Spectral diagnostics from Lyman-alpha (but not

only): unveiling the invisible matter in the

inter-galactic medium
Gauri SHARMA
May 1, 2016

Contents
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
0.6
0.7

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.1 What is Quasars ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.2 Where do they form ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.3 How do they form ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.4 Why do we study Quasars? (Properties) . . . . . . . .
0.1.5 What can be study from Quasars ? . . . . . . . . . . .
Quasar Spectrum and its properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2.1 What is absorption lines ? (formation) . . . . . . . . .
0.2.2 Quasar Absorption spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2.3
Some Important calculations from ABSORPTION
SPECTRA: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Understanding the spatial distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.3.1 Low Resolution Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.3.2 Intermediate Resolution Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . .
0.3.3 High Resolution Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.3.4 Some other Important calculations from QSO absorption spectra: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to study Ly-alpha absorption line . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.4.2 Theoretical Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.4.3 Observational calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.4.4 Discussion: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.4.5 Conclusion: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculation of absorbers size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.5.1 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract
Session 1: Introduction to Quasars.
Session 2: In this part, I will explain, what is absorption lines in
spectrum, how they form, what are the characteristic of these line.
we are strictly going to focus on Absorption lines only. then I will
try to talk about Ly- absorption in Quasar, its different type and
importance.
Session 3: Spectral diagnostics from Ly lines I.
session 4: Spectral diagnostics from Ly lines II.
Session 5: In this section of project, we will talk about how do we
count no. of clouds in some red-shift range, classes of clouds and at
the end we will drive the cross-section of each class of cloud.
Session 6: Discussion on recent reviews.

0.1
0.1.1

Introduction
What is Quasars ?

Quasi-stellar radio source objects are termed as quasars (QSOs), because

they looks like star and unresolved in visible images. To distinguish star and
Quasar we need to check there spectrum otherwise they are similar, below
fig shows an example.

Figure 1: left side is quasar and right is star

There are two types of QSOs : Radio quite and radio loud QSOs (worked
similar as their names)
spectra of quasars taken at visible wavelengths revealed that they had
truly bizarre emission lines, the wavelengths of the lines didnt correspond
to any known atom, ion, or molecule. Astronomers were baffled, the bafflement was ended by the astronomer Maarten Schmidt in 1963. Schmidt
discovered that the brightest emission lines in the spectra of quasars corresponded to the emission lines of ordinary atomic hydrogen, but that they
were extremely red-shifted. Fig 2 shows star spectrum Vs Quasar spectrum
in general

Figure 2: Quasars spectrum

Figure 3: Star spectrum

Now, question comes, if they are not star then what are they ? And how
do they form ?

0.1.2

Where do they form ?

The greatest clue comes from photometry, In a short exposure, only an unresolved quasistellar point of light is seen. However, in a longer exposure,
the point is surrounded by quasar fuzz - an extended luminous area. The
quasar fuzz is actually the starlight from a galaxy surrounding the quasar.
Thus, we conclude that quasars are the bright nuclei of galaxies. figure
Shows some examples:

Figure 4: quasars

Now question is How do they form ?

0.1.3

How do they form ?

Theories says, at the center of galaxies there is object called "Super massive
black hole", that has enormous gravity, mass is much more then several
billions of solar mass with radius equal to solar system. Due to high gravity,
it accrete mass of galaxy towards it and forms a bright disk around SMBH.
The gas in the disk is heated by the friction because it experiences rubbing
against other gas that is by its brighter than rest of area. Due to loosing
momentum gas falls into the black hole, as it falls inward onto the black
hole, it release of gravitational potential energy and heated up to millions
of degrees. Gas emits thermal radiation due to its enormous heat. This
thermal radiation forms the jets of quasars and spans the spectrum.

Figure 5: structure of Quasar and properties

0.1.4

Why do we study Quasars? (Properties)

Quasars have luminosity L = 10 to 100, 000 LM W , where LMW is

the luminosity of the Milky Way galaxy
They are very distant objects therefore highly red-shifted.
Their spectrum is non-thermal.
They are luminous in the X-rays, ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and
radio bands.
They have about the same power at all of the wavelengths.
The spectrum looks like the synchrotron radiation from charged particles spiraling around magnetic field lines at nearly the speed of light.

