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Introduction To Cosmochemistry: Planet Earth
Introduction To Cosmochemistry: Planet Earth
Introduction To Cosmochemistry: Planet Earth
TO
COSMOCHEMISTRY
Planet
Earth
Why
ist
the
Earth
so
special?
How
did
Earth
form?
Why
is
water
on
Earth?
Why
and
since
when
does
life
exist
on
Earth?
Origin
of
the
elements
Element
abundance
in
our
solar
system
Nebula-hypothesis
from
Grotzinger
et
al.
(2008).
Mass
of
the
Earth:
5,9741027
g
Average
density
of
the
Earth:
5,142
g
cm-3
Age
of
the
Earth:
4,56109
Jahre
3
heat
sources
in
early
planets
Physikalische Eigenschaften
Kompositioneller Lagenbau
15 C
500 C
1.0105 Pa
9.7109
Pa
2.8 gcm-3
3.3
gcm-3
-3
120 km dick
Lithosphre:
kalt, starr, sprd
350 km
7 km thick
Kontinental
35-80 km thick
Elemente
Minerale
3
Kruste:
O > Si >> Al
> Fe > Ca > Na
> K > Mg
(total = 98.6 wt%)
Silikate
Oxide
Hydroxide
Karbonate
Evidence
for
the
layered
Earth
The
oldest
minerals
on
Earth
Zircons
from
Jack
Hills,
W.A.,
ca.
4350
Ma
(A.
Cavosie,
www).
Cross-
sections
of
these
zircons
in
a
cathodoluminescence
image
(left),
numbers
illustrate
207Pb/206Pb
ages,
Pb-age
distribution
(right)
The
oldest
sediments
on
Earth,
~3.8
Ga
years
old;
Isua
Greenstone
Belt,
SW
Greenland.
Banded
iron
ore
(left),
metaconglomerate
(right)
Our solar system with the inner and outer planets (from Grotzinger et al. 2008).
The
number
of
protons
in
the
nucleus
determines
the
atomic
number
(periodic
table),
the
number
and
the
location
(energy
level)
of
the
electrons
in
the
shell
determines
the
electron
configuration
(=
finger
print
of
the
atom).
TYPES
OF
CHEMICAL
BONDS
WITHIN
A
CRYSTAL
LATTICE
1) Formation
of
electron
pairs
=
Covalent
bond
2) Assimilation
of
an
electron
=
Ionic
bond
3) All
electrons
involved
in
the
bond
are
free,
not
attached
to
any
nucleus
(they
form
an
electronic
gas)
=
Metallic
bond
4) Weak
bonds
=
van
der
Waals
bonds,
occur
predominantly
in
noble
gases
and
in
specific
positions
within
certain
crystal
lattices
(e.g.
phyllosilicates).
Bonding
force
=
Coulombs
force
K
=
1/
x
e1
x
e2/(r1
+
r2)2
e
=
electron
charge
r
=
ionic
radius
=
dielectrical
constant
PRINCIPLE
CRYSTAL-CHEMICAL
LAWS
1) ISOMORPHISM
(ISOMORPHOUS
MIXTURE)
the
exchange
of
different
chemical
compounds
in
the
crystal
lattice
without
changing
the
structure
of
the
crystal
lattice.
End-member
minerals
form
solid
solutions.
NaCl
KCl,
MgSiO4
FeSiO4
2) ISOTYPE
STRUCTURES
two
distinct
crystals
are
characterised
by
identical
crystal
lattices
NaCl
PbS
3) POPLYMORPHISM
one
solid
chemical
substance
can
exist
in
more
than
one
distinct
crystal
structures
C
->
graphite,
diamond
FeS2
->
pyrite,
marcasite
Pyrolusite
(MnO2)
Cassiterite
(SnO2)
Uraninite
(UO2)
Common
properties
of
the
OXIDES:
High
lattice
symmetry
High
hardness
High
melting
point
High
chemical
resistence
The
reason
for
these
characteristic
properties
is
predominantly
based
on
the
type
of
chemical
bond.
Oxides
are
characterised
by
a
mixture
of
atomic
and
ionic
bonds.
Oxides
are
further
characterised
by
typical,
symmetrical
order
of
the
oxygens
in
the
lattice
either
hexagonal,
or
cubical
most
dense
package.
Hexagonal
package.
Order
of
layers
=
A,
B,
A,
B,
A...
Cubical
package.
Order
of
layers
=
A,
B,
C,
A,
B,
C,
A
...
OXIDES of X2O3-TYPE
Corundum
group
Corundum
(Al2O3),
Hematite
(Fe2O3)
Structure:
trigonal,
oxygens
form
a
hexagonal
package,
metals
occupy
octahedral
spaces.
Complete
solid
solution
between
corundunm
and
hematite.
Al2O3
represents
the
most
important
raw
material
for
the
Al-industry.
It
derives
from
bauxite.
Corundum
is
mainly
used
as
grinding
and
polishing
material,
based
on
its
hardness
of
9
according
to
the
Mohs-scale.
Impurities
of
Cr,
Ti,
Fe
etc.
lead
to
the
gem
stones
ruby
stone
and
sapphire.
