New Aspects for Neutral Grounding of Generators

Considering Intermittent Faults

G. Koeppl

D. Braun

KOEPPL POWER EXPERTS

gskoeppl@bluewin.ch

Abstract1-phase faults in generator stator windings are

predominantly intermittent arcing faults, as may be deduced
from MV cable tests. Simulations show that energy absorption
in the fault resistance at intermittent faults is about 20 times
higher than for a persistent "textbook" fault. Resonant
grounding of the generator neutral prolongs substantially the
intervals between re-strikes thus reducing correspondingly arc
damages in the stator iron. Hence resonant grounding of the
generator neutral is to be preferred to high ohmic resistive
grounding.

ABB Switzerland
dieter.braun@ch.abb.com

For the sake of simplicity the generator circuit-breaker shall

be open and the generator be excited but unloaded.
The following data have been assumed
Un = 20kV, Sn = 150MVA (xd = 26%), 50Hz
Ld = 2.207mH; Cg = CGenerator + CSurge Cap. = 0.20F +
0.105F = 0.305F/Ph; Rf = 10 (fault resistance);
RNeutral (disregarded in a first step) = 3500 >> Ld
The single phase 50Hz, capacitive fault current peak for this
arrangement is
I = 2 U
3C
LG

Introduction:
The vast majority of all electric failures are arcing faults. In
the theoretical treatment and for protection considerations
they are mostly seen as steady state faults in combination
with a fault resistance. This is justified in case of 3- and 2phase faults and also for single-phase faults in systems with
low impedance grounded neutral where there is practically no
chance of fault arc extinction. In the case of single-phase
faults in a system with isolated or high impedance grounded
neutral however the electric arc may be extinguished at a
current zero and the system voltage recovers then until to a
certain magnitude when a re-strike occurs followed again by
an arc extinction. This series of events may recur several and
even many times; it is called an intermittent fault.

= 2 20000 3 314 0.305 10 6 = 4.7 A

The transient initial fault current is considerably higher. It
consists of 2 parts: A discharge current it1 and a recharge
current it2

1. Steady State and Transient Fault Current in a

High Impedance Grounded System

e t / 3.05s = 1633 e t / 3.05s A

3 10
It is obvious that this current is also influenced by the small
local inductances which have been here ignored. This
discharge current disappears very quickly however. In a more
complex circuit it might have a correspondingly modified
shape.

Let us first analyze transient intermittent fault currents in the

simplified typical generator step up transformer scheme of
FIG. 1.
L"d

FIG. 1:

At the instant of a phase-to-ground fault (normally close at

maximum of 50Hz L-G voltage) the capacitance of the
affected phase is discharged through the fault resistance to
ground. For the simplified circuit of FIG. 1 the discharge
current is given by
)
U L G t / R C
i t1 =
e
, for the above data :
Rf

i t1 =

2 20000

b) Recharge Current it2

The recharge current it2 is driven by the vector sum of the

three phase voltages and flows through the fault resistance Rf
ground 2Cg (in parallel) Ld/2 (in parallel) + Ld (in
series). Its frequency is:

If

Rneutral
or
Petersen Coil

a) Discharge Current it1

fo =
C

Rfault

1-phase fault at synchronous generator (generator c.b.

open)

1
2 1.5L"d 2C g

; for data of FIG.1 f o = 3540Hz

And the corresponding current for a fault at L-G voltage

maximum is:

i t2 = U
LG

2C g
"
d

1.5L

sin 2f o t

2.1
(ignoring R f ),

i t 2 = 221.7 sin 2 3540t (A)

If Rf is taken into account the amplitude value is somewhat
modified and an exponential damping part with a time
constant T2=21.5Ld/Rf = 0.66ms has to be considered.
Again the amplitude of the recharge current is by far and
large higher than that of the 50Hz single phase fault current
(4.7A).
The neutral grounding resistor or inductance (Petersen coil)
respectively for a practical generator arrangement has almost
no influence on the magnitude and shape of these two
transient components of the single phase fault current. In
FIG. 2 the total fault current calculated according to the data
of FIG. 1 is shown for a resistively grounded neutral (Rneutral
= 3500) and a Petersen coil grounded neutral (slightly
delayed) (L=1/32Cg=11.07H). There are several current
zeros, where current interruption is possible and the 2 curves
are almost identical.
It is clear that there is a difference in the steady state fault
current however (If = 4.7A with R, If 0 with Petersen coil)

