Electrostatic Fields

Engineering
Electromagnetics
Electrostatic Fields
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
To understand Coulombs Law and Electric Field behavior

To calculate Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge
Distributions
To understand the concept of Electric Flux and Electric Flux
Density
To understand the concept of Gausss Law and apply it in the
analysis of electromagnetic systems
To understand the concept of electric potential
To understand the concept of electric dipole
To determine Energy Density in Electrostatic Fields
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
To understand Coulombs Law Electric Field behavior
2.
To calculate Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions
3.
To understand the concept of Electric Flux and Electric Flux Density
4.
5.
6.
7.
Introduction
We shall begin with those fundamental concept that
are applicable to static (or time-invariant) electric
fields in free space (or vacuum). An electrostatic
field is produced by a static charge distribution. A
typical example of such field is found in a cathoderay tube.
Electrostatic
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Electric power transmission, X-ray machines, and

lightning protection are associated with strong
electric fields and will require a knowledge of
electrostatics to understand and design suitable
equipment.
Electrostatic
Fields
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The devices used in solid-state electronics are based

on electrostatics. These include resistors,
capacitors, and active devices such as bipolar and
field effect transistors, which are based on control of
electron by electrostatic fields.
Electrostatic
Fields
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Almost all computer peripheral devices, with the

exception of magnetic memory, are based on
electrostatic fields. Touch pads, capacitive
keyboards, cathode-ray tubes, liquid crystal displays,
and electrostatic printers are typical examples.
Electrostatic
Fields
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In medical work, diagnosis is often carried out with

the aid of electrostatics, as incorporated in
electrocardiograms, electroencephalograms, and
other recordings of organs with electrical activity
including eyes, ears, and stomachs.
Electrostatic
Fields
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We begin our study of electrostatics by investigating

the two fundamental laws governing electrostatic
fields: Coulomb's law, and Gauss's law. Both of
these laws are based on experimental studies and
they are interdependent. Although Coulomb's law is
applicable in finding the electric field due to any
charge configuration, it is easier to use Gauss's law
when charge distribution is symmetrical. Throughout
our discussion in this chapter, we will assume that
the electric field is in a vacuum or free space.
Electrostatic
Fields
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Coulombs Law and Field Intensity

Coulomb's law is an experimental law formulated in
1785 by the French colonel, Charles Augustin de
Coulomb. It deals with the force a point charge
exerts on another point charge. By a point charge we
mean a charge that is located on a body whose
dimensions are much smaller than other relevant
dimensions. For example, a collection of electric
charges on a pinhead may be regarded as a point
charge. Charges are generally measured in
coulombs (C).
1 Coulomb = 6.242 x 1018 electrons
Electron charge = -1.602 x 10-19 C
Proton charge = +1.602 x 10-19 C
Electrostatic
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Coulomb's law states that the force F between two

point charges Q1 and Q2 is:
1. Along the line joining them
2. Directly proportional to the product Q1Q2 of the
charges (Coulombs first law of electrostatics)
3. Inversely proportional to the square of the
distance R between them. (Coulombs second law
of electrostatics)
Electrostatic
Fields
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Expressed mathematically,
where k is the proportionality constant. In SI units,

charges Q1 and Q2 are in coulombs (C), the distance
R is in meters (m), and the force F is in newtons (N)
so that k = 1/(40). The constant o is known as the
permittivity of free space (in farads per meter) and
has the value
Electrostatic
Fields
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Table of units used:

Force, F
Charge, Q
Newton (SI)
Coulomb, C
Dyne (cgs)
Electrostatic unit (esu)

or statcoulomb
Distance, r
Meter
Centimeter
Constant, k
k = 1/(40r)
k = 8.98 x 109 Nm2/C2 in
free space or
vacuum
1 (in vacuum)
Where:
1 Newton = 105 dynes; 1 Coulomb = 3 x 109 esu
= permittivity
0 = permittivity of free space (8.854 x 10-12 C2/Nm2 or F/m)
r = relative permittivity (permittivity of materials)
Electrostatic
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Thus the equation becomes,
If point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points

having position vectors r1 and r2, then the force F12
on Q2 due to Q1 as shown in the figure is given by
Electrostatic
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where
by substitution of equations,
or
Electrostatic
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It is worthwhile to note that