Hematite
represents
an
important
iron
ore.
It
occurs
predominantly
in
banded
iron
formations
(BIF).
Hematite
does
not
occur
in
magmatic
deposits.
Ilmenite
(FeTiO3)
Structure:
trigonal,
in
comparison
to
corundum,
ilmenite
belongs
to
a
crystal
class
of
lower
symmetry
(two
different
metals
in
the
lattice).
Ilmenite
is
an
accessory
mineral
constituent
of
many
rocks
(predominantly
in
magmatic
rocks).
It
represents
the
most
important
carrier
of
Ti.
It
further
occurs
economically
in
placer
deposits
(hardness,
chemical
resistence).
It
is
mainly
used
as
alloy
metal
and
Ti-ore.
Introduction
to
Mineralogy
and
Petrology
for
PE,
620.010
and
620.002
HYDROXIDES
Goethite
(Fe(6)O(OH)
Limonite
(FeO(OH)
.
n
H2O
Fe-hydroxides
are
typical
weathering
minerals
(rust)
and
occur
predominantly
within
oxidation
horizons
of
primary
sulfide
and
oxide
mineral
deposits.
Within
the
oxidation
zone
they
are
the
main
constituents
of
the
so-called
gossan.
Fe-enriched
gossan
are
also
used
as
Fe-ore.
Introduction
to
Mineralogy
and
Petrology
for
PE,
620.010
and
620.002
SILICATES
Silicates
make
up
around
92
%
of
the
Earths
crust.
Their
classification
is
based
on
polymerisation
(=
various
combinations)
of
the
SiO4-tetrahedrons.
Sorosilicates
(group-silicates
Si2O7)
simple
combination
of
2
SiO4-tetrahedrons
Cyclosilicates
(ringsilicates,
3,
4
and
6
SiO4-tetrahedrons
are
combined
to
form
a
ring
structure;
Si3O9,
Si4O12,
Si6O18)
Introduction
to
Mineralogy
and
Petrology
for
PE,
620.010
and
620.002
Tectosilicates
(SiO2)
NESOSILICATES
Olivine
group
Mg2SiO4
(Forsterite)
Fe2SiO4
(Fayalite)
End
members
form
complete
solid
solution
series.
Binary
system
Forsterite
Fayalite,
showing
solid
solution
field
of
endmemebers
Olivine
is
a
major
constituent
of
ultramafic
rocks
and
a
predominant
mineral
of
the
Earths
mantle.
It
is
used
in
the
refractory
industry
due
to
ist
high
melting
point
(depending
on
the
Mg
:
Fe
ratio).
Introduction
to
Mineralogy
and
Petrology
for
PE,
620.010
and
620.002
Garnet
group
Structure:
all
garnets
belong
to
the
isometrical
crystal
system.
General
formula:
A32+B23+(SiO4)3
A
=
Mg,
Fe2+,
Mn2+,
Ca
B
=
Al,
Fe,
Cr
Pyralspite
group
Pyrope
Mg3Al2(SiO4)3
Almandine
Fe3Al2(SiO4)3
Spessartine
Mn3Al2(SiO4)3
Ugrandite
group
Uwarowite
Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3
Grossular
Ca3Al2(SiO4)3
Andradite
Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3
Crystal
morphology
and
forms
of
garnet
(Ca,Na,Li)0-1(Mg,Fe,Al)1-2(Si2O6)
Octahedral-
Tetrahedral-
Position
Position
Depending
on
the
occupancy
of
the
octahedral
position,
orthopyroxenes
(no
occupancy
of
the
octahedral
position)
and
clinopyroxenes
(octahedral
position
occupied)
can
be
distinguished.
Orthopyroxenes
have
orthorhombic
structure,
clinopyroxenes
are
monoclinic.
Orthopyroxenes
(OPX)
Enstatite
Mg2(Si2O6)
Bronzite
(Mg,Fe)2(Si2O6)
Ferrosilite
Fe2(Si2O6)
Klinopyroxenes
(CPX)
Diopside
CaMg(Si2O6)
Hedenbergite
CaFe(Si2O6)
Augite
Ca(Mg,Fe)(Si2O6)
Jadeite
NaAl(Si2O6)
girine
(Acmite)
NaFe(Si2O6)
Spodumene
LiAl(Si2O6)
OPX
members
form
a
solid
solution
series,
the
same
applies
to
CPX
members,
but
there
is
very
limited
solid
solution
between
OPX
and
CPX.
Occurrence:
Pyroxenes
are
rock-forming
minerals.
They
represent,
together
with
olivine,
major
components
of
the
Earths
mantle.
OPX
are
also
characteristic
minerals
for
high-grade
metamorphic
rocks
and
occur
within
mafic
volcanic
rocks.
CPX
are
characteristic
for
mafic
plutonic
and
volcanic
rocks
and
are
diagnostic
for
metamorphic
calc-silicate
rocks.
Na-rich
pyroxenes
are
typical
for
alkali-rich
igneous
rocks.
