1.

INTRODUCTION
A pontoon bridge (or ponton bridge), also known as a floating bridge,
uses floats or shallow-draft boats to support a continuous deck for pedestrian and vehicle travel.
The buoyancy of the supports limits the maximum load they can carry. Most pontoon bridges are
temporary, used in wartime and civil emergencies. Permanent floating bridges are useful for
sheltered water-crossings where it is not considered economically feasible to suspend a bridge
from anchored piers. Such bridges can require a section that is elevated, or can be raised or
removed, to allow waterborne traffic to pass. Pontoon bridges have been in use since ancient
times and have been used to great advantage in many battles throughout history, among them
the Battle of Garigliano, and the crossing of the Rhine during World War II. A pontoon bridge is
a collection of specialized, shallow draft boats or floats, connected together to cross a river or
canal, with a track or deck attached on top. The water buoyancy supports the boats, limiting the
maximum load to the total and point buoyancy of the pontoons or boats. The supporting boats or
floats can be open or closed, temporary or permanent in installation, and made of rubber, metal,
wood, or concrete. The decking may be temporary or permanent, and constructed out of wood,
modular metal, or asphalt or concrete over a metal frame.

Fig. 1.1: Typical example of a Pontoon Bridge[1]

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_____________________________________________________________________________
[1]

Image courtesy: www.weiku.com

In the 1670s, the French devised the copper pontoon; after this point, rivers and
canals ceased to present significant obstacles. The early modern period in pontoon use was
dominated by the wars of the 18th and 19th centuries during which the art and science of
pontoon bridging barely changed. This however did not stop all innovation, in 1708 a Swedish
army used a leather pontoon bridge to cross a river before the Battle of Holowczyn. During
the Peninsular War the British army transported "tin pontoons" that were lightweight and could
be quickly turned into a floating bridge.
Lt

Col

Charles

Pasley

of

the

Royal

School

of

Military

Engineering at

Chatham England developed a new form of pontoon which was adopted in 1817 by the British
Army. Each pontoon was split into two halves, and the two pointed ends could be connected
together in locations with tidal flow. Each half was enclosed, reducing the risk of swamping, and
the sections bore multiple lashing points. The "Palsey Pontoon" lasted until 1836 when it was
replaced by the "Blanshard Pontoon" which comprised tin cylinders 3 feet wide and 22 feet long,
placed 11 foot apart, making the pontoon very buoyant. The pontoon was tested with the Palsey
Pontoon on the Medway.
An alternative proposed by Charles Pasley comprised two copper canoes, each 2 foot 8 inches
wide and 22 foot long and coming in two sections which were fastened side by side to make a
double canoe raft. Copper was used in preference to fast-corroding tin. Lashed at 10 foot centres,
these were good for cavalry, infantry and light guns; lashed at 5 foot centres, heavy cannon could
cross. The canoes could also be lashed together to form rafts. One cart pulled by two horse
carried two half canoes and stores. A comparison of pontoons used by each nations army shows

that almost all were open boats coming in one, two or even three pieces, mainly wood, some with
canvas and rubber protection, Belgium used an iron boat. America used cylinders split into three.

(a
)

(
b
)

(c
)

(
d
)

Fig. 1.2:(a) Mughal Emperor Akbar using boats as pontoons to build a bridge for elephants,(b)A
US army boat as pontoon,(c)Pontoon bridge across James River, US. (d) Pontoon bridge across
Ravi River, India. [2]

______________________________________________________________________________
[2]

Image Courtesy: 1.2 (a), (b), (c), (d) Wikipedia

2. NEED FOR THE PRESENT STUDY

The development of continuous floating bridges has been accomplished largely in the
World; the development of analytical and design methods has not, therefore, involved studies from all
over the professional world. The associated reliance on local studies and the incidence of failure places a
major responsibility on the bridge engineers. The understanding of the behavior of existing bridges
under extreme environmental conditionsand condence in predictive schemes in the design of new
bridges requires methods that are both accurate and precise.
This report reviews the significant studies on floating bridges made over the last 25 years
and reveals expert analytical schemes that examine the various aspects of the wind- wave-force behavior
and wind-force behavior systems. They involve uncertainties in modeling of both the wind-wave-force
and the structural systems, the assignment of parameters (especially the damping of the structural
system), and the expected local wind characteristics to be considered. However, these reductionist
schemes produce an understanding of the various features that influence the behavior of floating bridges.
Such accuracy can be obtained by requiring that these integrated results be constrained by relations
between measured wind characteristics and measured kinematic behavior.
The review found that these measurements had only been completed in the special study of
draw span fatigue maintenance problems. It is suggested that these wind-kinematic behavior relations be
obtained for the existing bridges and that they be used as accuracy constraints on the reductionist studies.
Persistence in these studies will improve the understanding of floating bridge behavior and the precision
4

of the analytical results. The availability of the wind-kinematic behavior relations will ensure that such
integrated studies are accurate.
Availability of the relations between the initial environmental feature, wind, and the
consequent structural behavior, bridge kinematics, for existing bridges will display performance changes
for the different structural arrangements. These results can be applied to a new bridge design if the wind
conditions at the site are available.

