Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Natural Gas Measurement (Gallagher) Front Matter-FINAL
Natural Gas Measurement (Gallagher) Front Matter-FINAL
Natural Gas Measurement (Gallagher) Front Matter-FINAL
qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page i
Natural Gas
Measurement
Handbook
James E. Gallagher
Houston, Texas
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page ii
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page iii
To my wife Patricia,
my sons Ryan and Daniel,
and my parents
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page iv
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page v
Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Preface
Symbols
Unit Conversions
xi
xiii
xix
xxi
xxvii
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Introduction
Transportation System
Measurement
Fluid Classification, Commercial
Material Quality
Risk Management
1
2
9
12
14
15
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
19
20
22
26
29
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
39
39
42
43
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page vi
vi
Contents
47
54
65
Measurement Concepts
Applicable Fluids
Base Conditions
Flowmeters (or Primary Devices)
Flowmeter Calibration Concepts
Law of Similarity
Single-Phase Fluid Flow in Pipes
Multiphase Fluid Flow in Pipes
Secondary Devices
Tertiary Device
Uncertainty
Total Cost of Measurement
79
80
80
81
82
88
92
102
107
108
108
110
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
Orifice Flowmeter
General Principles
Mass Flow Equation
Artifact Calibration
Uncertainty Roadmap
Sources of Error
Risk Management
111
111
115
121
125
129
129
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
Ultrasonic Flowmeter
General Principles
Mass Flow Equation
Central Facility Calibration
In Situ Calibration
Uncertainty Roadmap
Sources of Error
Risk Management
135
135
139
141
142
143
148
158
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
Turbine Flowmeter
General Principles
Mass Flow Equation
Central Facility Calibration
163
163
166
166
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page vii
Contents
vii
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
In Situ Calibration
Uncertainty Roadmap
Sources of Error
Risk Management
167
168
173
174
8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
177
177
180
181
182
183
187
188
9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
Calculations
Base Conditions
Physical Properties
Natural Gas Density
GPA 2172 versus A.G.A.8
Mass Flow Rate in Pipes
Mass Flow Rate for Orifice Flowmeter
Mass Flow Rate for Ultrasonic Flowmeter
Mass Flow Rate for Turbine Flowmeter
Mass Flow Rate for Rotary Displacement Flowmeter
Volumetric Flow Rate at Base Conditions
Energy Flow Rate at Base Conditions
Quantities
191
191
192
202
209
214
215
222
227
230
231
231
233
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
235
236
248
251
253
255
257
259
263
268
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
viii
4:56 PM
Page viii
Contents
269
270
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
11.12
279
279
280
281
282
282
282
282
283
283
286
294
296
Uncertainty
Uncertainty Terms
Measurement Uncertainty
Examples of Flowmeter Uncertainties
Statistical Weighting
299
301
303
307
312
319
319
320
320
321
322
324
325
326
329
330
330
331
331
332
12
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
13.11
13.12
13.13
13.14
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page ix
Contents
13.15
13.16
13.17
13.18
13.19
13.20
13.21
13.22
13.23
13.24
13.25
13.26
13.27
13.28
13.29
13.30
ix
DB&B Valves
Check Valves
Pulsation Control
Primary Device
Secondary Devices
Tertiary Device (Flow Computer)
Control Valves
Wiring and Grounding
Measurement Control Panel
Power Supplies
Satellite Panels
Supervisory Control and Leak Detection
Security
Factory Acceptance Testing
Dewatering, Cleaning, and Drying
Commissioning
333
334
334
334
335
344
345
345
347
347
348
348
349
350
350
351
14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
353
353
354
355
355
358
358
358
15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
361
361
363
363
363
366
367
367
369
371
371
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page x
Contents
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
372
373
373
375
375
376
377
17
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
17.8
379
379
380
381
381
382
382
383
384
387
389
389
390
391
392
392
395
406
407
408
409
410
418
Glossary
Index
421
453
A.1
A.2
A.3
A.4
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page xi
List of Tables
2
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
21
22
23
30
32
33
35
4 Measurement Concepts
41 Multiphase Classifications, Horizontal and
Vertical Pipes
103
5 Orifice Flowmeter
51 Mass Flow, Reynolds Number, and Expansion Factor
Equations
52 Errors in Orifice Flowmeters