0.1.5

What can be study from Quasars ?

Quasar observations strictly depends on line of sight from us. Different

line of sights named differently and having different properties contained in
galaxies. Fig shows this

Figure 6: structure of quasars

Therefore to study the distant galaxies QSOs are very important discovery. The light from a distant quasars interacts with the gaseous components
between and within the galaxies over almost the whole history of the Cosmos (over the redshift range 0 to 7). This light sensitively records its every
interaction with the gas in the form of absorption lines in the spectra of the
quasars. These lines provide a wealth of information, allowing us to study
the detailed physical conditions in the gas, such as its temperatures, ionization conditions, chemical content, and dynamical motions (kinematics).
Since light comes from quasars travel long distance so we also can study
the detailed cosmic evolution, including the evolution in the intensity of the
ultraviolet background radiation (due to high red-shift) and cosmic chemical
evolution.

0.2
0.2.1

Quasar Spectrum and its properties

What is absorption lines ? (formation)

We know hot object (star, Quasars, galaxies) emits electromagnetic radiation over specific wavelengths () or all . When we order these wavelengths
in increasing or decreasing order we get a Electromagnetic spectrum.
An absorption line will appear in a spectrum if an absorbing material is
placed between a source and the observer. This material could be the outer
layers of object, a cloud of interstellar gas or a cloud of dust.

Figure 7: Absorption line spectrum

But Question is, what this material do, so the dark line appears: According to quantum mechanics an atom, element or molecule can absorb photons
with energies equal to the difference between two energy states, shown in fig
2.

Figure 8:

In short we can say, An absorption line is produced when photons from

a hot, broad spectrum source pass through a cold material. The intensity
of light, over a narrow frequency range, is reduced due to absorption by the
material and re-emit in random directions.
characteristic
Absorption of photons by medium is totally depend on chemical components of medium.
Absorption line spectrum, if it is between you (your telescope + spectrograph) and a continuum light source. An emission line spectrum,
if viewed from a different angle.

Figure 9: Left: atom in its initial state; center: atom absorbs photon and
goes to higher level; Right: come back to initial state and emits photon in
random direction

Figure 10: Profile of Absorption line in spectrum

Importance of Absorption spectra:

Spectrum tells us the thermal condition of the intermediate medium.
It also tell us the physical condition (thickness, transparency) of medium.
It is useful to study the interstellar clouds.
Absorption spectroscopy is also useful in chemical analysis.
Very useful to calculate the distance (redshift) of object (QSOs or
galaxies).

0.2.2

Quasar Absorption spectrum

To understand the Quasar Absorption spectrum, we have to keep some

key points in mind: Quasars are distinct object (as mentioned in previous
6

report) and hydrogen is most abundant element in universe. So to classify

the spectrum we use hydrogen atom lines as our reference.
Transition of electron in hydrogen atom first studied by Scientist Blamer,
He classified when there is transition between nf = 2 to ni = 3, 4, 5, 6....
lines are named as H, H, H and so on till Greek alphabet. this series
is named as Blamer series (for visible light). Wavelength of emitted photon
measured by Rydberg formula:
1
1
1
= R( 2 2 )

nf
ni
Where R is Rydberg constant R = 1.097 107 m1 Likewise when transition
in between nf = 1 to ni = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.... lines are named as L, L, L (this
spread in UV light, If we calculate the wavelength by Rydberg formula ).
similarly other series found but they are not for our concern right now. Fig
shows the calculated wavelengths of these series by Rydberg constant.

Figure 11:

Since we know, Quasars are high energetic and most luminous object in
universe, therefore they emits high energetic photons. When these high energetic photons passes through IGM they excite the hydrogen atoms most
inner shell as well as other shells. As a consequence absorption take place,
and we see absorption lines in optical spectra (I am explaining visible spectra). But If we are talking about the optical spectra (visible light) then
there should be only Balmer series but what we seen is there is Forest of
absorption line towards Blue region. Fig shows Quasar spectra:

Figure 12:

In mid 20s scientific community(SC) detected, there are Lyman- lines

shifted in spectra due to high dispersion velocity (high red-shift Z). But
now Question is how did SC measured that lines are shifted ? This
fig shows, How do we measure that our Spectrum is shifted. Basically we
calibrate our taken spectra with standard star(the star very near (visually)
to the quasar and at rest w.r.t. earth (not red-shifted)) we can measure
dispersion velocity by
v

=
C
e
Where v is dispersion velocity, delta lambda is difference between observed
and emitted wavelength. lambda emitted is wavelength emitted at rest.