3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

[1] Hartz et al., (1975) The study of forces on continuous floating bridges has been of continual
interest to the Washington State Department of Transportation since the early design
considerations of the Lacey V. Murrow Bridge in 19405. The first of Murrows four concerns
was the determination of such forces (Pacific Builder and Engineer 1977).Subsequently, Hartz
and his colleagues studied the short crested wave interaction with the structure with the intention
of understanding the applied forces. The idea was to replicate the confused seas associated with a
mixture of incident and reflected waves by these choppy waves. The final work (Georgiadis
198l; Hart: and Georgiadis 1981: Hart: and Georgiadis 1982) consisted of a finite element
modeling of floating bridge behavior in short crested waves. This work was an outcome of
empirical studies on the Hood Canal Bridge, where wave characteristics, wave forces on the
bridge, and the bridge response were measured (Hartz and Richey l970: Hartz and Mukheiji
1971; Mukherji 1972). In none of these studies were adequate wind measurements obtained to
develop wind-wave-force relations. A consequence of the modeling reported was the necessity to
reduce the determined forces by an attenuation function in order to obtain reasonable agreement
between the measured and predicted values. The design work of Tokoia, Earl, and Wright (1979)

on the replacement of the western part of the Hood Canal Bridge was based on the assumed
superposition of long crested waves.

[2] Glosten Associates Report (1991) the 1991 reports of the Glosten Associates provide a
sophisticated finite element method for the analysis of floating bridges. The behavior is predicted
by perturbation about the steady displaced shape. In this way the non-linearity in the governing
equations are dealt with in two steps: the determination of the static state associated with the
mean environmental situation, in itself a non-linear problem, and the dynamic state about that
mean.
[3] Shunzo et al (2004), Floating structures are generally evaluated assumed to be rigid. A
slender structure such as a floating bridge, however, has elasticity that must be accounted for.
They developed analysis method that takes structural elasticity into account. The structure,
formulated by finite element method (FEM), and fluid, formulated by boundary element method
(BEM), interacts. An elastic model test in water tank showed that analysis evaluated the
influence of structural elasticity properly, confirming the validity of elastic response analysis. A
numerical example using this method emphasizes the need to consider the influence of structural
elasticity on the dynamic response of the floating bridge to waves.

[4] M.S.Seif and R.T. Paein (2005). This paper presents an overview of a study on the design
and analysis aspects of the Lake Urmia Bridge in Iran, For years there have been several detailed
investigations on this subject. Here these alternatives were discussed and then results of analyses
6

for a proposed solution, a floating bridge were presented. These aspects included environmental
loads, structure and the mooring system. They also concluded that the proposed floating bridge
may cost less than half the price of a fixed bridge.

4. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Based on the literature review presented above, the salient objectives of the present
study have been identified as follows:

1. To understand how the floating bridges actually work, the challenges put forward by such a
Mega Structure.
2. To study the worlds Longest floating bridge in the world the Evergreen Point Floating
Bridge also known as SR520 .

3. To study the failure mechanism of a floating bridge and its analysis and design.
4. To assess whether the floating bridges are an economical option when compared to other
fixed bridges.
5. To understand the creep of concrete and the mix design for floating bridges pontoons.

5. ANALYSIS OF A FLOATING BRIDGE

A. Research Approach:
The integration of the reductionist studies gives an estimation of bridge
behavior. The accuracy of this estimate is evaluated from a system theoretic approach in which
the input is the wind character and the output the kinematics of the bridge and derived internal
forces. The relationship between input and output provides a transfer function. The form of the
function is that given by a mathematical match, and little physical insight is evident. A transfer
function is also the end product of the integrated reductionist analysis, but here physical insight
exists at each step. The intention is to deal with accuracy by the input-output match. The various
steps of the reductionist analysis will provide the precision in modeling, together with physical
insight, and the integrated effects will be restrained by the input-output match. Thus, any
sharpening of the various steps, either by improved modeling or by better parameter estimation,
must not reduce the accuracy.
The 1931 paper by Brown et al. establishes the basis for the determination of
an input-output relationship or transfer function for floating bridges. The intention of that work
was to establish a maintenance program to avoid failure of the draw span of the Evergreen Point
Floating Bridge. The measurements provided the frequency of strain levels in critical members
of the draw span mechanism and wind speeds and directions at the bridge site. The relationship
between the measured strains and wind characteristics was determined by a linear regression fit
of the form
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where y is the strain, x the mean wind speed, and z the wind direction relative to the normal of
the bridge.
Regression constants c, m, n are obtained by the regression fit; the goodness of fit was defined
by the following:
R = (ym)2.(yc)-2

(2)

Where ym is the actual strain measurement and yc the value computed from equation (1). The
process involved measurements of x, ym and z; the computation of yc by equation (1); and an
evaluation of the process closeness of all yc to ym from equation (2).
This approach would determine the reaction of a floating bridge to winds without
the evaluation of the separate wind-wave ,wave-force-kinematics, wind-force-kinematics, and
structural behavior characteristics.

