Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Effective Writing
Effective Writing
Lewis Carroll
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ...........................1
WHAT IS EFFECTIVE
WRITING? .......................................2
II
Some Principles
Points to Ponder
STRUCTURE ..................................3
STYLE ..............................................4
GRAMMAR ....................................5
VOCABULARY ..............................6
THE SENTENCE AND
THE PARAGRAPH ........................7
WHY SAY ..? WHEN
YOU COULD SAY .........................8
SOME PHRASES WE
COULD EASILY DO
WITHOUT ......................................9
AMERICANISMS ......................10
CLICHS .....................................11
FOREIGN
WORDS ......................................12
GENDER .....................................13
JARGON .....................................14
SLANG ........................................15
TAUTOLOGY .............................16
Punctuation
Recommended Reading
......................................................41
III
INTRODUCTION
We civil servants spend much of our time either writing or
reading what others have written. But in spite of all the
experience we accumulate in the English language there
can be few of us who can get through half a page or so of
composition without hesitating over at least one of the
many choices presented by the task of putting across
exactly what we want to say.
Do I need a new paragraph here or a new section?
Should I use a comma or a semicolon? Will this word
mean the same to my reader as it does to me? Would it
be better to use a stock phrase here or compose my
own? Such dilemmas bedevil the task of communicating
effectively.
The aim of this booklet is to offer guidance on some of
the more common problems which are likely to arise.
-1-
-2-
STRUCTURE
The structure of something is the way it is
put together - its arrangement. It is the
difference between a social letter and a
letter from the taxman; between a gettogether and a committee meeting.
Official writing always has an aim and its
structure is the plan to meet that aim.
With letters, minutes and reports the
structure lies in their initial plan. You have
several points to make; what are they and
in what order should they be placed?
Once this is decided you will have a list of
points - brief and explicit - in suitable
order. These will also usually provide the
document's headings.
Headings should be:
n Comprehensive
All your points should be covered.
n Mutually exclusive
It can be confusing to find the same
subject under different headings.
n In logical sequence
Not necessarily in order of
importance; consider alternative
arrangements. Be confident that the
sequence will seem logical
to your reader.
Once you are satisfied with your headings
then the battle for effective writing is
already partly won.
-3-
STYLE
It is important, when writing official
English, to keep your reader firmly in
mind. Write as you would speak - or
would like to speak - if he or she were
present, unhesitatingly and in the manner
that your instinct and experience tells you
is best suited to the subject and the
occasion.
-4-
GRAMMAR
How important is grammar? The sceptic
would argue that grammar is just a set of
rules, that language is simply a tool for
communication and it doesn't really matter
how something is written so long as the
meaning is clear. Who made the rules
anyway? But of course, we civil servants
aren't sceptics and so wouldn't go along
with that argument. And as to who made
the rules, well ... we generally turn to the
authority of Fowler's The King's English
and Modern English Usage, this last
revised by Sir Ernest Gowers; and the
classic The Complete Plain Words by
Gowers (revised 1986).
Incorrect grammar is undignified, leads to
misunderstandings and undermines the
reader's confidence in the writer's
professionalism. It is noticeable, however,
that while most people will readily consult
-5-
VOCABULARY
Your vocabulary will vary depending on
whether you are writing to a colleague, an
official in another government department,
a Service officer or a member of the
public. But certain principles apply to all:
-6-
a majority of
a percentage of
ameliorate
at the present time
attributable to
by means of
consequently
considerable
facilitate
furthermore
in order to
in the event that
in the neighbourhood of
it is known that
provided that
that being the case
the question as to whether
there is reason to believe
ways and means
whether or not
with the minimum of delay
your attention is drawn
most
some
improve
now
due to
by
so
much
ease, help
also
to
if
about
we know, I know
if
if so
whether
we think, I think
ways
whether
quickly
please note
-8-
AMERICANISMS
The English and American language and literature
are both good things; but they are better apart than
mixed.
H. W. Fowler
If we took Fowler's recommendation to
heart we would throw out teenager,
commuter, bluff, boom, stunt and
hundreds of other American words which
have found a useful place in our
language. But while so many have been
adopted, British English has a way of
rejecting those it doesn't like. Using such
unassimilated Americanisms can irritate
people, and we don't want to do that;
certainly not in our official writing. A few
such words are:
American
all of the ...
anyplace
back of
British
all the ...
anywhere
behind
American
enlisted men
fix up
prior to
prioritize
terminal
veteran
British
other ranks
arrange
before
give priority to
terminus
ex-serviceman
CLICHS
The hardest worked clich is
better than the phrase that fails.