122
130
6
61
62
63
Ultrasonic Flowmeter
Sensitivity Analysis Due to Buildup and Decay
Chordal Path Angle Error
Reflective Timing Measurements, 4-in. (100 mm)
Flowmeter
xi
150
152
154
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
xii
4:56 PM
Page xii
List of Tables
210
211
212
213
308
309
310
311
342
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page xiii
List of Figures
1
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Introduction
Transportation System
Simple Gas Gathering System
Complex Gas Gathering System
Gas Processing Plant
Transmission Pipeline System
Distribution System
Phase Envelope: Raw Material and Finished Product
3
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
xiii
3
3
5
6
8
9
15
44
45
46
46
53
67
68
68
69
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
xiv
4:56 PM
Page xiv
List of Figures
Measurement Concepts
Classification of Flowmeters
Classification of Calibration Concepts
Calibration Systems, Central Facility and In Situ
SwRIs Metering Research Facility
CEESIs Iowa Facility
TransCanada Calibrations Winnipeg Facility
Fully Developed Velocity Profiles, Laminar
and Turbulent
48 Fully Developed Turbulent Velocity Profile
(Hinze), Pipe Flows at Various Downstream Pipe
Diameters
49 Developing Flows, Swirl Free, Nonsymmetrical
Pipe Flows at Various Downstream Pipe Diameters
410 Developing Flows, Moderately Swirling, Nonsymmetrical Pipe Flows at Various Downstream
Pipe Diameters
69
71
72
72
73
73
75
76
76
77
77
82
83
83
85
86
86
94
97
98
99
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page xv
List of Figures
Orifice Flowmeter
Classification of Orifice Flowmeters
Dual-Chamber Orifice Fitting
Orifice Plate
Sources of Uncertainty for Orifice Meters,
a Broad Overview
Sources of Uncertainty Using Artifact Compliance
Calibration
Sources of Uncertainty for Orifice Meters, a
Detailed Overview
Deficiencies of Geometric Similarity
Deficiencies of Dynamic Similarity
Ultrasonic Flowmeter
Classification of Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Multipath Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Sources of Uncertainty for Ultrasonic Meters,
a Broad Overview
Sources of Uncertainty Using Central Facility
Calibration
Sources of Uncertainty Using In Situ Calibration
Sources of Uncertainty for Ultrasonic Meters,
a Detailed Overview
Deficiencies of Geometric Similarity
Deficiencies of Dynamic Similarity
7 Turbine Flowmeter
71 Gas Turbine Flowmeter
72 Sources of Uncertainty for Gas Turbine Meters,
a Broad Overview
73 Sources of Uncertainty Using Central Facility
Calibration
74 Sources of Uncertainty Using In Situ Calibration
xv
100
104
109
112
114
115
126
126
127
128
128
135
136
138
144
144
145
146
147
147
164
169
169
170
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
xvi
4:56 PM
Page xvi
List of Figures
171
172
172
179
183
184
185
186
186
187
200
201
202
206
208
221
221
225
228
232
249
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page xvii
List of Figures
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
xvii
252
254
256
264
270
272
276
277
12 Uncertainty
121 Roadmap of Sources of Uncertainty for Flowmeter
Estimations
122 Interlaboratory Results of a MUSM Flowmeter
Assembly (Artifact)
123 Statistical Weighting Example
305
315
332
356
364
374
304
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page xviii
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page xix
Preface
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
xx
4:56 PM
Page xx
Preface
In this manner, fiscal transfers can be done equitably with the confidence of both seller and buyer alike.
The capital and operating resources (CAPEX, OPEX) applied for
fiscal transfers must be commensurate with the total cost of measurement: the capital cost of technology, the operating cost of technology,
industry practice or standards, regulatory compliance and the total fiscal exposure or risk (commodity value times throughput), the strategic
and tactical business direction, and competitors strategy. The amount
of uncertainty is governed by the investment of resources (CAPEX
and OPEX) combined with the inherent uncertainty associated with
the method of measurement (primary, secondary, and tertiary devices)
and the fiscal exposure or risk.
Measurement is a technically demanding, complex, state-ofthe-art field with a significant impact on the profitability of any
business. As such, the field of measurement demands a highly technical language of definitions, acronyms, and symbols that must be
fully understood and embraced by managers, supervisors, engineers, technicians, and operating personnel.
The combination of the roadmaps (sources of uncertainty)
for each flowmeter technology, the uncertainty estimations (U 95),
and the statistical weighting method are tools that can
Identify error types and magnitude for the primary, secondary,
and tertiary devices.