Figure 13: Upper spectrum strip show when star or cloud is moving we have
lines little bit shifted from second spectrum strip which is taken at rest

And 1 + z =

o
e

Ref:(astro.ucla.edu) generally we have 1 + z =

0.2.3

Some Important calculations from ABSORPTION SPECTRA:

we can deduced the red-shift(by Doppler effect), distance(Hubble

Law), recessional velocity, dispersion velocity as mentioned in above
formulas.
we can find out temperature, energy , specific Intensity etc by using
Planks energy distribution law and weins approximation.
we can also measure the COLUMN DENSITY of cloud. Suppose beam
of quasar light with an initial intensity Io traveling in the x direction
along our line of sight, and passing through the IGM gas cloud of thickness L. We can say rate of change of intensity is I(x) is negative and
is proportional to both the number density n(x) of absorbing atoms
and initial density. Then we can write radiative transfer equation :
dI(x)
= n(x)Io
dx
where we define n(x)dx is optical depth of cloud. If we integrate
optical depth over the length L, then we can calculate column density
of absorbing cloud.
Z
L

n(x)dx

=
0

= N
Where N is the column density along the line of sight. This is very
important feature that we can calculate by Quasars absorption spectra. By calculating this we can tell the type of absorption line thus,
physical and chemical conditions of clouds: Just for little hint:
L forest clouds: If in IGM 1012 cm2 N (HI) 1.6 1017 cm2 .
Lyman-limit systems: If Gas clouds with N (HI) 1.6 1017 cm2
produces a stronger line in the L forest at wavelength 1261 A.
sub-damped L system : N (HI) 1019 cm2
Damped L system : N (HI) > 2 1020 cm2
Line broadening, If absorbing atoms or molecules are in motion then
there is broadening due to Doppler effect on observed wavelength. Since
atoms in IGM has thermal velocity along LOS. We can assume Maxwell
distribution of velocities to find out distribution of atoms in interested area,
therefore atoms will have gaussian distributed velocities along any component. This gives a Gaussian line profile for doppler broadening
Doppler =

( o )2
exp
D
(D )2
1

where
o
D =
c

2kB T
mH

It should be noted that the Doppler broadening of the lines is not due to
thermal motions in the gas, but is also sensitive to any difference in velocities
across the absorbing cloud as a whole. For example, a L forest cloud that is
following the Hubble expansion will have some differential Hubble flow along
the length of the cloud which would contribute to the Doppler broadening.
Therefore total broadening will be :
= nat Dopp
We can also detect metals and other components easily by looking
the Profile of lines. If we refer above equations then we can say that
metal lines will have a lower doppler width than hydrogen lines. Since,
Atoms of other elements will have a mass greater than mH , so we will
have a lower thermal velocity, that will produce narrower absorption.
lines.

0.3

Understanding the spatial distribution

Spectral analysis depend on the two technical factors of Telescope: Spectral

resolution and signal to noise ratio. Analysis says that with the low resolution spectrum, we can determine mean absorption and equivalent width.
With Intermediate Resolution Spectroscopy we can count number of lines
and with high resolution spectra it is possible to do all kind of science e.g.
line profile fitting, number of lines, equivalent width and number density of
HI and so on. In next few section I will discuss about all these properties
with there spectral types.