1. As shown in the figure, the force F21 on Q1 due to
Q2 is given by
or
since
Electrostatic
Fields
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2. Like charges repel each other while unlike

charges attract.
3. The distance R between the charged bodies Q1

and Q2 must be large compared with the linear
dimensions on the bodies; that is Q1 and Q2 must be
point charges.
4. Q1 and Q2 must be static.
5. The signs of Q1 and Q2 must be taken into
account.
Electrostatic
Fields
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If we have more than two point charges, we can use

the principle of superposition to determine the force
on a particular charge. The principle states that if
there are N charges Q1, Q2, , QN located,
respectively, at points with position vectors r1, r2, ,
rN, the resultant force F on a charge Q located at
point r is the vector sum of the forces exerted on Q
by each of the charges Q1, Q2, , QN. Hence:
Electrostatic
Fields
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Electric Field
l
l
a region or space around an electro charge

Electric fields cannot be seen by our naked eyes, it can only be
manifested. We can only detect the presence of an electric field if
after placing in that space a test charge, that charge will experience
a force of either attraction or repulsion.
Electric fields are represented by Electric field lines, which emanate
in all directions outward from a positive charge and inward to a
negative charge.
Electrostatic
Fields
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Electric Fields: (a) Emanate from a positive charge, (b)

Emanate from a negative charge.
Electrostatic
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Electrostatic
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Electrostatic
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The electric field intensity (or electric field strength) E

is the force per unit charge when place in the electric
field.
Thus,
or simply
Electrostatic
Fields
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The electric field intensity E is obviously in the

direction of the force F and is measured in newtons/
coulomb (N/C) or volts/meter (V/m).
Electrostatic
Fields
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For N point charges Q1, Q2,. . . , QN located at r1,

r2, . . . , rN, the electric field intensity at point r is
obtained as
Electrostatic
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Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge

Distributions
It is possible to have continuous charge distribution
along a line, on a surface, or in a volume as shown
in the figure.
Electrostatic
Fields
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It is customary to denote the line charge density,

surface charge density, and volume charge density
by L (in C/m), S (in C/m2), and V (in C/m3),
respectively.
The charge element dQ and the total charge Q due
to these charge distributions are obtained as
Electrostatic
Fields
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The electric field intensity due to each of the charge

distributions L, S, and V may be regarded as the
summation of the field contributed by the numerous
point charges making up the charge distribution.
Thus,
Electrostatic
Fields
A.
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Line Charge
Consider a line charge with uniform charge density
L extending from A to B along the z-axis as shown
in the figure
Electrostatic
Fields
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The charge element dQ associated with element dl =

dz of the line is
and hence the total charge Q is
Electrostatic
Fields
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The electric field intensity E at an arbitrary point P(x,

y, z) can be found using the equations. It is
customary to denote the field point by (x, y, z) and
the source point by (x', y', z'). Thus from Figure
Electrostatic
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Substituting the equations, we get
To evaluate this, it is convenient that we define , 1

and 2 as in Figure
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Hence, the equation becomes
Thus for a finite line charge,
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As a special case, for an infinite line charge, point B

is at (0, 0, ) and A at (0, 0, -) so that 1 = /2, 2 =
-/2; the z-component vanishes and the equation
becomes
Electrostatic
Fields
B.
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Surface Charge
Consider an infinite sheet of charge in the xy-plane
with uniform charge density S. The charge
associated with an elemental area dS is
and hence the total charge is
Electrostatic
Fields
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The contribution to the E field at point P(0, 0, h) by

the elemental surface 1 as shown in the figure is
Electrostatic
Fields
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Due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, for

every element 1, there is a corresponding element 2
whose contribution along a cancels that of element
1, as illustrated in the figure. Thus the contributions
to E add up to zero so that E has only z-component.
This can also be shown mathematically by replacing
a with cosax + sinay Integration of cos or sin
over 0 < < 2 gives zero.
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Therefore,
that is, E has only z-component if the charge is in the

xy-plane.
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In general, for an infinite sheet of charge
where an is a unit vector normal to the sheet.
Electrostatic
Fields
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We notice that the electric field is normal to the sheet

and it is surprisingly independent of the distance
between the sheet and the point of observation P. In
a parallel plate capacitor, the electric field existing
between the two plates having equal and opposite
charges is given by
Electrostatic
Fields
C.
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Volume Charge
Let the volume charge distribution with uniform
charge density V be as shown in the figure. The
charge dQ associated with the elemental volume dv
is
Electrostatic
Fields
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and hence the total charge in a sphere of radius a is
The electric field dE at P(0, 0, z) due to the

