[30] Chang (2007), pp. 3435.

[55] Y (1986), pp. 413414.

[31] Chang (2007), pp. 6, 1516, 4445.

[56] Y (1986), pp. 414415.

[32] Chang (2007), pp. 1516, 3335, 4243.

[57] Y (1986), pp. 414415; de Crespigny (2007), p. 73.

[33] Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 247249; Morton & Lewis (2005),

pp. 5455; Y (1986), p. 407; Ebrey (1999), p. 69;
Torday (1997), pp. 104117.

[58] Y (1986), pp. 414415; de Crespigny (2007), p. 171.

[34] An (2002), p. 83; Ebrey (1999), p. 70.

[35] Di Cosmo (2002), pp. 250251; Y (1986), pp. 390
391, 409411; Chang (2007), p. 174; Loewe (1986), p.
198.
[36] Ebrey (1999), p. 83; Y (1986), pp. 448453.

[59] Y (1986), pp. 405, 443444.

[60] Y (1986), pp. 444446.
[61] Torday (1997), p. 393; de Crespigny (2007), pp. 56.
[62] Y (1986), pp. 415416.
[63] de Crespigny (2007), pp. 239240, 497, 590; Y (1986),
pp. 450451, 460461.

[37] Wagner (2001), pp. 117; Loewe (1986), pp. 160161;

Nishijima (1986), pp. 581588; Ebrey (1999), p. 75;
Morton & Lewis (2005), p. 57; see also Hinsch (2002),
pp. 2122.

[64] Chavannes (1907), p. 185.

[38] Loewe (1986), pp. 162, 185206; Paludan (1998), p. 41;

Wagner (2001), pp. 1619.

[67] Akira (1998), pp. 248, 251; Zhang (2002), p. 75.

[65] Hill (2009), p. 27.

[66] de Crespigny (2007), p. 600; Y (1986), pp. 460461.

[68] de Crespigny (2007), pp. 497, 500, 592.

[39] Bielenstein (1986), pp. 225226; Huang (1988), pp. 46
48.
[40] Robert Hymes (2000). John Stewart Bowman, ed.
Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture.
Columbia University Press. pp. 1213. ISBN 978-0-23111004-4.
[41] Bielenstein (1986), pp. 227230.
[42] Hinsch (2002), pp. 2324; Bielenstein (1986), pp. 230
231; Ebrey (1999), p. 66.
[43] Hansen (2000), p. 134; Bielenstein (1986), pp. 232234;
Morton & Lewis (2005), p. 58; Lewis (2007), p. 23.
[44] Hansen (2000), p. 135; de Crespigny (2007), p. 196;
Bielenstein (1986), pp. 241244.

[69] Hinsch (2002), p. 25; Hansen (2000), p. 136.

[70] Bielenstein (1986), pp. 280283; de Crespigny (2007),
pp. 499, 588589.
[71] Bielenstein (1986), pp. 283284; de Crespigny (2007),
pp. 123127.
[72] Bielenstein (1986), p. 284; de Crespigny (2007), pp. 128,
580.
[73] Bielenstein (1986), pp. 284285; de Crespigny (2007),
pp. 473474, 582583.
[74] Bielenstein (1986), pp. 285286; de Crespigny (2007),
pp. 597598.
[75] Bower (2005), pp. 242244.

[45] de Crespigny (2007), p. 568; Bielenstein (1986), p. 248.

[76] Hansen (2000), p. 141.

[46] de Crespigny (2007), pp. 197, 560; Bielenstein (1986),

pp. 249250.

[77] de Crespigny (2007), pp. 597, 599, 601602; Hansen

(2000), pp. 141142.

[47] de Crespigny (2007), pp. 558560; Bielenstein (1986),

pp. 251254.

[78] de Crespigny (2007), p. 602.

[48] Bielenstein (1986), pp. 251254; de Crespigny (2007),

pp. 196198, 560.
[49] de Crespigny (2007), pp. 5455, 269270, 600601;
Bielenstein (1986), pp. 254255.

[79] Beck (1986), pp. 319322.

[80] de Crespigny (2007), p. 511; Beck (1986), p. 323.
[81] de Crespigny (2007), pp. 513514.
[82] de Crespigny (2007), p. 511.

[50] Hinsch (2002), pp. 2425.

[83] Ebrey (1986), pp. 628629.

[51] Knechtges (2010), p. 116.

[84] Beck (1986), pp. 339340.

[52] Y (1986), p. 450.

[85] Ebrey (1999), p. 84.

[53] de Crespigny (2007), pp. 562, 660; Y (1986), p. 454.

[86] Loewe (1994), pp. 3852.

22

[87] Beck (1986), pp. 339344.

[119] Ch' (1972), p. 17.

[88] Beck (1986), p. 344; Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 59.

[120] Ch' (1972), pp. 4959.

REFERENCES

[89] Beck (1986), pp. 344345; Morton & Lewis (2005), p. [121] Hinsch (2002), pp. 7475.
62.
[122] Ch' (1972), pp. 5456; Hinsch (2002), pp. 29, 51, 54,
[90] Beck (1986), p. 345.
5960, 6568, 7074, 7778.
[91] Beck (1986), pp. 345346.