0.3.1

Low Resolution Spectroscopy

In 1965 Gunn and Peterson defined mean absorption concept between Ly

and Ly lines. Now we called this as Gunn and Peterson effect to calculate
the mean absorption DA
I
(1)
Io
When we get spectra we simply follow the "radiation transfer law". Consider if Io is the initial intensity of light beam that passes through a gas cloud
of length r and after passing through gas cloud we observe the intensity I
then we can write Radiative transfer equation:
DA = 1

dI
= I + J
dr
10

where = absorption coef f icient and J = emission coef f icient if

we consider we are looking on line of sight and cloud is totally homogeneous
then we will see only absorption in spectrum there for J = 0. and
dI
= I
dr
Z I
dI

Z L

dr
=
I
o
I = Io exp( )

Io

(2)

where dr = d is called optical depth of cloud. we define absorbency

of cloud mathematically by writing
Z

(cross sectional area of particle)(volume inside)(velocity of particles)dr

If we say cross-sectional-area-of-particle is , particle-density (volume/area)

dl
is n and velocity is dz
then we can rewrite equation again like:
Z

n(r)

dl
dr
dz

(3)

dl
Where we scientifically say dz
is co-moving velocity of particles inside the
cloud. This we can calculate by online cosmological calculator by knowing
the red-shift.
Integration of n(r) over dr gives us COLUMN DENSITY of particles
per meter square. From equation (2) we can see if we know the observed
intensities we can know the abundance (column density) of particles in cloud.

ln

I
= exp( )vN HI
Io

(4)

Equation(4) is one of the most important physical quantity that we can

measured from low-resolution spectra.
From equ(1) Mean Absorption is now:
DA = 1 exp(ef f )
This is only called equivalent width of absorption spectral line.
Conclusion: eauation (1) and (4) provide us physical quantities from
low-resolution spectroscopy.

0.3.2

Intermediate Resolution Spectroscopy

When we have little better resolution in spectrum then we can try to calculate the distribution of lines in spectrum this is called line counting. we do
it simply by taking total length of spectra over the line width and red-shift
d2 L
(1+z) factor. 1+z factor is usually effected by power law. therefore dwdz
=
total no. of lines in certain length. This is one of the important quantity
that allow us to calculate the clumpiness of Ly forest.
11

0.3.3

High Resolution Spectroscopy

When we work on high resolution spectrum its easy to find all minute details
and we find more and more factors that effects spectrum and there transparency. When we see in LRS we finds linearity in absorbency but when we
go to HRS, we find its no more linear but that dose not mean calculation
done by LRS is wrong. They are exactly correct but with less features and
with HRS we finds more features. Like when we measures the optical depth
we found now has dependence on broadening in lines.

Where is called broadening factor. There are two specific region for this
broadening first comes due to Quantum mechanical effect and second due
to Doppler effect. Quantum mechanical effect: In Q-mech we know
excited electron can stay in upper energy levels for few seconds only, and
by Heisenberg uncertainty principle ET h and this uncertainty in
the energy calculated by Lorentzain. This broadening is known as Natural
broadening or Lorentzain broadening, given by:
nat =

1
k
2
( k ) + ( o )2

(5)

where

1 X
Akm
4
In this Akm is the Einstein coefficient gives the probability of spontaneous
transition of per particle per second from k (upper level) to m (lower level).
Doppler effect:If absorbing atoms or molecules are in motion then there
is broadening due to doppler effect in observed wavelength. Since atoms in
IGM has thermal velocity along LOS. We can assume Maxwell distribution
of velocities to find out distribution of atoms in interested area, therefore
atoms will have gaussian distributed velocities along any component. This
gives a Gaussian line profile for Doppler broadening.
k =

Doppler =

( o )2
exp
D
(D )2
1

where
o
D =
c

2kB T
mH

It should be noted that the Doppler broadening of the lines is not due
exclusively to thermal motions in the gas, but is also sensitive to any difference in velocities across the absorbing cloud as a whole. For example, a

12

L forest cloud that is following the Hubble expansion will have some differential Hubble flow along the length of the cloud, which would contribute
to the Doppler broadening and also quantum mechanical effect would have
to taken in account. Therefore total broadening will be the convolution
product of these two effects. And we can rewrite equation of broadening :
= nat Dopp

Figure 14: Lorentzain and doppler broadening curves

After convolution of two function we get and average function called

VOIGT function this provides us and average Gaussian fit. shown in
below figures. This gives us perfect estimation of spectrums physical quantities quantities.

13

Figure 15: fitted voigt function

Now, since we know the approximately correct line profile so we can

easily measure the dispersion velocity.
v

=
C
e

(6)

Where v is dispersion velocity, delta lambda is difference between observed

and emitted wavelength. lambda emitted is wavelength emitted at rest.