elementary volume charge is
where aR = cosaz + sinap.
Electrostatic
Fields
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Due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the

contributions to Ex or Ey add up to zero. We are left
with only Ez, given by
Again, we need to derive expressions for dv, R2, and

cos.
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Applying the cosine rule, we have
It is convenient to evaluate the integral in terms of R

and r'. Hence we express cos', cos, and sin'd' in
terms of R and r', that is,
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Differentiating with respect to ' keeping z and r'

fixed, we obtain
Substituting into the equation yields
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This result is obtained for E at P(0, 0, z). Due to the

symmetry of the charge distribution, the electric field
at P(r, , ) is readily obtained from the equation as
which is identical to the electric field at the same

point due to a point charge Q located at the origin or
the center of the spherical charge distribution.
Electrostatic
Fields
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Electric Flux Density

The flux due to the electric field E can be calculated
using the general definition of flux in vector calculus.
The electric field intensity is dependent on the
medium in which the charge is placed (free space in
this chapter). Suppose a new vector field D
independent of the medium is defined by
Electrostatic
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We define electric flux in terms of D, namely,
In SI units, one line of electric flux emanates from +1

C and terminates on - 1 C. Therefore, the electric
flux is measured in coulombs. Hence, the vector field
D is called the electric flux density and is measured
in coulombs per square meter. For historical
reasons, the electric flux density is also called
electric displacement.
Electrostatic
Fields
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It is apparent that all the formulas derived for E from

Coulomb's law can be used in calculating D, except
that we have to multiply those formulas by o. For
example, for an infinite sheet of charge,
and for a volume charge distribution,
Note that D is a function of charge and position only;

it is independent of the medium.
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Gausss Law Maxwells Equation

Gauss's law constitutes one of the fundamental laws
of electromagnetism.
Gauss's law states that the total electric flux
through any closed surface is equal to the total
charge enclosed by that surface.
Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), a German
mathematician, developed the divergence theorem,
popularly known by his name. He was the first
physicist to measure electric and magnetic quantities
in absolute units.
Electrostatic
Fields
Thus
that is,
or
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By applying divergence theorem to the middle term

in the equation
Comparing the two volume integrals results in
which is the first of the four Maxwells equations to

be derived.
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The equation states that the volume charge density

is the same as the divergence of the electric flux
density. This should "not be surprising to us from the
way we defined the divergence of a vector and from
the fact that V at a point is simply the charge per
unit volume at that point.
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Note that:
1. The two equations are basically stating Gauss's
law in different ways; the first equation is the integral
form, whereas the other equation is the differential or
point form of Gauss's law.
2. Gauss's law is an alternative statement of
Coulomb's law; proper application of the divergence
theorem to Coulomb's law results in Gauss's law.
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3. Gauss's law provide an easy means of finding E

or D for symmetrical charge distributions such as a
point charge, an infinite line charge, an infinite
cylindrical surface charge, and a spherical
distribution of charge. A continuous charge
distribution has rectangular symmetry if it depends
only on x (or y or z), cylindrical symmetry if it
depends only on , or spherical symmetry if it
depends only on r (independent of and ). It must
be stressed that whether the charge distribution is
symmetric or not, Gauss's law always holds.
Electrostatic
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For example, consider the charge distribution in the

figure shown where v1 and v2 are closed surfaces (or
volumes).
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The total flux leaving v1 is 10 - 5 = 5 nC because only

10 nC and - 5 nC charges are enclosed by v1. Although
charges 20 nC and 15 nC outside v1 do contribute to
the flux crossing v1; the net flux crossing v1, according
to Gauss's law, is irrespective of those charges outside
v1. Similarly, the total flux leaving v2 is zero because no
charge is enclosed by v2. Thus we see that Gauss's
law, = Qenclosed is still obeyed even though the charge
distribution is not symmetric. However, we cannot use
the law to determine E or D when the charge
distribution is not symmetric; we must resort to
Coulomb's law to determine E or D in that case.
Electrostatic
Fields
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Application of Gausss Law