[123] Hinsch (2002), p. 29.

[92] Beck (1986), pp. 346349.

[124] de Crespigny (2007), p. 513; Barbieri-Low (2007), p.

207; Huang (1988), p. 57.

[93] de Crespigny (2007), p. 158.

[94] Beck (1986), pp. 349351; de Crespigny (2007), p. 36.

[125] Csikszentmihalyi (2006), pp. 2425; Loewe (1994), pp.

128130.

[95] Beck (1986), pp. 351352; de Crespigny (2007), pp. 36

[126] Kramers (1986), pp. 754756; Csikszentmihalyi (2006),
37.
pp. 78; Loewe (1994), pp. 121125; Ch'en (1986), p.
769.
[96] Beck (1986), p. 352; de Crespigny (2007), p. 37.
[97] Beck (1986), pp. 353357; Hinsch (2002), p. 206.
[98] Ch' (1972), pp. 6672.
[99] Ch' (1972), p. 76; Bielenstein (1980), pp. 105107.

[127] Kramers (1986), pp. 753755; Loewe (1994), pp. 134

140.
[128] Kramers (1986), p. 754.

[129] Ebrey (1999), pp. 7778; Kramers (1986), p. 757.

[100] Wang (1982), pp. 8385; Nishijima (1986), pp. 581
583.
[130] Ch' (1972), p. 103.
[101] Nishijima (1986), pp. 552553; Ch' (1972), p. 16.

[131] Ch'en (1986), pp. 773794.

[102] Ch' (1972), p. 84.

[132] Hardy (1999), pp. 1415; Hansen (2000), pp. 137138.

[103] Ebrey (1986), pp. 631, 643644; Ebrey (1999), p. 80.

[133] Norman (1988), p. 185; Xue (2003), p. 161.

[104] Hansen (2000), pp. 141142; de Crespigny (2007), pp. [134]

601602.
[135]
[105] Ch' (1972), pp. 104111; Nishijima (1986), pp. 556
557; Ebrey (1986), pp. 621622; Ebrey (1974), pp. 173
174.
[136]
[106] Ch' (1972), p. 112.

Ebrey (1986), p. 645.

Hansen (2000), pp. 137 138; de Crespigny (2007), p.
1049; Neinhauser et al. (1986), p. 212; Lewis (2007),
p. 222; Cutter (1989), pp. 2526.
Hulsew (1986), pp. 525526; Csikszentmihalyi (2006),
pp. 2324; Hansen (2000), pp. 110112.

[107] Ch' (1972), pp. 104105, 119120; Nishijima (1986),

[137] Hulsew (1986), pp. 523530; Hinsch (2002), p. 82.
pp. 576577.
[138] Hulsew (1986), pp. 532535.
[108] Nishijima (1986), pp. 576577; Ch' (1972), pp. 114
117.
[139] Hulsew (1986), pp. 531533.
[109] Ch' (1972), pp. 127128.

[140] Hulsew (1986), pp. 528529.

[110] Csikszentmihalyi (2006), pp. 172173, 179180; Ch' [141] Nishijima (1986), pp. 552553, 576; Loewe (1968), pp.
(1972), pp. 106, 122127.
146147.
[111] Hinsch (2002), pp. 4647; Ch' (1972), pp. 39.
[112] Ch' (1972), pp. 910.
[113] Hinsch (2002), p. 35; Ch' (1972), p. 34.
[114] Ch' (1972), pp. 4447; Hinsch (2002), pp. 3839.
[115] Hinsch (2002), pp. 4045; Ch' (1972), pp. 3743.
[116] Ch' (1972), pp. 1617.

[142] Wang (1982), p. 52.

[143] Wang (1982), pp. 53, 206.
[144] Wang (1982), pp. 5758.
[145] Hansen (2000), pp. 119121.
[146] Wang (1982), p. 206; Hansen (2000), p. 119.

[117] Ch' (1972), pp. 69.

[147] Wang (1982), pp. 53, 5963, 206; Loewe (1968), p. 139;
Ch' (1972), p. 128.

[118] Ch' (1972), pp. 1718.

[148] Ch' (1972), pp. 3031.

8.1

Citations

23

[149] Hansen (2000), p. 119; Csikszentmihalyi (2006), pp. [176] de Crespigny (2007), p. 1224; Bielenstein (1980), p. 43.
140141.
[177] de Crespigny (2007), p. 1224; Bielenstein (1980), p. 47.
[150] Birmingham Museum of Art (2010). Birmingham Museum of Art : guide to the collection. [Birmingham, Ala]: [178] Wang (1982), pp. 57, 203.
Birmingham Museum of Art. p. 21. ISBN 978-1[179] Bielenstein (1980), p. 83.
904832-77-5.
[151] Ch' (1972), p. 71.

[180] de Crespigny (2007), p. 1228.