Generator and System Model

In order to be able to analyse also faults in the lower parts of

the stator winding, the simple model of FIG. 1 has been more
detailed. First the synchronous generator has been
represented by distributed voltage sources, inductances and
capacitances (10 per phase) according to FIG. 3. Also the
armature resistances and high resistance damping resistors
tuned to an over-voltage factor of 1.5p.u. at the interruption
of short-circuit currents
GK
Ra1
L1

K1

Cl-g

Rd1

20

G1

Cl-g

Q1 Ra1

M1

L1

K2

10
Rd1
Cl-g

G2
M2

10

Q2

L 1 = Ld" /10
(K1, M1 - K0, M0 grounded,
part of the distributed
voltage sources G1 - G0)

Ra1 = Ra/10
Rd1 = 1530* L 1

Q9
Ra1
L1

K0

M0

Rd1

G0

Cl-g

GN

20

RNeutral or Petersen Coil

FIG. 3:

Generator model with distributed sources

GKA
GKB

GN
GKC

LA
LB
LC

FAULT

GRD
Petersen
Coil

FIG. 4:
FIG. 2:

Discharge and recharge currents at 1-phase faults as

per FIG .1

2.
Intermittent Single Phase Faults in Stator
Windings
In [1] tests with single phase intermittent faults in an urban
8kV cable system with isolated neutral have been described.
Those tests have clearly shown that the arc channel in the
cable insulation between core and sheath behaves like a restriking switch: The transient current is interrupted at current
zero and then the voltage recovers with 50Hz and a re-strike
occurs if the voltage has reached a certain level. Surprising at
these tests has been, that the arc current was interrupted
already after the first half-cycle of the recharge current it2.
This process of arc extinction and re-strike showed to be
repeated almost regularly.
Therefore it seems reasonable to suppose that a stator
winding behaves similarly and that intermittent faults occur
also in generators.
It is the aim of the following analyses to simulate such
phenomena in generator windings and to assess the
consequences on methods of grounding and fault protection
of synchronous generators.

CGENERATOR

CSURGE + DUCTS

CSURGE + XFORMER

(DISTRIBUTED)

Scheme for analysis of generator 1-phase faults

have been included in this generator model (based on

measured recovery voltages). Further the step-up transformer
150MVA, 15% and the HV equivalent have been included,
being the normal state of the system (FIG. 4). Here a
capacitance to ground (surge capacitance plus transformer
capacitance) of 0.12F/phase has been assumed. The
equivalent HV-side short circuit inductance has been chosen
according to 5000MVA.
2.2

Model for Neutral Grounding

In [2] basically two methods of neutral grounding of unit

generators are discussed: high resistance grounding and
resonant grounding. Single phase faults are considered
generally to be steady state faults and hence both grounding
methods have been assessed as nearly equivalent.
A quite recent CIGRE brochure [3] focussing on this topic
deals only with high resistance grounding methods and
ignores intermittent single phase faults too.
Literature [2] and [3] both recommend the use of a MV/LV
single phase transformer for the connection of the neutral and
a LV resistor or LV Petersen coil respectively at the LV side
of this transformer. Since this is not essential for the basic
question of resistive or resonant grounding we have simply

3
inserted between generator neutral and ground a HV
resistance or a Petersen coil tuned to the total capacitance to
ground of FIG. 4.
2.3

3.1

Neutral Grounding via High Resistance

(RNeutral = 1 / 3Ctotal = 2500)

Case 1
This is the classical textbook case, i.e. a persistent singlephase-to-ground fault at the generator terminals.

Model for Intermittent Faults

The tests described in [1] have shown that after the

interruptions of the transient current at a natural current zero
the re-ignitions occur very regularly at about the same
voltage level. This would suggest establishing a
corresponding trigger level for a model switch to close. The
switch should also interrupt only at a natural current zero and
this procedure should be repeatable as frequently as
necessary. Moreover the arcing time should be adjustable in a
wide range to cover faults from intermittent to permanent.
Such a switch model is the type 12 switch for spark gap and
triac application of the ATP [4].
The firing is controlled by a TACS variable SPARK which
starts and closes the switch if the voltage across the switch >
re-strike voltage. The SPARK signal becomes zero after an
adjustable arcing time and will lead to interruption of the
fault current = switch current. To achieve this signal structure
the pulse originated at u > Ure-strike has to be delayed by
the arcing time; the sum of the original and of the delayed
pulse is used to deduce a sample signal which now forms
the desired SPARK signal. The re-strike voltage is a
parameter which has to be fixed for the different locations in
the generator winding. It is obvious, that the selected winding
location has to be coordinated with the switch location (=
fault location).