The procedure for applying Gauss's law to calculate
the electric field involves first knowing whether
symmetry exists. Once symmetric charge distribution
exists, we construct a mathematical closed surface
(known as a Gaussian surface). The surface is
chosen such that D is normal or tangential to the
Gaussian surface. When D is normal to the surface,
D dS = D dS because D is constant on the surface.
When D is tangential to the surface, D dS = 0. Thus
we must choose a surface that has some of the
symmetry exhibited by the charge distribution. We
shall now apply these basic ideas to the following
cases.
Electrostatic
Fields
A.
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Point Charge
Suppose a point charge Q is located at the origin.
To determine D at a point P, it is easy to see that
choosing a spherical surface containing P will
satisfy symmetry conditions. Thus, a spherical
surface centered at the origin is the Gaussian
surface in this case and is shown in the figure.
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Since D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian

surface, that is, D = Drar applying Gauss's law ( =
Qenclosed) gives
where
is the
surface area of the Gaussian surface. Thus,
Electrostatic
Fields
B.
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Infinite Line Charge

Suppose the infinite line of uniform charge L C/m
lies along the z-axis. To determine D at a point P,
we choose a cylindrical surface containing P to
satisfy symmetry condition as shown in the figure.
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D is constant on and normal to the cylindrical

Gaussian surface; that is, D = Da. If we apply
Gauss's law to an arbitrary length of the line
where
Gaussian surface.
is the surface area of the
Electrostatic
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Note that D dS evaluated on the top and bottom

surfaces of the cylinder is zero since D has no zcomponent; that means that D is tangential to those
surfaces. Thus
Electrostatic
Fields
C.
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Infinite Sheet of Charge

Consider the infinite sheet of uniform charge S C/
m2 lying on the z = 0 plane. To determine D at point
P, we choose a rectangular box that is cut
symmetrically by the sheet of charge and has two
of its faces parallel to the sheet as shown in the
figure.
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As D is normal to the sheet, D = Dzaz, and applying

Gauss's law gives
Note that D dS evaluated on the sides of the box is

zero because D has no components along ax and ay.
If the top and bottom area of the box each has area
A, the equation becomes
Electrostatic
Fields
and thus
or
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Electrostatic
Fields
D.
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Uniformly Charged Sphere

Consider a sphere of radius a with a uniform
charge V C/m3. To determine D everywhere, we
construct Gaussian surfaces for eases r a and r
a separately. Since the charge has spherical
symmetry, it is obvious that a spherical surface is
an appropriate Gaussian surface.
Electrostatic
Fields
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For r a, the total charge enclosed by the spherical

surface of radius r, as shown in figure (a), is
and
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Hence, = Qenc gives
or
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For r a, the Gaussian surface is shown in figure

(b). The charge enclosed by the surface is the entire
charge in this case, that is,
while
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Hence
or
Thus, D everywhere is given by
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and |D| is as sketched in the figure.
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Electric Potential
Another way of obtaining E is from the electric scalar
potential V to be defined in this section. In a sense,
this way of finding E is easier because it is easier to
handle scalars than vectors.
Electrostatic
Fields
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Suppose we wish to move a point charge Q from

point A to point B in an electric field E as shown in
the figure. From Coulomb's law, the force on Q is F =
QE so that the work done in displacing the charge by
dl is
Electrostatic
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The negative sign indicates that the work is being

done by an external agent. Thus the total work done,
or the potential energy required, in moving Q from A
to B is
Electrostatic
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Dividing W by Q in the equation gives the potential

energy per unit charge. This quantity, denoted by
VAB, is known as the potential difference between
points A and B. Thus
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
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Note that:
1. In determining VAB, A is the initial point while B is the
final point.
2. If VAB is negative, there is a loss in potential energy
in moving Q from A to B; this implies that the work is
being done by the field. However, if VAB is positive,
there is a gain in potential energy in the movement; an
external agent performs the work.
3. VAB is independent of the path taken (to be shown a
little later).
4. VAB is measured in joules per coulomb, commonly
referred to as volts (V).
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
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As an example, if the E field in figure shown is due to

a point charge Q located at the origin, then
Electrostatic
Fields
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so
or
where VB and VA are the potentials (or absolute

potentials) at B and A, respectively.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Thus the potential difference VAB may be regarded

as the potential at B with reference to A. In problems
involving point charges, it is customary to choose
infinity as reference; that is, we assume the potential
at infinity is zero. Thus if VA = 0 as rA in the
equation, the potential at any point (rB r) due to a
point charge Q located at the origin is
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Note that because E points in the radial direction,