Identify areas of improvement for existing facilities (upgrade
or replacement).
Set achievable loss performance based on the invested resources
(CAPEX).
Identify OPEX requirements for each flowmeter technology.
Set priorities on OPEX resource allocation for each location.
Set priorities on the loss investigation process.
The authors desire is that the information contained in this handbook provides a clear presentation of the measurement principles,
state-of-the-art technology, and its applications in the real world.
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page xxi
Symbols
Terms
A
Am
Ap
AS
AT
B
Btu
BtuIT
C
Cd
Cd(CT)
Cd(FT)
Ci(CT)
Ci(FT)
CPS
CTS
d
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
xxii
dm
dr
dP
D
Dm
Dr
e
e
E
Em
Ev
FT
FQ
gc
G
Gid
GC
Gross HVid
H
HHVb
J
KF
L1
L2
Li
LHV
MAOP
M1
M2
MF
MS
MW
MWair
MWgas
n
nm
4:56 PM
Page xxii
Symbols
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page xxiii
Symbols
N
N1
N2
N3
N4
NKF
NHV
P
Pb
Pc
Pf
Pf
1
Pf
2
PDROP
PT
qH
qm
qav
qvb
QH
Qm
Qvb
R
RD
RDid
ReD
SCd
Sd
SD
SdP
SMF
SP
SRD
ST
SY
SZ
Stp
xxiii
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
xxiv
SOS
SOSb
SOSi
SOStp
tu
td
T
Tb
Tc
Tf
Tm
Tr
TT
TW
U
Ur
Ub
U 95 or U95
V
Vavg
Vi
Wi
Ws
x
xj
Y
Z
Zb
Zb of air
Ztp
plate
pipe
4:56 PM
Page xxiv
Symbols
Speed of sound
Speed of sound of fluid at base conditions
Speed of sound of fluid along chordal path
Speed of sound of fluid at flowing conditions
Upstream transit time of the chordal path
Downstream transit time of the chordal path
Temperature
Base temperature
Critical temperature
Temperature of fluid at flowing conditions
Temperature of diameter measurements (Dm)
Reference temperature (68F or 20C) for diameters
(Dr)
Temperature transmitter
Thermowell
Uncertainty
Random uncertainty
Systematic (or bias) uncertainty
Uncertainty at 95% confidence interval
Velocity
Average or mean velocity of the flowmeter or pipe
Mean velocity measured by the chordal path
Weighting factor for individual ultrasonic chord
Wobbe index of a given composition
Ratio of differential pressure to absolute static
pressure
Mole fraction of component j
Expansion factor
Compressibility
Compressibility of gas at Pb and Tb
Compressibility of air at Pb and Tb
Compressibility of gas at Pf and Tf
Linear coefficient of thermal expansion
Linear coefficient of thermal expansion of orifice plate
Linear coefficient of thermal expansion of pipe or
flowmeter
Orifice diameter ratio (d/D) at Tf
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page xxv
Symbols
id
r
b
tp
Units of Measure
USC
SI
ft
in.
m
mm
F
C
R
K
H2O @60
psi
bar
mbar
Pa
kPa
MPa
fps
mps
lbm
kgm
SCF
MSCF
xxv
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page xxvi
xxvi
Symbols
MM SCF
Nm3
Btu
Dth
MM Btu
J
MJ
Subscripts
a
b
d
g
i
j
r
1
2
Atmospheric or absolute
Base conditions
Differential
Gauge
Chordal path i of ultrasonic flowmeter
Component j of a gas mixture
Reference conditions
Upstream
Downstream
Powers
Factor
1012
109
106
103
102
101
101
102
103
106
109
1012
Prefix
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deka
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
Symbol
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m
n
p
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page xxvii
Unit Conversions
The following unit conversions have been found useful for measurement engineers, technicians, and operating personnel.
Length
m = ft 0.3048
mm = in. 25.4
mm = m 1E 03
Flowing Temperature (Tf )
C = (F 32) (5/9)
F = [(9/5) C] + 32
K = C + 273.15
R = F + 459.67
Flowing Pressure (Pf )
MPa = psi 6.894 757E 03
KPa = psi 6.894 757E +00
bar = psi 6.894 757E 02
mbar = bar 1E 03
KPa = Pa 1E +03
MPa = Pa 1E +06
xxvii
Gallagher_fm.qxd
7/25/06
4:56 PM
Page xxviii
xxviii
Unit Conversions