Introduction
to
Mineralogy
and
Petrology
for
PE,
620.010
and
620.002
General
formula:
A
0-1(10,12)X2(8)Y5(6)(OH,F)(Si4O11)
A
=
Na,
K
X
=
Ca,
Na,
Mg,
Fe2+,
Mn
Y
=
Mg,
Fe2+,Mn,
Al,
Fe3+,
Ti4+
Z
=
Si,
Al
Amphiboles
represent
a
large
mineral
group.
Similar
to
pyroxenes,
orthoamphiboles
(orthorhombic
structure)
and
clinoamphiboles
(monoclinic
structure)
can
be
distinguished.
Three
main
series
can
be
distinguished:
1. Orthoamphiboles,
Mg-Fe-Amphiboles
Cummingtonite
Grunerite
Anthophyllite
Gedrite
2. Ca-Amphiboles
(Clinoamphiboles)
Tremolite
Actinolite
Hornblende
3. Alkali-amphibole
Na>Ca
(Clinoamphiboles)
Glaukophane
Riebeckite
Amphiboles
are
rock-forming
minerals
and
are
representative
for
the
mineral
composition
of
many
metamorphic
rocks
(e.g.
amphibolites).
Rarely
amphiboles
can
grow
in
form
of
very
thin
needles.
In
case
the
needles
have
a
thickness
of
<
2
m
and
a
length
of
>
5
m,
they
are
defined
as
amphibole
asbestos.
Introduction
to
Mineralogy
and
Petrology
for
PE,
620.010
and
620.002
(Si2O5)-sheet
Serpentine
(chrysotile)
may
grow
under
certain
conditions
in
form
of
tiny
reels.
If
these
reels
achieve
a
thickness
in
the
range
of
around
<
3
m
and
a
length
of
>
5
m,
these
chrysotiles
are
defined
as
serpentine
asbestos.
Serpentine
asbestos
occurs
predominantly
in
altered
ultramafic
rocks,
where
the
serpentine
mineral
forms
during
serpentinisation
(alteration
of
olivine
and
pyroxenes
under
Co2-rich
hydrous
conditions
into
serpentine).
This
type
of
asbestos
had
numerous
applications
(i.e.
isolation
material,
heat
resistant
material,
facings
for
clutches
and
brakes
in
cars,
for
roof
tails
etc.)
until
around
1998.
Today
(i.e.
since
1998)
these
applications
are
strictly
prohibited.
The
health
risk
potential
of
serpentine
asbestos
is
by
far
less
than
that
of
amphibole
asbestos,
because
serpentine
asbestos
forms
reel
structure,
whereas
amphibole
asbestos
is
represented
by
fine
needles.
Furthermore,
serpentine
asbestos
will
become
dissolved
after
a
few
months
if
it
will
get
into
the
human
pulmonary
tissue
(i.e.
serpentine
asbestos
is
chemically
almost
exclusively
composed
of
Mg
and
Si,
apart
of
O,
and
the
human
body
is
undersaturated
in
these
two
elements.
Amphibole
asbestos
contains,
apart
of
Mg,
always
some
Fe).
Introduction
to
Mineralogy
and
Petrology
for
PE,
620.010
and
620.002
4.
TECTOSILICATES
(SiO2)
Tectosilicates
are
characterised
by
a
three-dimensional
bonding
of
the
SiO4-
tetrahedrons,
thus
the
basic
formula
is
SiO2.
Part
of
the
Si
in
the
lattice
can
be
substituted
by
Al
->
feldspars
Overview
onto
the
classification
of
the
tectosilicatse:
1. SiO2-Group
Quartz
Tridymite
Christobalite
Coesite
Stishovite
Opal
2. Feldspar-Group
Alkali-Feldspars
K(Si3AlO8)
Plagioclase-Group
Na(Si3AlO8)
Ca(Si2Al2O8)
3. Foides
Leucite
K(Si2AlO6)
Nepheline
(Na,K)(SiAlO4)
4. Zeolite-Group
Natrolite
Na2(Si3Al2O10)
.
2H2O
Phillipsite
KCa(Si5Al2O16)
.
6H2O
Chabasite
>Ca(Si4Al2O10)
.
6H2O
and
many
more
The
nembers
of
the
SiO2-Group
are
modifications
of
quartz
(see
polymorphism
!),
which
are
stable
under
various
P-T-conditions.
Opal
represents
a
cryptocrystalline/amorphous
variety
of
quartz
(i.e.
opal
is
not
crystallised,
it
is
gel-like).
Other
varieties
of
quartz
form
by
chemical
impurities
(i.e.
such
as
Fe,
Al,
Li,
H
etc.)
leading
to
different
colors
of
quartz:
Amethyst
(purple),
Rose-quartz
(pink),
Smoky
quartz
(grey
to
black),
Citrine
(yellow),
Milky
quartz.
Introduction
to
Mineralogy
and
Petrology
for
PE,
620.010
and
620.002
The
most
important
industrial
application
of
quartz
is
based
on
its
very
special
crystal
lattice.
The
SiO4-tetrahedrons
are
ordered
like
a
screw.
Thus
we
can
distinguish
between
a
left-handed
and
a
right-handed
quartz
(i.e.
depending
on
the
sense
of
rotation
of
the
screw).
This
specific
crystal
lattice
causes
the
piezo-electrical
effect.