any contribution from a displacement in the or
direction is wiped out by the dot product E dl = E
cos dl = E dr. Hence the potential difference VAB is
independent of the path as asserted earlier.
The potential at any point is the potential difference
between that point and a chosen point in which the
potential is zero.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
By assuming zero potential at infinity, the potential at

a distance r from the point charge is the work done
per unit charge by an external agent in transferring a
test charge from infinity to that point. Thus
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
If the point charge Q is not located at the origin but at

a point whose position vector is r, the potential V(x,
y, z) or simply V(r) at r becomes
We have considered the electric potential due to a

point charge.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The same basic ideas apply to other types of charge

distribution because any charge distribution can be
regarded as consisting of point charges. The
superposition principle, which we applied to electric
fields, applies to potentials. For n point charges Q1,
Q2, ,Qn located at points with position vectors r1,
r2 , . . . , rn, the potential at r is
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
For continuous charge distributions, we replace Qk in

the equation with charge element Ldl, SdS, or vdv
and the summation becomes an integration, so the
potential at r becomes
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The following points should be noted:

1. We recall that in obtaining the equations, the zero
potential (reference) point has been chosen
arbitrarily to be at infinity. If any other point is chosen
as reference, becomes
The potential difference VAB can be found generally

from
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Relationship between E and V

The potential difference between points A and B is
independent of the path taken. Hence,
that is
or
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
This shows that the line integral of E along a closed

path as shown in the figure must be zero. Physically,
this implies that no net work is done in moving a
charge along a closed path in an electrostatic field.
Applying Stokes's theorem to the equation gives
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Any vector field that satisfies the equations is said to

be conservative, or irrotational. Thus an electrostatic
field is a conservative field. The two equation is
referred to as Maxwell's equation (the second
Maxwell's equation to be derived) for static electric
fields. The first equation is the integral form, and the
second equation is the differential form; they both
depict the conservative nature of an electrostatic
field.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
From the way we defined potential, V = - E dl, it

follows that
But
Comparing the two equations for dV, we obtain
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Thus:
that is, the electric field intensity is the gradient of V.

The negative sign shows that the direction of E is
opposite to the direction in which V increases; E is
directed from higher to lower levels of V.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
An Electric Dipole and Flux Lines

An electric dipole is formed when two point charges
of equal magnitude but opposite sign are separated
by a small distance.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Consider the dipole shown in the figure.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The potential at point P(r, , ) is given by
where r1 and r2 are the distances between P and +Q

and P and -Q, respectively. If r >> d, r2 r1 dcos,
r2r1 r2, the equation becomes
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Since dcos = d ar, where d = daz, if we define

as the dipole moment, the equation may be written
as
Note that the dipole moment p is directed from -Q to

+Q. If the dipole center is not at the origin but at r',
the equation becomes
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The electric field due to the dipole with center at the

origin can be obtained readily as
where p = |p| = Qd.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Notice that a point charge is a monopole and its

electric field varies inversely as r2 while its potential
field varies inversely as r. We notice that the electric
field due to a dipole varies inversely as r3 while its
potential varies inversely as r2. The electric fields
due to successive higher-order multi-poles (such as
a quadrupole consisting of two dipoles or an
octupole consisting of two quadrupoles) vary
inversely as r4, r5, r6, while their corresponding
potentials vary inversely as r3, r4, r5,
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The idea of electric flux lines (or electric lines of force

as they are sometimes called) was introduced by
Michael Faraday (1791-1867) in his experimental
investigation as a way of visualizing the electric field.
An electric flux line is an imaginary path or line
drawn in such a way that its direction at any point is
the direction of the electric field at that point.
In other words, they are the lines to which the
electric field density D is tangential at every point.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Any surface on which the potential is the same

throughout is known as an equipotential surface. The
intersection of an equipotential surface and a plane
results in a path or line known as an equipotential
line. No work is done in moving a charge from one
point to another along an equipotential line or
surface (VA - VB = 0) and hence
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
From the equation, we may conclude that the lines of

force or flux lines (or the direction of E) are always
normal to equipotential surfaces. Examples of
equipotential surfaces for point charge and a dipole
are shown in the figure.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Note from these examples that the direction of E is

everywhere normal to the equipotential lines. We
shall see the importance of equipotential surfaces
when we discuss conducting bodies in electric fields;
it will suffice to say at this point that such bodies are
equipotential volumes.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
A typical application of field mapping (flux lines and

equipotential surfaces) is found in the diagnosis of
the human heart. The human heart beats in
response to an electric field potential difference
across it. The heart can be characterized as a dipole
with the field map similar to that of figure (b). Such a
field map is useful in detecting abnormal heart
position.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Energy Density in Electrostatic Fields