0.3.4

Some other Important calculations from QSO absorption spectra:

we can deduced the red-shift(by Doppler effect), distance(Hubble

Law), recessional velocity, dispersion velocity as mentioned in above
formulas.
we can find out temperature, energy , specific intensity etc by using
Planks energy distribution law and weins approximation.

0.4
0.4.1

How to study Ly-alpha absorption line

Introduction

As we seen from observations in Inter galactic medium (IGM) neutral hydrogen produces forest of Ly-alpha lines blue-ward in observed spectrum.
This unique property of Quasar spectrum proves it as a considerable tool
for todays cosmology. Observation of quasar beyond z > 2 shows there is
14

strong cosmological evolution in the number of ly-alpha lines which can be

characterized as a power law [sergent et.al]
dN
= No (1 + z)
dz

(7)

In this my target is to explain observational studies with theoretical cosmology and findout the gamma factor in theoretically and observationally.
Furthermore, make a brief study on gamma factor and see why this gamma
factor does not follow standard cosmology. Which factor is evolving gamma
and which kind of physics we can study from this correction.

0.4.2

Theoretical Calculation

To explain all above I will use simple TOY MODEL of cosmology. In which
we consider universe is homogeneous and isotropic, therefore there is spherical symmetry. In this we had taken a spherical cloud with :
one characteristic size
constant physical density
= + m + k + R = 1
= 0.7
m = 0.3
k = R = 0
physical distance is the function of z (red-shift) all these functions has
usual cosmological meaning,
In this section my target is to form cosmological equation for dN
dz and
find-out gamma factor theoretically. We know N is the no. of absorption
lines, which is the function of optical depth i.e. the function of distance.
Thus derivative of dN
dz gives us the column density with in the range z and
z + dz.
dN dl
dl dz
dN
dz

= No. of lines per unit length known as density so called column

density. Which can easily written as n(z).(z)
dl
dz = derivative of co-moving distance with in the range z to z + dz
In toy model co-moving distance is given by
dl =

c
Ho (1 + z)
15

dz
E(z)

(8)

where
E(z) =

m (1 + z)3 + k (1 + z)2 +

which is known as time derivative of logarithmic scale factor with respect to

red-shift and other cosmological parameters.
therefore
dN
dN dl
=
= n(z).(z)cHo1 (1 + z)1 E(z)
(9)
dz
dl dz
dN
= n(z).(z)cHo1 (1 + z)1/2
(10)
dz
therefore theoretically = 0.5
Figure Represent the graphical view of equation(3) by using considered
values of omega with different-different conditions:

Figure 16:

0.4.3

Observational calculation

By taking the reference of Kim et al. 1997 and willinger et al. 1994. We
seen in observational studies in high resolution spectroscopy for 2 < z < 3.5,
= 2.78 0.71 and > 4 for z > 4. In low resolution spectroscopy
= 0.48 0.62.
Since gamma is not equal 0.5, this clearly verify us, Ly-alpha forest in quasar
spectra is not due to cosmological effect. There is some other factor that
is evolving. To understand this ambiguity scientific community has done so
many simulation. one of the famous simulation is "Smooth particle hydrodynamic simulation". This simulation has given us satisfactory results to
understand evolving factor.
In this simulation, cold dark matter (CDM) dominated universe has been
produced Ly-alpha forest in the red-shift range 2 to 4 successfully. From
simulation we concluded:

16

 NHI column density was 1014 cm2 which produces weaker absorption lines in spectrum.
Stronger absorption lines are shown in the region where NHI is
1016 cm2
Velocity structure in lines are due to Hubble flow.
Therefore the smooth particle hydrodynamics simulation of CDM dominate
model of universe has presented the impressive result of Ly-alpha forest properties, and clarify the factor that is evolving, column density distribution,
so called called no. of clouds on line of sight (LOS).

Figure 17: simulation and observed density comparision

Above fig Ref: Tom thuens et.al, fig shows there is column density evolution with red-shift, and has good agreement between observed and simulated
column density distribution at redshift z = 3 to 2

0.4.4

Discussion:

Below figure shows the comparison for different column density and simulation and result is extremely interesting. For different column density fits
are fitting the cosmology simulation but with different order. If we look on
y axis limit we can see exactly that the order of variation of power law.