[181]
[152] Loewe (1994), p. 55; Csikszentmihalyi (2006), p. 167;
Sun & Kistemaker (1997), pp. 23; Ebrey (1999), pp. 78 [182]
79.
[183]
[153] Ebrey (1999), pp. 7879; Loewe (1986), p. 201; de
Crespigny (2007), pp. 496, 592.
[184]
[154] Loewe (2005), pp. 101102; Csikszentmihalyi (2006),
pp. 116117.
[185]
[155] Hansen (2000), p. 144.
[156] Hansen (2000), pp. 144146.

Bielenstein (1980), p. 103.

Nishijima (1986), pp. 551552.
Bielenstein (1980), pp. 9092; Wang (1949), pp. 158
160.
Bielenstein (1980), p. 91.
de Crespigny (2007), pp. 12301231; Bielenstein (1980),
p. 96; Hsu (1965), pp. 367368.

[186] de Crespigny (2007), p. 1230; Bielenstein (1980), p. 100.

[187] Bielenstein (1980), p. 100.

[157] Needham (1972), p. 112; Demiville (1986), pp. 821
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24

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10

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Anpersonalaccount, , AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Sagaci, Mountwolseley, Wongjong, Rjanag, Killiondude, Jim1138, IRP, AdjustShift,
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Pergamino, August4Rush, D'ohBot, Sbr97, Rhyme3, Galmicmi, Finn Froding, Tkuvho, AstaBOTh15, DrilBot, Winterst, Pinethicket, I
dream of horses, Haaqfun, Vicenarian, Macker33, Jonesey95, Handynastyguy, Seor Juan, Yahia.barie, Gonsoryong, A8UDI, Smartasastick, Ezhuttukari, Serols, Meaghan, Nameless123456, Jujutacular, Trailfoot, Jauhienij, C messier, FoxBot, Rollersox, TobeBot, Zanhe,
Krassotkin, Vrenator, ZhBot, MrShotime, 342rdogrevengeman, Reaper Eternal, FrankDev, Aiken drum, Weedwhacker128, Derild4921,

10.2

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RjwilmsiBot, Asome555, Gandolfzsexah, Urfzs, Puppeteer The Third, Jajc43, Mackay 86, Salvio giuliano, Slon02, Skamecrazy123,
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William(Billie), Homunculus, Thecheesykid, Italia2006, ZroBot, Susfele, Shuipzv3, MithrandirAgain, Oncenawhile, ElationAviation,
Tennisbum4040, Aggie11, EWikist, Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, Brandmeister, Coasterlover1994, L Kensington, Donner60, Chewings72,
KXN, Insommia, Yaplonglong, Brigade Piron, Bad edits r dumb, Sven Manguard, DASHBotAV, Sarasmit, Petrb, Xanchester, ClueBot NG,
Gnomethevamp, Bron151, FourLights, Ypnypn, Mr. Van Daylay, Bfand, JesseW900, ScottSteiner, Marechal Ney, Widr, TRunfree, Miracle dream, Helpful Pixie Bot, Cmandouble3, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, WarPigthe2nd, Poipr, Arnavchaudhary, Ymblanter, Vagobot,
Andrewlee9898, PhnomPencil, Hurricanefan25, Canada10wi, Calvin Marquess, Cold Season, Solomon7968, EmadIV, FutureTrillionaire,
Michael Barera, Ghost frost6, Pinkclaymore, Joydeep, Soerfm, WarriorsPride6565, Msruzicka, Alvin Lee, AlloyGunner, Olimpia19, EskoPublicSchools, WhitePower69, Heavenly Dragon, Drewrau, Glacialfox, Duke of Welchier, Briangu, Roadmasterrodney69, Khitan21,
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The Illusive Man, Luke 19 Verse 27, JYBot, Birkeen, Dexbot, Platinumzx, Mogism, Numbermaniac, Lugia2453, Jc86035, Rajmaan,
Petronilo supersonico 16, Smk9, Liam a23290, PinkAmpersand, Camyoung54, Way2veers, Eyesnore, Nonsenseferret, Lloser10204, Everymorning, Getareu8, CompulsiveObjectivity, Haminoon, Justinsawsome, Teddywilson33, Ugog Nizdast, Minhle20002013, JustBerry,
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, Asdklf;, Vimein, Crystallizedcarbon, Rider ranger47, MacEsco, Daduxing, Sherlybobs, Yprpyqp, Oleaster,
Cartakes, MassiveSerialRapist123, Diggitycow, People's Resistance, Kdogman123, Aizs69, Alfredoo69, Hahahahshshsh, Innite0694,
Ihaveausernamenow, CountHacker, Hazel5436, Bvdiie, KasparBot, MusikBot, Ph, Cosmicskim, Taylorluck10, Swagman202, Everyone
poops12345678910111213141516171819, NicPZ, H.dryad, Acorn Beast, Shasnas, Tvj21, Johnlock134 and Anonymous: 1299

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Derivative of Han dynasty Original artist: Speaker: White whirlwind

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