J. A. Spender
We use clichs because we think they
add colour and vigour to our writing. But
they don't really. The sad thing about
them is that they were once good, vivid
phrases which have become threadbare
simply through over-use. Expressions
such as at one fell swoop and the world's
my oyster would have sounded
refreshingly new when Shakespeare first
coined them - but not any more. Should
we then do without clichs? Well, life
would be very difficult if we did, and in any
case, they can be acceptable in the right
place. Just think twice before slipping into
the over-familiar phrase, and then use it
only if you cannot think of a better way to
express what you want to say.
- 11 -
FOREIGN WORDS
They spell it Vinci and pronounce it Vinchy;
foreigners always spell better than they pronounce.
Mark Twain
Some foreign words such as brochure
(French) and arsenal (Arabic) have been
thoroughly absorbed into our language.
Many more - vice versa (Latin), vendetta
(Italian), kudos (Greek) - have become
well-established and are understood by
all. There are others, however, which are
border-line; understood by some but not
all. It is this last group which poses
problems. A reader confronted by a Latin
tag or foreign phrase feels irritated if he or
she doesnt understand it, and doubtly
irritated if it's been used in the wrong
way.
A few examples are:
ad hoc (Latin)
carte blanche (French)
cri de coeur (French)
fait accompli (French)
glasnost (Russian)
modus vivendi (Latin)
prima facie (Latin)
volte face (French)
- 12 -
GENDER
Know then thyself; presume not God to scan.
The proper study of mankind is man.
Alexander Pope
But what about womankind and the study
of woman? The grammarians among us
might reply to this question by pointing
out, possibly with a smirk, that man
embraces woman. But it's no longer so.
Attitudes have changed over recent years
and writers of official English should
beware of sounding patronising by
assuming that his necessarily includes
hers. The problem is that there is a gap in
our language. We lack sexually neutral
pronouns to do the work of he or she, him
or her and his and hers; all of which
become tiresome if used too often. So we
are forced to resort to unsatisfactory
constructions like Everyone (singular) took
their (plural) turn.
- 13 -
JARGON
SLANG
Slang is the speech of him who robs the literary
garbage carts on their way to the dumps.
Ambrose Bierce
In Usage and Abusage Eric Partridge lists
16 reasons why people use slang. For
our purposes, though, one or two reasons
why we don't normally use it in official
writing might be more relevant.
New slang flows into the language all the
time, enlivening and stirring up our
speech. Which would be fine if only the
used up slang were disposed of at the
same rate. But it isn't. It hangs around
long after whatever charm it may have
had is gone, just cluttering the national
vocabulary. An example of this is the
expression in the red which goes back to
the days when bank statements showed
overdrawn accounts in red. They no
longer do so, but in the red lingers on.
- 15 -
TAUTOLOGY
Listen very carefully, I will say this only once.
Allo, Allo
As defined by the Oxford English
Dictionary, tautology is "a repetition of the
same statement." We tend to commit this
fault when we want to be particularly
emphatic. Avoid for instance, associating
most or very with such words as ideal,
unique or perfect, which are themselves
the highest degree possible. Expressions
such as exclusive monopoly or very
unique would be wrong.
He is in a position of (lonely)
isolation.
- 16 -
THE APOSTROPHE
I'm sick to death of being a bureaucrat. I'd
resign tomorrow if only I knew the procedure.
Punch
This is among the most misused of punctuation marks, often being
left out when needed or put in when not. The commonest mistake is
to insert it in pronouns like yours, theirs or hers.
It should be used:
BRACKETS
It is dull (as well as draughty) to keep an open mind.
Anon
Brackets should be reserved for words or
statements which are independent of the
grammar of the sentence in which they
are placed.
THE COLON
Conscience: the inner voice which
tells us someone may be watching.
H. L. Mencken
Fowler considered the colon's special
function was "to deliver the goods that
have been invoiced in the preceding
words". It indicates a fuller pause than the
semicolon and is now used almost
exclusively to precede lists, summaries or
quotations:
The Warsaw Pact comprised
seven countries: the USSR,
East Germany, Poland,
Hungary, Czechoslovakia,
Romania and Bulgaria.
- 19 -
THE COMMA
All generalisations are dangerous, even this one.
Alexandre Dumas
The comma tends to be used either too
often or not enough. It marks the shortest
pause in the sentence and, when properly
used, has several functions:
- 20 -
THE DASH
To be good is noble, but to teach others how to be
good is nobler - and less trouble.
Mark Twain
The dash tends to be overused by lazy
writers who see it as an all-purpose
punctuation mark. It should not replace
commas, colons, brackets, etc. Its main
uses are:
- 21 -
What a day!
How amazing!
- 22 -
St(Street)
Revd(Reverend)
THE HYPHEN
Like Websters dictionary
were Morocco-bound.
Road to Morocco
Fowler's Modern English Usage devotes
eleven columns to the hyphen. We won't
detain you so long; but perhaps a few
points would be helpful. The hyphen
should be used:
- 24 -
It is an out-of-date system.