17

Figure 18: fig shows variation in order of gamma for different NHI

In figure 4, I am trying to plot the distribution of cloud and fit the

simulation model for low red-shift(red curve) and high red-shift(green curve).
with this curve , I understood there is normalization factor and column
density factor that varies. That is why fit is not perfect.

Figure 19:

After understanding with playing simulation I conclude that: Observation explains, in IGM neutral hydrogen is only one percent and remaining
hydrogen is in ionized form. We know Ly-alpha occur at when ground state
hydrogen atom jumps to higher state. Ionized hydrogen has no electron so
it does not absorb any photons. But in 2001 Becket et. al first confirmed
the Gunn-peterson(GP) effect in quasar spectrum, in this at some part of
quasar spectra flux was zero. Since in IGM most of hydrogen is ionized,
therefore the conclusion comes such kind of absorption in spectrum is due
to inter stellar medium (ISM) instead of IGM absorbent. We seen these
troughs (where the flux zero) not only in single quasar of particular line
18

of sight but this effect is shown in every line of sight. The average optical
depth is steadily grows as we go further and its much more at z 6. Here
we conclude that this rising optical depth is due to rise in neutral hydrogen
beyond z > 6.
- At the beginning of the universe all matter is not ionized and there were
strongly coupled photons in matter.
- As the universe expand and cooled adiabatically, electron become bound
to photons photons(CMB) released and matter and radiation decoupled.
- At some point universe get re-ionized again and most of the neutral hydrogen ionized
By studying quasar spectra we can conclude that when re-ionization
completed. The idea is very simple, If we could observe farther and farther
quasar, then we can calculate the red-shift where the quasar source is emitting. Since quasar is emitting means re-ionization completed, and it will
start showing GP effect intermediate clouds.

0.4.5

Conclusion:

By studying Quasar spectra by comparing cosmological model. We could

able to understand the structure of universe at large scale. we can calculate
the age of re-ionization era, IGM properties, presence of neutral hydrogen
in ISM and presence of ionized hydrogen in IGM.

0.5

Calculation of absorbers size

In the observed spectrum, the ratio between two wavelength is always preserved. This is very specific property to keep in mind (when we analyze
spectrum). By this way we analyze the specific line s in spectrum. In practice for example, we find doublet ratio of CIV (1548 A and 1551 A) and
MgII (2796 A and 2803 A) in laboratory frame. If we find same ratio like
these lines then we predict the presence of particular absorver. After looking
on several spectrum of quasars scientific community standardize the classes
of these absorvers. These absorvers are MgII, CIV, neutral hydrogen and
classes are defined by following:
N (M gII) = 1016 to1017 cm2
N (CIV ) = 1014 to1016 cm2
N (HI) = 1017 to1020 cm2
Neutral hydrogen classes are defined in other sub classes but two most
specific are: sub-damped L system N (HI) 1019 cm2
Damped L system N (HI) > 2 1020 cm2

19

After finding lines by using ration of wavelength, we use co-relation function between these lines and we drive recessional velocity in the frame of observing material. We typically find it 600km-1, that declare the signature of
galaxies. By following this we could interpret that each cloud of particular
class is related to one galaxy. [reference: "Galaxies and cosmology" by By
Francoise COMBES, Patrick Boiss, Alain]
So after this interpretation every things becomes very simple. since,
If each cloud is one galaxy and we have distribution function of galaxies,
so-called "galaxy luminosity function". It is defined by following:
(L)dl =

L
L
exp( )dl

L
L

(11)

where is normalization factor

L = luminosity of galaxies L = threshold luminosity
From the standard model of cosmology (discussed in previous report) we
know the column density distribution function, this is given by:
dN
= n(z).(z)cHo1 (1 + z)1/2
dz

(12)

In equation(11) normalization function tells the no. of galaxies per cubic

Mpc. If we take a simple argument then we can say, this normalization factor
is equivalent to the no. of particles per cubic Mpc. Therefore this argument
simplifies :
= n(z)
Then in equation(2) if we know the values of dN
dz for particular classes
then we can easily drive cross-section of each object class.
(z) =

dN (class) Ho
1
(1 + z)1/2 M pc2
dz
c

where,
= 1.6 102 h3o M pc3 and ho =
Ho = 70km/sec/M pc
c = 3 105 km/sec

0.5.1

Ho
100

(13)

(ref1)

Results

1. MgII absorbers:
gII)
At z<=2, dN (M
= 0.014[Ref: Dapres zhi-fu chen: "the red-shift num
dz
density of MgII absorption systems"] we find values of cross-section (z)
101.02kpc. this value is quite considerable and I could find it in literature.