To determine the energy present in an assembly of
charges, we must first determine the amount of work
necessary to assemble them. Suppose we wish to
position three point charges Q1, Q2, and Q3 in an
initially empty space shown shaded in the figure.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
No work is required to transfer Q1 from infinity to P1

because the space is initially charge free and there is
no electric field (W = 0). The work done in
transferring Q2 from infinity to P2 is equal to the
product of Q2 and the potential V21 at P2 due to Q1.
Similarly, the work done in positioning Q3 at P3 is
equal to Q3(V32 + V31), where V32 and V31 are the
potentials at P3 due to Q2 and Q1 respectively.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Hence the total work done in positioning the three

charges is
If the charges were positioned in reverse order,
where V23 is the potential at P2 due to Q3, V12 and

V13 are, respectively, the potentials at P1 due to Q2
and Q3.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Adding the two equations
where V1, V2, and V3 are total potentials at P1, P2,

and P3, respectively.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
In general, if there are n point charges, the equation

becomes
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
If, instead of point charges, the region has a

continuous charge distribution, the summation
becomes integration; that is,
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Since
the equation can be further developed to yield
Electrostatic
Fields
QUESTIONS
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
VAN DE GRAAF GENERATOR
- an electrostatic machine that provides equipotential
surface
- invented in 1931 by Robert J. Van de Graaf, an
American Physicist, is the most efficient electrostatic
generator
- it consists of a hollow metal sphere supported by
an insulating cylinder, resembles a mushroom
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
- an electric motor power a continuous belt made of
some insulating material (usually fabric coated with
rubber)
- at the bottom of the insulating cylinder, the belt rubs
against a glass cylinder
- the friction of the belt against the glass produces a
negative charge (electron surplus) on the belt
- as the belt moves upward, the electrons are carried
with it
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
- at the top of the belt, an electron collector conducts
the surplus electrons to the metal sphere
- electrons cannot collect inside a hollow sphere so
they immediately move to the outside where they
induce a positive charge on the inside of the sphere
- the positive charge attracts more electrons from the
belt and sends them to the outside of the sphere
- in this manner, the Van de Graaf generator
produces an enormous negative electrostatic charge
on the outside of the sphere
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MICROWAVE OVENS
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MICROWAVE OVENS
- Percy Spencer, while working for Raytheon in the
1940s on the design and construction of magnetrons
for radar, observed that a chocolate bar that had
unintentionally been exposed to microwaves had
melted in his pocket.
- the process of cooking by microwave was patented
in 1946 and by the 1970s, microwave ovens had
become standard household items.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MICROWAVE OVENS
- a microwave is an electromagnetic wave whose
frequency lies in the 300 MHz 300 GHz range.
- when a material containing water is exposed to
microwaves, the water molecule reacts by rotating
itself so as to align its own electric dipole along the
direction of the electric field of the microwave.
- the rotation motion creates heat in the material,
resulting in the conversion of microwave energy to
thermal energy.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MICROWAVE OVENS
- microwave absorption by water exhibits a spectrum
with a peak that occurs at a resonant frequency
whose value depends on the temperature of the
water and on the concentration of dissolved salts or
sugars present in the water.
- the frequency most commonly used in microwave
ovens is 2.54 GHz, and the standard source for
generating energy at this frequency is the
magnetron.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MICROWAVE OVENS
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MICROWAVE OVENS
- whereas microwaves are readily absorbed by
water, fats, and sugars they can penetrate through
most ceramics, glass, or plastics without loss of
energy, thereby imparting no heat to those materials.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
X-RAY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
- Tomography is derived from the Greek word tome
(meaning section or slice) and graphia (meaning
writing).
- Computed tomography, also known as CT scan or
CAT scan (for computed axial tomography), refers to
a technique capable of generating 3-D images of Xray attenuation (absorption) properties of an object.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
- CT was invented in 1972 by British electrical
engineer Godfrey Hounsfeld and independently by
Allan Cormack, a South African born American
physicist. The two inventors shared the 1979 Nobel
prize for Physiology or Medicine.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
A CT scanner uses an X-ray
source with a narrow slit that
generates a fan-beam, wide
enough to encompass the
extent of the body, but only a
few millimeter in thickness.
Instead of recording the
attenuated X-ray beam on
film, it is captured by an
array of some 700 detectors.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
The X-ray source and the detector array are
mounted on a circular frame that rotates in steps of a
fraction of a degree over a full 3600 circle around the
patient, each time recording an X-ray attenuation
profile from a different angular perspective.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
- GPS was initially developed in the 1980s by the
U.S. Department of Defense as a navigational tool
for military use, has evolved into a system with
numerous civilian applications, including vehicle
tracking, aircraft navigation, map displays in
automobiles, and topographic mapping.
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
The overall GPS is comprised of three segments:
1. Space segment
- consists of 27 satellites (24 in operation and three
extras in case one fails), each circling Earth every
12 hours at an orbital altitude of about 12,000 miles
and transmitting continuous coded time signals
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
2.
User segment
- consists of hand-held or vehicle-mounted
receivers that determine their own locations by
receiving and processing multiple satellite signals
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
3.
Ground stations
- it monitor the satellites and provide them with
updates on their precise orbital information
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
- GPS provides a location inaccuracy of about 30 m,
both horizontally and vertically
- this inaccuracy is attributed to several factors,
including time delay errors that depend on the
receivers location on Earth, delay due to signal
reflections by tall buildings, and satellites locations
misreporting errors
Electrostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
DIFFERENTIAL GPS (DGPS)
- uses a stationary reference receiver at a location
with known coordinates. By calculating the
difference between its location on the basis of the
GPS estimate and its true location, the reference
receiver establishes coordinates correction factors
and transmits them to all DGPS receivers in the
area.