If
we
cut
a
sheet
out
of
the
quartz,
perpendicular
to
its
crystallographical
c-axes,
the
ends
of
this
platelet
are
charged.
If
this
quartz
platelet
(=
quartz
chip)
is
exposed
to
an
ac
voltage,
the
quartz
will
start
to
swing
(=
oscillatory
movement),
the
quartz
chip
gets
into
rhythmical
extension
and
compression.
This
application
of
quartz
represents
the
prerequisite
for
any
modern
communication
(e.g.
TV,
radio
computer
technology
etc.).
The
feldspar-group
is
composed
of
two
miscibility
series,
the
alkali-feldspar
and
the
plagioclase
series.
Feldspars
are
rock-forming
minerals
and
represent
significant
mineral
constituents
of
many
magmatic
and
metamorphic
rocks.
They
are
also
the
most
common
minerals
within
the
Earths
crust.
The
minerals
of
the
zeolite-group
are
characterised
by
crystal
lattice
with
common
open
spaces
and
cavities,
in
which
large
cations
(e.g.
Na,
K,
Ca
etc.)
and
water
molecules
are
located.
These
cations
and
water
may
be
absorbed
and
adsorbed.
This
is
the
reason
for
the
important
industrial
application
of
zeolites
as
ion-exchanger
(e.g.
water
softener,
treatment
of
radioactive
water
-
adsorption
of
137Cs,
90Sr,
water
and
gas
cleaning,
etc.).
Although the C-O bond is strong, it is not as strong as the covalent bond in CO2.
Hence, all carbonates react with acids:
2H+ + CO32- CO2 + H2O
This "fizzing" reaction with diluted HCl is used as a diagnostic test for carbonate
minerals
Charge balance is achieved by accommodating the divalent cations Ca2+, Mg2+
and Fe2+
The compositions of the common carbonates can be expressed in terms of three
end-members (CaCO3, MgCO3, FeCO3), although solid-solution between all
end-members is not complete (i.e. the compositional triangle contains large
miscibility gaps):
Introduction
to
Mineralogy
and
Petrology
for
PE,
620.010
and
620.002
Calcite
(L. calx = "burnt lime")
Hexagonal-rhombohedral CaCO3
Structure is analogous to halite (NaCl), in which the small Na+ sites are filled by
Ca2+ ions and the large Cl- sites are replaced by CO32- groups
The triangular CO32- oxyanions lie in planes at right angles to the c-axis, which
consequently has 3-fold rotational symmetry. Thus instead of being isometric,like
halite, the symmetry of calcite is reduced to the rhombohedral crystal class
The Ca2+ ions are in 6-fold coordination with oxygens in the CO32- groups. Each
oxygen is coordinated to two Ca ions as well as to one C ion at the centre of the
CO32- groups
Composition is mostly pure CaCO3, but also limited low-temperature solid
solution with < 3 mol% MgCO3, <9 mol% FeCO3
Properties: Calcite occurs in over 300 different combinations of crystal forms! Most
important are long or short prisms, rhombs, and scalenohedrons. Also stalactitic.
Colour: white, colourless (also almost any other colour); Transparent to
translucent; H = 3 on cleavage planes (Mohs' index mineral!) H = 2.5 on basal
crystal faces; D = 2.7 gcm-3; Vitreous lustre; Cleavage: { 1011 } perfect at 75;
Effervesces in cold, dilute HCl.
Use: Manufacture of cement (by heating calcite to 900C: CaCO3 CO2 + CaO; the
CaO reacts with water to form CaO-hydrates, which harden with time); soil
fertiliser; flux for ore smelting; roading gravel.
MagnesiteSiderite
Hex.-rhombohedral (Mg,Fe)CO3 solid-solution series
(magnes = "Mg-bearing"; sidero = "iron")
Aragonite
Orthorhombic CaCO3
(Aragon = locality in Spain)
Aragonite is a polymorph of calcite (see lecture notes on polymorphism)
The radius ratio of Ca:O in calcite is 0.714, which is very close to the limiting
value (0.732) between 6- and 8-fold coordination. When the calcite structure is
compressed, the oxygen ions become smaller and the Ca:O radius ratio increases,
allowing aragonite to adopt a compact orthorhombic structure with 9coordination. Thus both the density and hardness of aragonite are greater than
calcite (aragonite D = 2.94 gcm-3, H = 4; calcite: D = 2.71 gcm-3, H = 3)
Although aragonite is metastable at surface T-P conditions, it precipitates at low
pressure from warm springs (kinetically favoured in complex solutions) and in
the shells of mollusks (extra energy supplied by living organism)
Properties: Acicular and tabular habits are common, also hexagonal prisms; Colour:
colourless, white, pale yellow; Transparent to translucent; H = 3.5-4; D = 2.94
gcm-3; Vitreous lustre; Cleavage: {010} distinct, {110} poor; Effervesces in cold,
dilute HCl.
SUBJECT:
SULPHATE
MINERALS
Structures are characterized by small, highly polarizing S6+ ions covalently
bonded to oxygen in tetrahedral SO42- oxyanion groups. As in the carbonates,
neighbouring SO42- groups do not share oxygens with each other, therefore no
polymerisation results.