But: The system is out of date.
This is a long-term problem.
But: The problem is long term.
QUOTATION MARKS
One of the expressions she employed was feckless idiot, sir.
Feckless idiot?
Yes sir.
I couldnt make it out. My Aunt Agatha has often said that
same sort of thing about me, but she has known me from a boy.
P. G. Wodehouse
Some people are understandably
confused by the seemingly haphazard
way in which publishers use either single
() or double () quotation marks. Either is
correct. The important thing is to be
consistent. Current practice does,
however, seem to lean towards double
marks, with single marks being reserved
for inside quotations. They indicate:
- 26 -
THE SEMICOLON
I often quote myself; it adds spice to my
conversation.
G. B. Shaw
The semicolon marks a longer pause than
a comma, but a shorter one than a full
stop. It is useful:
n as a means of avoiding
confusion in lists.
n to emphasise a contrast.
- 27 -
Double Comparatives
DOUBLE TROUBLE
Double Negatives
- 28 -
complementary (balancing)
complimentary (admiring)
defective (faulty)
deficient (lacking)
apposite (appropriate)
opposite (facing)
exceedingly (outstandingly)
excessively (too much)
appreciable (noticeable)
appreciative (grateful)
ingenious (clever)
ingenuous (without guile)
canvas (a cloth)
canvass (to seek support)
- 29 -
intense (strong)
intensive (concentrated)
licence (a permit)
license (to authorise)
luxuriant (abundant)
luxurious (in luxury)
stimulant (a drug)
stimulus (an incentive)
precipitate (over-hasty)
precipitous (very steep)
venal (corruptible)
venial (pardonable)
- 30 -
WHICH WORD?
Fewer or less?
- 31 -
Harangue or tirade?
Imply or infer?
Outline or summary?
Oral or Verbal?
People tend to use the term verbal
agreement to mean an agreement which
is not written down. But all agreements
using words, whether written or spoken
are verbal agreements; verbal means
words. An agreement spoken but not
written down is an oral agreement.
Strategy or tactics?
Strategy is broad policy; tactics are shortterm ways of achieving the long-term plan.
- 32 -
A HUNDRED WORDS
WHICH ARE SOMETIMES MISSPELT ...
accessible
accessory
accommodate
acquiesce
admissible
advantageous
advisory
aerial
agreeable
allege
asymmetric
audible
auxiliary
battalion
benefited
bicycle
bulletin
- 33 -
buoyant
bureau
calendar
camouflage
campaign
coherent
conscientious
conscious
curriculum
deferred
desultory
deterrent
eligible
embarrassment
equipped
erroneous
existence
expedient
fallacy
feasible
forfeit
Gibraltar
governor
gradient
graffiti
grievous
harass
humorous
hygiene
illegible
inaugurate
independence
indispensable
infallible
inference
innocuous
inoculate
instalment
instil
intractable
irrelevant
liaison
lieutenant
maintenance
manoeuvre
maritime
medieval
mortgage
negligible
noticeable
obsolete
occasion
occurred
omitted
Ottawa
overrated
parallel
permissible
persistent
precedent
professor
profited
querulous
questionnaire
reconnaissance
referee
rhetoric
rhythm
satellite
secede
separate
sergeant
serviceable
soliloquy
stupefy
supersede
targeted
threshold
transferable
transient
tunnelling
twelfth
ultimatum
- 34 -
Billion
Alibi
An alibi is a claim to have been elsewhere
when an incident took place. It is not an
alternative word for an excuse.
Beg the question
To beg the question doesn't mean to
avoid giving an answer. It is to assume
the truth of something which has not yet
been proved.
- 35 -
Chronic
Means lingering, lasting, long-established.
It does not mean bad, intense or severe.
Complex
Presently
Dilemma
Transpire
Leading question
A leading question is one so phrased as to
prompt the desired answer. It is not a
searching or the most important question.
- 36 -
Escalate
Escalate is a suitable word to describe the
progress of warfare through its
conventional states into tactical and global
conflict. But it looks a bit silly when used
simply as an alternative for increase or
accelerate.
Format
This word once had a precise meaning for
printers: the shape and size of a book
(e.g. quarto or octavo). It now tends to be
used as another word for form,
arrangement, plan, layout and design.
- 37 -
Paradigm
Scenario
Proactive
Syndrome
- 38 -
- 39 -
RECOMMENDED READING.
MOD Manual 2
Joint Services Publications (JSP) 101
The King's English, by H. W. and F. G. Fowler
Modern English Usage, revised by Sir Ernest Gowers
Usage and Abusage, by Eric Partridge
The Complete Plain Words, by Gowers (revised 1986)
- 41 -
n Core Competences
n Blended Learning