Electrostatic Fields

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Electrostatic Fields

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Engineering

To understand Coulombs Law and Electric Field behavior

Electric power transmission, X-ray machines, and

The devices used in solid-state electronics are based

Almost all computer peripheral devices, with the

In medical work, diagnosis is often carried out with

We begin our study of electrostatics by investigating

Coulombs Law and Field Intensity

Coulomb's law states that the force F between two

where k is the proportionality constant. In SI units,

Table of units used:

Electrostatic unit (esu)

Thus the equation becomes,

If point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points

It is worthwhile to note that

2. Like charges repel each other while unlike

3. The distance R between the charged bodies Q1

If we have more than two point charges, we can use

a region or space around an electro charge

Electric Fields: (a) Emanate from a positive charge, (b)

The electric field intensity (or electric field strength) E

The electric field intensity E is obviously in the

For N point charges Q1, Q2,. . . , QN located at r1,

Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge

It is customary to denote the line charge density,

The electric field intensity due to each of the charge

The charge element dQ associated with element dl =

and hence the total charge Q is

The electric field intensity E at an arbitrary point P(x,

Substituting the equations, we get

To evaluate this, it is convenient that we define , 1

Hence, the equation becomes

Thus for a finite line charge,

As a special case, for an infinite line charge, point B

and hence the total charge is

The contribution to the E field at point P(0, 0, h) by

Due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, for

that is, E has only z-component if the charge is in the

In general, for an infinite sheet of charge

where an is a unit vector normal to the sheet.

We notice that the electric field is normal to the sheet

and hence the total charge in a sphere of radius a is

The electric field dE at P(0, 0, z) due to the

where aR = cosaz + sinap.

Due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the

Again, we need to derive expressions for dv, R2, and

Applying the cosine rule, we have

It is convenient to evaluate the integral in terms of R

Differentiating with respect to ' keeping z and r'

This result is obtained for E at P(0, 0, z). Due to the

which is identical to the electric field at the same

Electric Flux Density

We define electric flux in terms of D, namely,

In SI units, one line of electric flux emanates from +1

It is apparent that all the formulas derived for E from

and for a volume charge distribution,

Note that D is a function of charge and position only;

Gausss Law Maxwells Equation

By applying divergence theorem to the middle term

Comparing the two volume integrals results in

which is the first of the four Maxwells equations to

The equation states that the volume charge density

3. Gauss's law provide an easy means of finding E