Charge balance is achieved by accommodating divalent cations, such as Ca2+ and
Ba2+
The orthorhombic Ba-sulphate, barite (BaSO4) has such a high density (4.5 gcm-3)
that it is used as "heavy-mud" to support drilling rods in the oil- and gas-industry
Gypsum
Monoclinic CaSO42H2O
Structure consists of layers parallel to {010} in which SO42- groups are bonded to Ca2+
ions. These layers are separated by sheets of H2O molecules, which are only weakly
bound to each other via hydrogen bonds. Cleavage along these H2O sheets is
therefore excellent.
Properties: Prismatic and tabular crystals, often swallow-tail twins; Colour: colourless,
white, grey, yellow; Transparent to translucent; H = 2 (Mohs index mineral!); D
= 2.3 gcm-3; Lustre: vitreous to silky; Cleavage: {010} perfect, yielding thin
sheets; conchoidal cleavage surface parallel to {100}, fibrous cleavage parallel to
{011} (these 3 different cleavages are diagnostic of gypsum); Dehydrates
completely upon heating to 95C.
Use: Manufacture of "plaster of Paris" (made by heating gypsum to 75C to drive off
75% of H2O molecules. When later mixed with water, the partially dehydrated
gypsum re-absorbs H2O molecules and hardens). Also used for wallboard,
paints, soil fertiliser. Austria produces ca. 900 000 tonnes of gypsum per year.
Baryte
Orthorhombic BaSO4
(barys = schwer)
Structure consists of large bivalent cations zweiwertige Kationen (Ba) bonded to
sulfate-iones. Each Ba is surrounded by 12 oxygens, the latter belonging to 7 distinct
SO42- oxyanion groups
Properties: perfect cleavage along {001}; H = 3 - 3.5; D = 4.5 gcm3 (pretty heavy for a
non-metallic minera !); Color is colorless, white to light blue, yellow, red,
transparent; tabular crystal form common, also rosette aggregates
(Wstenrose)
/
Use: as "heavy mud" in oil drillings (i.e. supports the stability of the drillings and
prevents puff blowing); Color industry; Paper industry; radiation protection; contrast
material in medicine.
Introduction
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Mineralogy
and
Petrology
for
PE,
620.010
and
620.002
SUBJECT:
SULFIDE
MINERALS
The sulfides are the main group of ore minerals, being the major sources of many
transition-elements and of sulfur
Metalsulfur bonding (e.g. M2S, MS, MS2) varies between ionic, covalent and
metallic
Partial metallic character makes many sulphides soft and electrically semiconductive
Most sulfides are opaque, and have distinctive crystal colours and streaks
Pyrite
(pyros = "fire", because it emits sparks when struck by steel)
Isometric FeS2
Structure is analogous to halite (NaCl), where Fe occupies the Na sites and S2 pairs
occupy the large Cl sites
Properties: Equidimensional cubic, "pyritohedral", and octahedral crystals. Cubic
crystals usually have striated faces. Colour: pale brass-yellow; Streak: greenish
or brownish-black; H = 6-6.5; D = 5 gcm-3; Conchoidal fracture; Brittle; Lustre:
splendent metallic; Opaque; Paramagnetic.
Use:
Main Fe-ore in countries where Fe-oxides are scarce; Major source of S for
production of H2SO4 and FeSO4 (dyeing, inks, wood preservative, disinfectant).
Also important source of Au, which often occurs as microinclusions in pyrite
Galena
Isometric PbS
Sphalerite
Isometric ZnS
(sphaleros = "treachery", because it can look like galena but contains no Pb; also
Zinkblende, where blende = blind or deceiving)
Structure is analogous to diamond, where half the C sites are replaced by Zn and half
by Fe
Properties: Commonly as tetrahedral, cubic and octahedral crystal forms. Colour:
colourless, green, yellow, brown to black; Streak: white to yellow and brown;
Transparent to translucent; H = 3.5-4; D = 4 gcm-3; Cleavage {010} perfect;
Lustre: non-metallic and resinous to submetallic.
Use:
Main ore of Zn. Used in alloys (e.g. brass = Zn + Cu), galvanized iron, electric
batteries, paint manufacture, wood preservatives, dyeing, medicine.
Chalcopyrite
(chalkos = "copper" + pyrite)
Tetragonal CuFeS2
Structure is analogous to sphalerite (ZnS), where half the Zn sites are replaced by Cu
and half by Fe.
Properties: Usually massive habit but sometimes as tetragonal scalenohedrons.
Colour: brass-yellow, often tarnished to bronze or iridescent; Streak: greenishblack; H = 3.5-4; D = 4.2 gcm-3; Conchoidal fracture; Brittle; Lustre: metallic;
Opaque
Use:
SUBJECT:
HALIDE
MINERALS
Halite
(halos = "salt")
Isometric NaCl
!
