Figure 1: Schematic overview of the structure of matter.

Overview

Condensed matter (i.e. liquids and solids) can be thought of as being composed
of smaller constituent units such as atoms or groups of atoms that are bonded
together, i.e. molecules . The atom is made up of a positively charged nucleus
and a negatively charged electron cloud. The nucleus consists of nucleons
protons and neutrons which are made up of three quarks , each. Electrons
and quarks are elementary particles .

The Electron

2.1

Discovery of the Electron

In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered the electron while performing experiments in

Cambridge to investigate the nature of cathode rays. In the latter half of the
19th century, experiments with electrical discharges in low pressure gases showed
negative rays streaming from the cathode.
What was the origin of the cathode rays? Experimental evidence:
Julius Plucker (1858, Bonn): cathode rays deflected by a magnetic field.
Heinrich Hertz (1883, Berlin): found rays were not deflected by an electric
field (shown subsequently to be wrong).
Jean-Baptiste Perrin (1895, Paris): collected rays in a cylinder which became negatively charged.
4

Figure 2: Cathode ray tube.

J. J. Thomson (1897, Cambridge): explains deflection of rays in electric and
magnetic fields with the existence of charged particles (which he termed
corpuscles, but we know as electrons)

Figure 3: J. J. Thomsons cathode ray tube.

2.1.1

Motion of a charged particle in an electric field

A particle of mass m and charge q travelling through an electric field E feels a

force
FE = qE

(1)

Equation (1) says that for a negatively charged particle, i.e. q < 0, the force
points in the direction opposite to the electric field. In Thomsons setup (see
Fig. 3) an electron would be attracted to the upper, positively charged plate of
the capacitor; the force vector points in y direction, its length being FE = qE.
Equating FE with Newtons law
(2)

F = ma = m
y
and solving for y, we obtain

q
E
m
Integrating eq. (3) twice over time we arrive at

(3)

y =

1q 2 1q
y=
Et =
E
2m
2m

2
l
v

(4)

On the rhs of eq. (4), we have replaced the time t the particle spends inside
the electric field by l/v, the ratio of the length of the capacitor and the particle
velocity. Eq. (4) describes a parabolic trajectory.
2.1.2

Motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field

In a magnetic field B, the charged particle experiences the Lorentz force

FB = q(v B)

(5)

In Thomsons setup shown in Fig. 3 an electron would feel a Lorentz force in

negative y direction at the moment it enters the magnetic field, its absolute
value being FB = qvB. Note that the Lorentz force is always perpendicular to
both the velocity and the magnetic field (see Note box on the left-hand-rule to
determine its direction). This imposes a circular motion.

Note: Using the left-hand-rule one can determine the direction of the
Lorentz force which acts on a charges particle in a magnetic field.

2.1.3

Thomsons experiment with crossed electric and magnetic fields

Step 1: E 6= 0, B 6= 0 ! determine the velocity v.

Using Thomsons setup (Fig. 3) the forces due to the electric and magnetic
field point in opposite directions. Keeping E = E0 fixed one can adjust B
such that the two forces cancel each other and no deflection occurs, i.e.
FE =

(6)

FB

Using eqs. (1) and (5) we can thus determine the velocity from the electric
and magnetic field strengths,
v=

E0
B0

(7)

where B0 is the intensity of the magnetic field that satisfies eq. (6).
Step 2: E 6= 0, B = 0 ! determine

q
m

by measuring defelction y.

Now we keep E = E0 fixed and we switch o the magnetic field. The

deflection of the particle is given by eq. (4). Inserting the result of eq. (7)
7

into eq. (4) one finds

y=

1 q l2 B02
2 m E0

(8)

Since l, E0 , and B0 are known, the ratio mq can be determined from eq. (8)
by measuring the deflection y after switching o the magnetic field,
q
2yE0
= 2 2 = 1.76 1011 C/kg
m
l B0

(9)

Thomson found that this value did not depend on the residual gas in the tube or
on the cathode material. It was about 1800 times greater than that of the hydrogen ion, the lightest particle then known. Thomson argued that the corpuscles
(electrons) were much lighter than atoms and are sub-atomic units.