2. CIV absorbers:
20

)
At z= 1.5 to 3.5, dN (CIV
= 2.3 1.1 respectively [Ref: Nicolas tejos, "indz
dices of CIV on the line of sight"] and I found 148.34 kpc < (z) < 312.31
kpc.

2. NHI absorbers:
calculation of NHI is so weird, they are not as expected because column
density of NHI absorbers are evolve as redshift increase or decreases (disgII)
cussed in last report). At z<=0.1 - 2, dN (M
= 200 50.11 respectively
dz
[Ref: R.Dave "low redshift ly-alpha forest in cold dark matter" (z = 2)] [Ref:
J. Michqel shull "low redshift intergalactic medium"(z = 0.1)] and I found
2839.5 kpc < (z) < 1456.1 kpc.
2. Damped Ly-lapha absorbers:
gII)
< 0.25 [Ref: "K.Subramanian and T. Padmanz<= 2.5, 0.16< dN (M
dz
abhan"] on the basis of this I found cross-section of 60 kpc < (z) < 75.3
kpc.

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0.6

Discussion

1: What are the three main global ionization era of the gaseous
component of the Universe, indicate for each what is the physical
phenomenon at the origin of the transition ?
After the Bigbang, for its first 370,000years the universe was filled with
hot dense gas of plasma (ionized gas), photons were unable to escape from
such conditions. As the universe is keep on expanding and getting cool consequently electron and proton were able to combine and first neutral atom
(hydrogen) form and photon were able to move freely in universe. These
photons was highly energetic and they travel through all universe, since universe is keep on expanding, therefore high energy photons get shifted by
factor of 1000 and we see today them as CMB photons.
Over the time, areas of high density regions began to collapse under
gravity, neutral matter in the universe began to clump together. Thus gravity and pressure counter-reaction force ignite nuclear fusion in the core of
clumps and lead to first star and galaxy. As the first star emerged, there
energy start heating the surrounding medium (photo-dissociation) and once
again ionize the hydrogen of universe. As first galaxy emerged it is also
effected by associated radiative background.
Therefore the physical phenomenon happen at the origin of transition
are: Recombination by which first atom formed in universe, Gravity and
pressure in-fall (jeans mass instability) by which first star and galaxy form,
Photo-dissociation from star and galaxy core that again leads neutral hydrogen to ionized form.

2: What are the methods used to measure the physical size of

Lyman alpha forest clouds at intermediate red-shifts (1 to 3), and
what is this size

We know, Lyman-alpha clouds are every where and Quasar (QSO) spectrum gives the finger prints of them. For calculating the size of Lyman-alpha
forest clouds, closely separated QSO pairs and gravitationally lensed QSOs
provides an efficient way. Gravitationally lensed QSOs has spatial separation
of approx sub galactic scale. Therefore these QSOs provides two or more adjacent ray path that can penetrate same cloud at different different positions
then by statistical measurement (for example: Robust bayesian statistical
method in spherical and thick disk) on the absorbency of Ly-alpha, We conclude the size of QSO. From the recent discoveries, lyman-alpha cloud had
size 100 h1 kpc (measured from this method) [Ref: Yihu Fang et al.]
Another method is by using galaxy distribution function and object
classes (discussed in section 0.5 (previous section)).
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3: What is the average ionized gas fraction present in these

clouds?
At z = 3 fraction of neutral hydrogen is 10 5, If we follow the symmetry then I found 99.99 percent of ionize gas is available in these clouds. It
means almost everything is ionize.