Fluorite
Isometric CaF2
(fluere = "to flow", because more easily melted than similar minerals)
Face-centred cubic lattice in which each Ca2+ is in cubic coordination with 8
surrounding F- ions; each F- is tetrahedrally coordinated to four Ca2+ ions
Introduction
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Mineralogy
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Petrology
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PE,
620.010
and
620.002
10
Properties: Usually cubic crystals; Colour: light green, yellow, bluish-green, purple,
colourless, white, pink, blue, brown; Transparent to translucent; fluoresces
under UV light; H = 4 (Mohs index mineral!); D = 3.2 gcm-3; Cleavage {111}
perfect; Brittle; Lustre: vitreous
Use:
11
SUBJECT:
SOME
IMPORTANT
ELEMENTS
Graphite
(derives from Greec: to draw)
Hexagonal C
Structure: C atoms are bonded together (i.e. very strong covanlent bond) in form of
hexagonal rings. Between these hexagonal ring-sheets weak Van der Waals
bonds. Distance from sheet to sheet is 3.44 ).
Diamond
(derives from Greec: adamas = undestroyable)
Isometric C
12
13
Pressure-temperature
diagram
showing
stability
fields
of
graphite
and
diamond
14
ROCK (Gestein)
Rock =
Chemical analysis
mineral composition
geometric properties
grainsize
shape
relation between grains
Temperature
Pressure
Deformation (Differential Pressure)
Definitions:
crystal = regular polyhedral form, bounded by plane surfaces, which is the outward
expression of a regular repeating internal arrangement of atoms.
Earth has not completely cooled since its molten state approximately 4 109 years ago
In addition to residual heat (= left over from that originally caused by meteorite
impacts and gravitational compression), radioactive decay of certain elements
continually adds heat to the Earth
K
40
K
232
Th
238
U
238
U
40
!
Ar + " + 1.51 MeV (mostly as heat)
40
#
!
Ca + " + heat
208
$
! K !
Pb + 6" + 4# + heat
! K ! 207Pb + 7" + 4 # $ + heat
! K ! 206Pb + 8" + 6 # $ + heat
High flow of heat from interior to surface of Earth drives huge convection cells in
Asthenosphere (and at deeper levels), dimension 103 km; rates of movement cm /
year
Thus, sinc about 4 109 years ago, the Lithosphere has been divided into slowingmoving plates (movement rates cm / year)
Mechanical interaction of these plates (collision, sliding along edges, overriding, etc.)
is known as plate tectonics
Plate tectonics has lead to the migration of continental and oceanic crust across the
Earth's surface, and to the formation of Earth's topography (mountain chains, high
plateaux, deep ocea basins, etc.) (see Lectures from Geology 1)
Heat flow and gravity are thus the driving forces of plate tectonics. In this context
and on long time-scales, Earth is therefore best viewed as a dynamic system (cf. static
model in lecture 1)
Because of plate tectonic cycling, rocks can have long complicated P-T-deformation
histories.
During plate-tectonic cycling, the minerals that make up rocks usually react to the
changes in P, T and deformation conditions. E.g. with increase in P and T within a
subduction zone:
calcite aragonite
= A !e "E a / RT
Cdiamond Cgraphite
is not possible (low T, short time). Similarly, kinetics are too slow at the Earth's surface to permit
the thermodynamically favoured reaction of diamond with O2 in the atmosphere:
PETROGENETIC INTERPRETATION
ROCK MEMORY
In Lecture 1 we learned that thermodynamic equilibrium (the energetically most stable
state) is usually attained deep in the Earth's interior. Due to kinetic effects, most rocks
sampled in outcrops preserve minerals that are thermodynamically metastable at the
Earth's surface.
This common metastability or partial reequilibration of minerals constitutes a "memory"
of past states of the host rock. This is fortunate, because it allows us to reconstruct the
history of rocks, using detective methods known as petrogenetic interpretation.
Petrogenetic interpretation are based on several sources of information:
Source of information
Scale
Field relations
hand-specimen
Mineralogical composition
hand-specimen
Crystal structure
sub-microscopic
hand-specimen to
microscopic
small scale
short term
all scales
EXPERIMENTAL PETROLOGY
The stability of minerals with respect to P-T conditions can be investigated
experimentally (P, T, bulk composition and time are all controlled)
data base of thermodynamic properties of minerals
reconstruction of rock history from relict mineralogical features
reconstruction of plate tectonic history of rock sample
prediction of location of natural resources (e.g. petroleum, gas,
metals), volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
ROCK FABRIC
Rock fabric (Gefge auf Deutsch) the set of geometric properties of a rock sample
(non-compositional)
SIX BASIC ROCK FABRICS
1) Sequential crystallization
2) Glassy
3) Drusy (aggregate of crystals, commonly incrusting the walls of a cavity)
4) Granoblastic (equidimensional elements)
5) Clastic (detritical, consisting of fragments of rocks)
6) Strained (deformed)
The fabric types do not always correspond to the classic genetic division into
magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
PETROGRAPHIC FEATURES
PETROGENETIC INTERPRETATION
SEQUENTIAL CRYSTALLIZATION
Mechanism of formation:
Solidification of a fluid solution, caused by changes in P, T or
composition (via reaction or mixing). Crystals grow in sequence,
according to their relative solubility in the mother solution.