3. Analysis
Discussion

of

Various

Cases,

Results,

All simulations start at the same critical conditions i.e.

generator feeding 110MW, 25MVar (power factor 0.975)
into the step-up transformer at 1.0p.u. voltage.
The first phase-to-ground fault occurs at the voltage
maximum L-G of the faulted phase, re-strikes occur if the
voltage L-G of the affected phase exceeds 0.8p.u. The
selection of a lower re-strike value would lead to more
frequent re-strikes and vice versa.
The results are shown in form of plots of the generator L-G
voltages, of the fault current and of the zero sequence voltage
at the generator terminals which is normally used for fault
detection.
The cases analysed and the main results are listed in Table I.
Generator Neutral Grounding (Restrikes at 0.8p.u.)
Case Data1)

Case
No

Neutral

high resist.

time

t2

f 0, Ifault L-G, transient

max.

Re-strikes

Energy in

healthy ph.

per

fault resist.

[%]

[ms]

[A]

[kHz]

[p.u.]

cycle

[J]

100

440

4.7

2.18

140 + 9.4/cycle

2)

2)

"

100

5.0

440

4.7

2.18

140 + 220/cycle

"

100

0.4

440

4.7

2.18

1402) + 210/cycle

"

100

0.2

440

4.7

2.18

140 + 160/cycle

"

20

5.0

80

5.3

1.23

5 + 8/cycle

resonant

100

440

4.7

2.18

140 + 1/cycle

resonant

100

5.0

440

4.7

2.18

1/10

1402) + 11/cycle 3)

1)

Fault resistance = 10 Ohm;

3)

Due to prolonged intervals between re-strikes

2)

Due to initial flash-over

Case 1; persistent 1-phase fault at generator terminal, high

resistance grounding

After fault initiation a very short discharge current peak

(1600A) followed by a damped oscillating recharge current
with a first peak of about 440A flows through the fault
resistance of 10. The small steady state fault current of
6.6A is only just visible on the plot (100 times enlarged!).
The energy absorption in the fault resistance due to the
steady state fault current is small i.e. about 10J/cycle. In the
healthy phases there are transient overvoltage peaks of
2.18p.u. and then 3 UL-G. The zero-sequence voltage
corresponds to the L-G voltage.

Table I

Results

Fault at Arcing

grounding winding

FIG. 5:

2)
2)

2)

Case 2, same as Case 1, but with arc extinctions and restrikes

Here conservatively an arcing time of about 5ms has been
assumed, i.e. the small steady state fault current would be
extinguished at its natural current zero with an extremely
small di/dt.
After extinction of the fault arc the voltage recovers with
50Hz and at 0.8p.u. a re-strike occurs in the damaged
insulation causing again current and voltage transients. This
process is repeated until disconnection and de-excitation of
the generator. Obviously at each re-strike high overvoltage

4
transients are produced in the healthy phases jeopardizing the
stator insulation.

FIG. 6:

Case 2; intermittent 1-phase fault at generator terminal,

high resistance grounding

FIG. 7:

Case 3; intermittent 1-phase fault at generator terminal,

arcing time = 0.4ms, high resistance grounding

Case 3, same as Case 2, but shorter arcing time

If the arc of the recharge current it2 is extinguished at about
the end of the oscillatory part (arcing time = 0.4ms) the
number of arc extinctions and re-strikes per cycle remain
about the same, the amplitude of the zero sequence voltage at
the generator side is now smaller, however still sufficient for
tripping of protection.

FIG. 8:

Case 4, same as Case 3, but still shorter arcing time

Reduction of arcing time to 0.2ms delivers practically the
same results as Case 3 (no plots).

Case 5; intermittent 1-phase fault at lower part of winding

(20%), high resistance grounding

3.2

Also noteworthy is the energy absorption of 220J/cycle, i.e.