2.2

Determination of Electron Charge

Figure 4: Millikans oil drop experiment.

Thomson established that there are sub-atomic charged particles with a
charge/mass ratio of mq = 1.76 1011 C/kg (eq. (9)). Robert Millikans 1911
oil-drop experiment determined the electron charge e.
In the first step of the experiment, the radius of a selected droplet is determined by mesuring its downward velocity using a microscope. With the electric
field switched o, the droplet experiences a downward gravitational force
4
Fg = M g = V g = r3 g
3

(10)

where M is the drops mass, V = 43 r3 its volume (assuming a perfect sphere

of radius r, is the oils density, and g the gravitational acceleration. In addition, there is an upthrust corresponding to the weight of the air displaced by the
droplet,
4
Fu = M air g = V air g = r3 air g
3

(11)

and a frictional force (air resistance) upward,

(12)

Ff = 6rv1

where is the viscosity of air, and v1 is its terminal velocity, i.e. when the downward and upward forces balance. From the balancing condition
(13)

Fg = Fu + Ff
one obtains an expression for the radius of the droplet,
s
9v1
r=
2g( air )

(14)

Next, the droplets are ionized using x-rays, so that they carry a charge ne.
Switching on an electric field between the capacitor plates, the droplets feel an
electric force upwards (see eq. (1)),
(15)

FE = neE

The electric field can be adjusted until the droplet moves upwards. When all
downward and upward forces balance, the new (upward) terminal velocity v2 can
be measured. From the balancing condition
(16)

FE + Fu = Fg + Ff
one can determine the droplets charge
6r
6
ne =
(v1 + v2 ) =
(v1 + v2 )
E
E

9v1
2g( air )

(17)

Millikan did this for many droplets; he always obtained integer multiples of the
elementary charge
e = 1.602 10 19 C
(18)
9

The Atom: Classical Models

The experiments of Thomson and Millikan have shown that there exist subatomic negatively charged particles with a unit charge e and a mass ca. 1800
smaller than a hydrogen atom. Thomson proposed that atoms consist of a
positively charged gel in which the electrons are embedded like raisins in a plum
pudding (see Fig. 5).

Figure 5: Thomsons plum pudding atom model.

3.1

Passage of electrons through atoms

In the 1890s Philipp Lenard studied the passage of cathode rays through metal
foil and various gases (he received the Nobel prize of Physics for this work in
1905). He observed that the scattering cross section of atoms decreases by
many orders of magnitude with increasing electron velocity. In contradiction to
Thomson he concluded that atoms are largely empty space! This was further
corroborated by Rutherfords scattering experiments of -particles through a gold
film.

3.2

Passage of -particles through atoms

In the years 19101911, Ernest Rutherford and his students Geiger and Marsden
in Manchester performed scattering experiments of -particles through gold foils
10

Figure 6: Rutherfords experiment.

(see Fig. 6). -particles are doubly ionized helium atoms, i.e. with all electrons
removed. They are about 7300 times heavier than electrons and will therefore
be scattered only a small amount by interaction with an electron. The intensity
of scattered -particles as a function of the scattering angle could be almost
perfectly explained by Rutherfords new atom model:

Figure 7: Rutherfords atom model.

all the positive charge of an atom and practically all its mass is concentrated
in a tiny nucleus of diameter < 10 14 m . This falsifies Thomsons plum
pudding model. The scattering of -particles is pure Coulomb repulsion.
electrons orbit around the nucleus, the Coulomb attraction between the
negative electron and the positive nucleus balancing the centrifugal force:
11

e2
= m0 r! 2
40 r2

(19)

Deviations from Rutherfords electrostatic scattering law were observed for high
energy -particles. At energies > 6 MeV the incident -particles can overcome
the Coulomb repulsion and get very close to the nucleus, where they feel a
dierent, strongly attractive nuclear force.