Rates of solidification:
Slow solidification of melts (e.g. magma chambers) precipitation of
silicate or sulphide crystals
cf. quenching glassy fabric
Slow crystallization from melts or precipitation from aqueous solutions
"perfect" crystals
Rapid crystallization or precipitation "imperfect" crystals, containing
solid or fluid inclusions.
Diagnostic features:
Perfect crystal form (euhedral) developed only by earliest crystals in
sequence; later crystals or glass adopt irregular shapes (anhedral)
determined by shape of remaining space.
SEQUENTIAL CRYSTALLIZATION
GLASSY FABRIC
Mechanism of formation
Interruption of sequential crystallization of fluid solutions
Rates of solidification
Slow, sequential crystallization of silicate melt in magma chamber is
interrupted by volcanic eruption
Extremely rapid cooling (quenching) of melt during eruption forms
glass in space between older crystals
DRUSY FABRIC
Mechanism of formation
Interruption of sequential crystallization of fluid solutions
Rates of solidification
Sequential crystallization from aqueous solution stopped by exhaustion
of solutes in flowing solution or blockage of fluid flow
Escape of fluid during erosion leaves open spaces (druses, vugs) between
idiomorphic crystals
GRANOBLASTIC FABRIC
Mechanism of formation
Solid-state mineral growth (recrystallization of pre-existing minerals)
caused by changes in P, T or composition (via reactions)
Rates of recrystallization
Rapid for silicate, oxide, carbonate, sulphide minerals at very high
temperatures (near melting temperature of rock), hence common in
metamorphic rocks
Extremely slow at low temperature (no solid-state recrystallization
possible)
Diagnostic feature
Crystal faces at triple-junctions ideally meet at 120
CLASTIC FABRIC
Mechanism of formation:
Disaggregation, dispersal, deposition and lithification of pre-existing
rocks.
1) Disaggregation:
Surface weathering detritus
Volcanic explosion ejecta
Fault movement or slope collapse brecciation
2 ) Dispersal:
Relatively high-density clast transported by relatively lowdensity fluid (water, lava, gas, air). Abrasion during
transport produces rounded clasts.
3) Deposition:
Characterised by gravitational settling structures (e.g.
bedding, cross-bedding, sorting of clats sizes)
Marine and terrestrial sediments
Pyroclastic (volcanic) deposits
4) Lithification:
Cementation of clastic sediments (diagenesis). Welding of
pyroclastics
Diagnostic feature
Clasts do not show typical crystal forms
STRAINED FABRIC
Mechanism of formation:
Mechanical destruction or deformation of pre-existing mineral or rock
grains, by tectonic forces (brittle faulting, ductile shearing) or shock
forces (meteorite impact)
Deformation realms
Brittle processes common at low P-T conditions and at high strain-rates
Ductile processes common at high P-T conditions and at low strainrates
Diagnostic feature
Bending, distortion, rupture, flattening of mineral or rock grains;
reduction of original grain size
STRAINED FABRIC
Sediments
represent
the
worlds
largest
reservoirs
for
fossil
energy
resources
(petroleum,
coal).
Important
mineral
deposits
of
metallic
raw
materials
are
hosted
in
sedimentary
rock
sequences
(e.g.,
Fe,
Mn,
Cu,
Pb,
Zn
etc.).
Sedimentary
rocks
form
of
the
Earths
surface,
thus
they
are
the
most
important
rocks
regarding
the
fields
of
technical
geology.
Fig.
1.
Sedimentary
rocks
cover
most
of
the
Earths
surface,
whereas
the
Earths
crust
is
mostly
composed
of
magmatic
and
metamorphic
rocks
(from
Press
&
Siever,
1995).
Source
rock
magmatic
metamorphic
sedimentary
Wheathering
Transport
water
ice
wind
gravity
decrease of grain-size
increasing roundness
Deposition
Diagenesis
consolidated)
Fig.
2.
Formation
of
sedimentary
rocks
Sedimentary environments
Fig.
3.
Sedimentary
environments
on
land
and
in
the
sea
CLASTIC SEDIMENTS
They
form
by
mechanical
deposition
of
rock
clasts:
(1)
Siliciclastic
sediments
Conglomerate, Breccia
Sandstone
NONCLASTIC SEDIMENTS
Phosphorites
Evaporites
Classification
schemes
Siliciclastic
sediments
-
grain
size
Biochemical
and
chemical
sediments
Introduction
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Mineralogy
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Petrology
for
PE,
620.010
and
620.002
Diagenesis
After
deposition
the
detrital
components
are
compacted
and
transferred
into
solid
sedimentary
rocks.
The
combination
of
mechanical,
chemical
and
biological
processes
leading
to
solid
rock
is
defined
as
diagenesis.
Compaction
due
to
overburden
Cementation
due
to
precipitation
of
minerals
from
pore
fluids
Recrystallisation
of
minerals
due
to
increase
of
temperature
and
change
of
pore
fluid
chemistry
Diagenetic
processes
result
in
changes
in
composition
and
fabric.
Most
processes
result
in
lithification
of
unconsolidated
material.
Fig.
4.
Processes
of
diagenesis
Fig.
5.