4: At redshift > 3, which fraction of the baryons is contained

in the Lyman alpha forest ?
Star and there remnants provides a very small contribution in the baryonic
mass, while at z = 3 most of baryons are in intergalactic medium (IGM)
in form of Lyman-alpha forest gas and damped lyman-alpha absorbers (in
high density). Remaining part is in the form of cool plasma in between
forest clouds. Observations measured number of baryons at red-shift z > 3
is distributed in this ratios:
1. 60 percent in IGM
2. 7 percent in galaxies
3. 4 percent in clusters
4. 5 percent in circum-galactic gas
therefore total 80 percent baryons are available at z > 3.

5: In the present Universe, there is a large fraction of the intergalactic medium that cannot be detected through Lyman alpha
absorption, explain why, describe the physical state of this gas and
the observing strategies that have been used to detect it?
IONIZED HYDROGEN (HII) medium is the one that we can not detect
from through lyman-alpha absorption. At z 6 heavy radiations, those
comes from star and galactic center (QSO) ionize the neutral hydrogen of
surrounding medium. Since it is ionized therefore no electron consequently
no electron transition, Thus we can not observe such medium in absorption spectrum. Observations at radio wavelengths are very interesting for
HII. Due to photo-dissociation process these regions are highly energetic
and emits high frequencies. These regions typically emit synchrotron and
bremsstrahlung radiation at these frequencies, therefore provide us an excellent independent probe of the temperatures and electron densities in the
23

clouds. Such that mapping of 21cm hyper-fine transition of atomic hydrogen is one of the best probe of observing ionize hydrogen by using multipurpose interferometes such as GMRT in India, MWA in Australia, LOFAR in
Netherlander and so on.
Basic strategy that we used in measurement is: Two fundamental parameters of ionized
gas along any line of sight are are the dispersion measures
R
(DM = R ne ds) derived from pulsar observations and emission measures
(EM = ne nH + ds) derived from the free-free (bremsstrahlung) emission.
Comparison of these results gives an idea of H + orHII region. Conclusion
says 90 percent or more factor of ionized hydrogen within the interstellar
medium, and along lines of sight at high Galactic latitude (i.e., away from
the Galactic mid-plane)

Acknowledgment: I am very thankful to my professor Vincent LE BRUN

for sharing his experience and giving us fruitful discussions, knowledge and
valuable time on such a important topic of era. I am also thankful to my
colleague theo and priston for sharing their ideas with me.

24

0.7

References

[1] http : //www.astronomynotes.com/galaxy/s14.htm

[2] http : //www.astronomy.ohiostate.edu/ ryden/ast1628 /notes36.html
[3] http : //skyserver.sdss.org/dr1/en/proj/advanced/quasars/power.asp
[4] http : //www.astro.washington.edu/users/ivezic/REU 08/quasarweb/background/basic1.html
[5] http : //www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach/education/senior/astrophysics/spectra
[6] Quasar Absorbers and the InterGalactic Medium Simon C. Reynolds .pfd
[7] http : //spif f.rit.edu/classes/phys301/lectures/specl ines/specl ines.html
[8] http : //astrobites.org/guides/spectroscopy and spectral lines/
[9] http : //w.astro.berkeley.edu/ ay216/08/N OT ES/Lecture26 08.pdf
[10] https : //ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Charlton/Charlton11 .html
[11]David W. Hogg, Institute for Advanced Study, 1 Einstein Drive, Princeton NJ 08540
[12]The low-redshift evolution of the Ly-alpha Forest by Tom Theuns et.al
[13] Sargent and Peter J et. al
[14] http : //astrobites.org/2013/07/21/astrophysicalclassicsneutral
hydrogenintheuniversepart2/ [15] https : //www.astro.umd.edu/ richard/AST RO620/Lum
pp.pdf (normalization factor)
[16] Basic understanding of absorbers by churchill http : //astronomy.nmsu.edu/cwc/Research/M gI
review/mgii over.html gal stats
[17] Dapres zhi-fu chen et.al
[18] Nicolas tejos et.al
[19] R.Dave "low redshift ly-alpha forest in cold dark matter"
[20] K.Subramanian et.al from TIFR
[21] The evolution of the intergalactic medium by Matthew Mcquinn.
[22] New horizons of observational cosmology by A. Cooray, E. Komatsu, A.
Melchiorri.
[23] The size and nature of Lyman-alpha forest clouds probed by QSO pairs
and groups, Yihu Fang et al., astroph 9510112.

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