4
4.1

The Atom: Quantum-Mechanical Models

Atomic Spectra

Figure 8: (a) Emission line spectra for hydrogen, mercury, and neon. (b) The
absorption spectrum for hydrogen. Notice that the dark absorption lines occur
at the same wavelengths as the hydrogen emis- sion lines in (a).
The attempt to understand atomic emission and absorption spectra of atoms
has ultimately led to the development of a new theory: Quantum Mechanics.
Emission spectra from a gas of atoms can be generated in electric discharge
tubes. The emission lines appear at discrete wavelengths. Absorption spectra
12

are produced occurs when light passes through a cold, dilute gas and atoms
in the gas absorb at characteristic wavelengths (the same measured in emission
spectra); since the re-emitted light is unlikely to be emitted in the same direction
as the absorbed radiation, this gives rise to dark lines (absence of light) in the
spectrum.
In 1885 Balmer found an empirical formula for the wavelengths, , of the four
lines in the visible spectral region for atomic hydrogen, (H H , see Fig. 8),

1
1
1
=R
(20)
2 2 n2
where R = 1.097 107 m 1 is the Rydberg constant and n is an integer number
3. For n = 3 one obtains the H line at = 656.3 nm. As n ! 1 the series
limit, i.e. the shortest wavelength of = 364.6 nm is approached. The spectral
series described by eq. (20) is called Balmer series.
Subseuqently other series in the infrared and the ultraviolet region have been
discovered,
Lyman series (UV):

Paschen series (IR):

Brackett series (IR):

Pfund series (IR):

=R

1
12

1
n2

(21)

=R

1
32

1
n2

(22)

=R

1
42

1
n2

(23)

=R

1
52

1
n2

(24)

All series can be summarized by the formula

1
1
1
=R
n02 n2

(25)

No theoretical basis existed for these equations and their dependence on mysterious integer numbers; they simply worked.
13

4.2

The Classical Model

Rutherford (see Section 3.2) first suggested that electrons orbit around a positively charged nucleus. In his classical model, the attractive Coulomb force
between electon and nucleus is balanced by the centrifugal force. In the case of
a H-atom we thus have
e2
= mr! 2
40 r2

(26)

The energy E associated is, as usual, the sum of kinetic energy

1
Ekin = mr2 ! 2
2

(27)

e2
40 r

(28)

and potential energy

Epot =
Thus the total energy is given by

1
E = mr2 ! 2
2

e2
40 r

(29)

Using eq. (26) this can be rearranged to

E=

e2
=
80 r

(e4 m! 2 )1/3
2(40 )2/3

(30)

There are two main problems with this classical model:

Within the context of classical mechanics the orbit of the electron in an
atom can have any radius and there is no limitations to the possible values
of its energy. From this one would expect continuous atomic spectra as
opposed to the observed discrete spectra.
According to classical electrodynamics, accelerated charges emit light of
the orbiting frequency. Hence they should lose energy and collapse towards
the nucleus, which again would result in a continuous spectrum.

14

Note: Radiation from an accelerating charge

Using classical electrodynamics, it can be shown that any accelerated charge
particle emits electromagnetic radiation. For instance, in the non relativistic
limit (small particle speed), the rate of electromagnetic energy radiated by a
particle of charge q and acceleration a is given by the Larmor formula:
dE
q 2 a2
=
dt
60 c3
It is interesting to note that particle accelerators are of crucial importance
both in elementary particle physics (when used to study collisions of particles) and in biology and materials science (when used as light sources for
spectroscopic studies). For instance, synchrotrons consist of large circular devices (see figure) where charged particles (usually electrons or protons) travel
at almost the speed of light in evacuated pipes under the influence of magnets. The acceleration of these particles in their circular motion causes the
emission of radiation (synchrotron radiation) tangentially to the orbit. The
radiation emitted is very intense, highly collimated and includes wavelengths
not available from other sources. These characteristics are obviously desirable for experiments that demand high resolution in space and in energy.

15