Origin
of
horizontal
bedding
in
sediments
Siliciclastic
sediments
Derivation
of
the
detrital
components:
Magmatic,
metamorphic,
or
sedimentary
rocks,
that
underlie
erosion.
Transport:
Wind,
glacier,
river,
waves,
tides,
mud
flows
etc.
The
detrital
material
is
transported
in
suspension
(fine)
or
at/close
to
the
bottom
(coarse).
Detrital
material
on
the
bottom
is
transported
by
jumping,
rolling
and
sliding.
Fig.
6.
Transport
of
clastic
material
in
flowing
medium
Suspension:
Important
criterium
is
that
the
ascending
motion
of
the
detrital
particle
is
higher
than
the
sinking
rate
(w):
w
=
d2g / 18
(Stoke`s
Law)
d = particle-diameter
g =
gravitation constant
Turbulent
flow
dominates
over
laminar
flow
under
the
following
conditions:
high
current
velocity,
low
viscosity.
Current
velocity:
The
transport
media
change
velocity
occording
to
the
slope
angle
of
the
river
bed,
or
the
intensity
of
the
current
(e.g.,
tidal
current,
river
current,
wind
force).
Gradation:
Reduction
of
the
current
velocity
or
change
of
the
current
in
general
(i.e.
turbulent
vs.
laminar)
leads
to
selective
deposition
of
the
detrital
components
according
to
the
grain-size.
The
consequence
is
gradation
as
a
function
of
grain-size
and
density
of
the
detrital
material:
(1)
gravel (close to source area) sand mud (far away from source area)
(2)
vertical distance from the footwall into the hanging wall (graded bedding):
gravel, coarse sand (in the foot wall) silt mud (in the hanging wall)
Fig.
7.
A
typical
fluviatile
sedimentyry
cycle
Carbonate
sediments
Sedimentary
rocks
composed
predominantly
of
carbonate
minerals
are
defined
as
carbonate
sediments.
Those
composed
dominantly
of
calcite
are
defined
as
limestones,
sediments
composed
dominantly
of
dolomite
are
defined
as
dolostones.
Solubility
of
CaCO3
in
the
seawater:
Sea
water
is
thermodynamically
saturated
with
calcite
(the
triagonal
CaCO3
polymorph)
and
undersaturated
regarding
aragonite
(the
orthorhombic
CaCO3
polymorph).
Calcite
is
characterised
by
retrograde
solubility
(i.e.
solubility
decreases
with
increasing
temperature,
solubility
increases
with
depth
and
decreasing
temperature).
Precipitation
of
CaCO3
in
the
seawater:
Calcite
precipitates
as
mud
(i.e.
micrite)
or
in
form
of
ooides
in
warm
shallow
marine
environments
of
tropical
areas.
Most
marine
organisms
build
their
skeletons
in
aragonite.
Bioenergy
is
required
to
stabilise
aragonite
compared
to
calcite
under
surface
conditions.
Dissolution
of
CaCO3
in
the
seawater:
CaCO3
starts
to
dissolve
several
100
m
below
the
sea
level.
However,
plankton
builds
CaCO3
skeletons
continuously.
There
is
a
balance
of
CaCO3
solubility
and
creation
of
CaCO3
between
~4.5
and
5
km
depth
( carbonate
compensation
depth,
CCD)
therefore,
there
is
a
complete
lack
of
carbonate
sediments
below
5
km
depth!
Fig.
8.
The
carbonate
compensation
depth
CCD-Grenze
10
Classification
of
limestones
Fig.
9.
Classification
of
limestones
after
Dunham
(1962);
from
Klein
and
Philpotts
(2013)
Fig.
10.
Growth
of
stromatolites,
one
of
the
oldest
life
forms
on
Earth
-
an
example
of
a
boundstone
11
Formation of reefs
Introduction
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PE,
620.010
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620.002
12
Carbonate
platforms
Fig.
12.
Map
and
cross
section
through
the
Bahamabank
(Press
&
Siever,
1978)
13
14
Primary
chemical
precipitation
of
SiO2
from
hydrothermal
fluids
at
the
sea
floor
(e.g.,
at
mid-oceanic
ridges)
(2)
Nodular
SiO2-rich
sediments:
secondary
diagenetic
formation
of
SiO2-minerals
within
pore
fluids;
form
chert
nodules
within
limestones
(flintstone)
Fig.
12.
Microfossils
(Radiolaria,
Foraminifers)
with
SiO2-
and
carbonate
skeletons
from
recent
marine
muds;
SEM
image.
15
Evaporites
Repeated
input
of
fresh
water
and
continuous
evaporitation
is
significant
for
the
generation
of
thick
(i.e.
up
to
several
hundreds
of
metres
thick)
evaporite
sequences.
Fig. 13. Evaporiation of seawater in a logoon environment; from Press & Siever (1995)
16
Fig. 14. Formation and migration of hydrocarbons in sedimentary rocks. Oil and gas migrate within
strata of high permeability (e.g. sandstone) and are trapped in an anticlinal structure. Blue is a cover
sequence of low permeability (e.g., shale).
Introduction
to
Mineralogy
and
Petrology
for
PE,
620.010
and
620.002
17