11000J/s in the fault resistance which is substantially higher
than for the textbook case 1. This is actually the cause of
heavy iron burning and severe core damages.
The zero sequence voltage at the generator terminals shows
about the same amplitude but a non-sinusoidal shape. The
conditions for fault detection and tripping of protection are
practically the same as for case 1.

Case 5, same as Case 2, but fault in lower part of winding

corresponding to 20% of generator voltage
An intermittent fault in the lower part of the winding causes
considerably smaller zero sequence voltage. This is also the
case for a persistent fault and leads to other fault detection
principles for faults close to the generator neutral (third
harmonic criterion).

Neutral Grounding via Petersen coil

Case 6
A persistent fault with neutral grounding via Petersen coil
results in the same transient part of the fault current as for
Case 1. The steady state fault current however is now close to
zero, depending on the degree of compensation and the
resistive part of the Petersen coil. The shapes of phase

5
voltages L-G and zero sequence voltage are identical to those
of Case 1 (no plot).
Case 7, same as Case 6, but with arc extinctions and restrikes
Now a quite different picture shows compared to resistive
grounding (Case 2). After arc extinction the voltage in the
affected phase recovers extremely slowly due to exact tuning
of the resonant circuit (FIG. 9).

4.

FIG. 9:

Case 7; intermittent 1-phase fault at generator

terminal; resonant grounding

The time constant for the recovery voltage at resonant tuning

is predominantly determined by the Petersen coil, i.e. 2LC/RC
= 2Q/ = 2 20/314.16 s = 0.127s, i.e. a re-strike at 0.8.p.u.
will occur not until 0.205s after fault current extinction.
It is a significant improvement compared to high-resistance
grounding, where 2 re-strikes per cycle are to be expected. It
manifests also in the energy absorbed in the fault resistance
which is now 550J/s compared to 11000J/s for highresistance grounding and may be considered as a measure of
damage.
The zero sequence voltage at the generator terminals starts
with the same value as in Case 6 and then decays with the
above mentioned time constant TC = 2LC/RC. Again fault
detection and triggering of protection is no problem.

Conclusions
From tests in an MV cable system with isolated neutral it
can be concluded that single phase faults in the stator
insulation of a synchronous generator are in the vast
majority arcing faults which are characterised by a
sequence of arc extinctions and re-strikes.
An analysis of the transient single phase fault current in
a generator step-up transformer system with high
impedance grounded neutral which is normal for
synchronous generators shows that after an extremely
high and short discharge current of the capacitance of the
faulted phase an oscillatory damped recharge current
follows, the first amplitude of which is about 6080
times higher than the final steady state capacitive fault
current.
Simulations with arc-extinctions and re-strikes of the
single phase fault current in a typical generator step-up
transformer system (modelled with distributed sources
and generator elements) demonstrate quite clearly that
for a high resistance grounded neutral intermittent faults
may occur with a high cadence (2 extinctions / re-strikes
per cycle). The energy absorbed in the fault resistance
and caused by the damped transient recharge current is
by a factor of 20 higher than that caused by the small
steady state fault current. It is the intermittent high
transient current which is responsible for heavy iron
burning (welding) and insulation damages.
The interval between arc extinction and re-strike in the
faulted insulation is substantially prolonged by using a
Petersen coil instead of a high resistance for grounding
of the generator neutral. This way the energy absorption
in the fault resistance and consequently the damage may
be reduced by a factor of 20.
From this point of view neutral grounding of
synchronous generators via Petersen coil is far superior
to high resistance grounding.
For fault detection the signal of the zero sequence
voltage is sufficient for a high percentage of the stator
winding. Protection of 100% of the stator winding
requires
different
methods
(third
harmonic
measurement).

5. References
[1]

[2]

[3]
[4]

G. Koeppl, P. Abaecherli, A. Schmid, G. Voss;

Concept and Practical Testing of Single Pole Operated
Earthing Breakers in an Urban Cable Network
CIRED, 18th International Conference on Electricity
Distribution, 2005, Session No 3, Turin 69 June 2005
IEEE C62.92-2 1989:
IEEE Guide for the
Application of Neutral Grounding in Electric Utility
Systems, Part II Grounding of Synchronous
Generator Systems
CIGRE WG A1.09: Guide for minimizing the damage
from stator winding grounds on turbo-generators,
December 2009, CIGRE Brochure 397
Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP),
Alternative Transients Program (ATP), Rule Book,
Bonneville Power Administration, June 1984