B. Elastic Analysis Approach:

1. Environmental loading study using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD),
2. Bridge structure analysis using the Finite Element Method (FEM),
3. Study on mooring system design and analysis involving:

Nonlinear numerical analysis of mooring line stiffness using a Maple

software code
Design analysis and optimization for the concrete anchor dimensions of a
floating bridge by the Discrete Element Method (DEM).

Figure 5.1: Floating bridge design and analysis algorithm

(a
)

(b
)

(c
)
Figure 5.2: (a) Streamlines around the bridge body; (b) Velocity Contours; (c) Hydrostatic
Pressure and static pressure by CFD.
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(a
)

(b
)

Figure 5.3: (a) Finite Element Model of floating model; (b) Stress Contours

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6. Evergreen Point Floating Bridge (SR 520)

The Evergreen Point Floating Bridge, officially the Governor Albert D. Rosellini
Bridge, and commonly called the SR 520 Bridge or 520 Bridge, is a floating bridge in the U.S.
state of Washington that carried State Route 520 across Lake Washington from the Montlake
/Union Bay district of Seattle to Medina.
The bridge's total length is approximately 4,750 meters (15,580 ft). Its 2,310 meters
(7,580 ft) floating section was the longest floating bridge in the world until April 11, 2016, when
its replacement exceeded it by 130 feet. The bridge is named for Evergreen Point, the
westernmost of the three small Eastside peninsulas that SR 520 crosses. In 1988, it was renamed
for the state's 15th governor, Albert D. Rosellini, who had advocated its construction. The
existing bridge was determined to be in poor condition and a large seismic risk. Construction
on a replacement began in 2012; the new bridge opened in April 2016. The original bridge was
closed to traffic on April 22, 2016.

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(a
)

(b
)

Figure 6.1: (a) Aerial View, (b) Schematic View of SR 520

Figure 6.2 Cross section of old and new bridge

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CONCRETE FOR THE BRIDGE:

WSDOT went through a $2.8 million test to find the ideal mixture for the water tight
concrete. The one its engineers chose uses fly ash and micro silica to combat the corroding
effects of salt water. The issue with concrete is that it cracks due to either shrinkage or creep. In
floating bridge, cracks equal water leaks. A crack, even just one-six thousandth of an inch wide is
considered a structural flaw for a pontoon because it allows water to get inside and compromise
the structural integrity of the entire pontoon. One way to reduce this problem is by installing
piping within the keel slab- the bottom of the pontoon, to which the walls are attached. Now
when it comes time to pour the walls, engineers heat the keel slab to the same temperature,
between 120 and 140 degrees as the fresh pour. Then, both the keel slab and walls cool at the
same time, shrinking together and virtually eliminating cracks.

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Figure 6.3: The keel slab and Interior walls of a pontoon

7. REFERENCES
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[1]

Image courtesy: www.weiku.com

[2]

Image Courtesy: 1.2 (a), (b), (c), (d) Wikipedia

[3]

Accuracy and precision in the analysis and design of Floating Bridges

by Colin B Brown, Professor Emeritus, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Washington. (WSTRAC).

[4]

Elastic Response Analysis for Floating Bridges in Waves by Shunzo Oka

et al. Mitsubishi heavy industries ltd, Technical Review Volume:37 Jan
2000

[5]

Floating Bridge modeling and analysis by M. S .Seif et al. Scientica

Iranica Vol 12, No 2, April 2005

[6]

http://science.howstuffworks.com/engineering/structural/floatingbridge.htm

[7]

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/SR520Bridge/About/BridgeFacts.htm

[8]

http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/infrastructure/g666/how
-to-build-the-worlds-longest-floating-bridge/?slide=1

[9]

Brown, C.B., Christensen. D.R.. Heavner, J.W., Landy, MA. and Vasu, R.
(1981), "Floating Bridge Drawspan Maintenance," Journal of the
Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 107, ST ll.
Castenada, 13.5. and Brown, CB. (1991). "Consistent Crudencss
Principles in Design and Forensic Decision Making," Civil Engineering
Systems, Vol. 8, No.3.
Elms, D.G. (1935), "The Principle of Consistent Crudeness,"
Proceedings. N.S.F. Workshop on Civil Engineering Applications of Fuzzy
Sets, Purdue University.
Georgiadis, C (1981), "Wave Induced Vibrations of Continuous Floating
Bridges," Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Washington.
Hertz, B.J. (1981), "Dynamic Response of the Hood canal Floating
Bridge." Proceedings. ASCE-EMD Specialty Conference, Atlanta.
Hertz, BJ. and Georgiadis. C. (1931), "A Computer Program for the
Dynamic Analysis of Continuous Floating structures in Short Crested
Waves, Proceedings, 2nd. Conference on Floating Breakwaters.
Seattle.
I-Iertz, B.J. and Georgiadis, C. (1932), "A Finite Element Program for
Dynamic Response of Continuous Floating Structures in Short Crested
Waves." Proceedings. International Conference on Finite Element
Analysis. Shanghai.

[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]

[15]

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