Int. J. Rock Mech. Mining Sci. VoL 2, pp. 277-304. Pergamon Press Ltd. 1965. Printed in Great Britain.

G R A V I T Y FLOW OF G R A N U L A R MATERIALS IN HOPPERS

A N D BINS IN M I N E S - - I I . COARSE MATERIAL*
RUDOLF KVAPIL,

(~.S.S.R.'["

(Received 21 February 1965)

1. INTRODUCTION
COARSEmaterial has to be dealt with in coal and metalliferous mining and transport, both
in underground workings, and in open-cast workings[7].
The term "coarse" is used for granular material which includes particle sizes of over
8 in. Mining operations often produce lumps of 40 in. or more in size.
Coarse material may occur in many forms. For the sake of illustration Fig. 1 shows four
different types of coarse material. Figure 1(1) shows coarse material with large spherical
pieces of the same size and form, Fig. 1(2) represents coarse material of pieces of the same
size but different form, Fig. 1(3) indicates coarse material consisting of large pieces, chippings and sand. Figure 1(4) is a schematic diagram of a coarse mixture consisting of large
pieces, chippings, sand and earthy-clayey constituents.
I

FIG. 1

Coarse material of the type shown in Fig. 1(1) has the greatest mobility and that of Fig,
1(4) the smallest mobility. The earthy-clayey constituents [Fig. 1(4)] are liable to plastic
deformation at a certain moisture content, they stick to the large pieces and fill the cavities
between them. This restricts freedom of movement of the lumps and the mobility of the
coarse material becomes less. Coarse materials with an appreciable percentage of damp
earthy-clayey constituents cause the greatest operational difficulties, not only in bunkers
and discharge funnels, but also in the outlets, on the bunker offtakes and in crushers. The
damping effect of earthy clayey constituents also reduces the capacity of crushers. A reduction of mobility may also be caused by the form of the coarse pieces in that certain shapes
are liable to interlock and produce jamming between themselves.
Coarse material is responsible for various difficulties in service, not only by the excessive
* Part I published in Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 25-41.
t Present address: Dept. of Mining with Mine Surveying, The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm 70.

277

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RUDOLF KVAPIL

size of the individual pieces, but also by a number of other factors. A factor of prime importance is the composition of the coarse mixture because this governs its mobility. This
also determines the risk of sticking and of freezing of the coarse material.
Based on theoretical and practical experience, we can subdivide coarse material, depending on its composition, into the four groups (1 to 4) according to Table 1. The data of this
Table provide the principal characteristics for the various groups of coarse material met
with in practice.
TABLE 1. MAIN GROUPS OF COARSE MATERIAL AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS IN PRACTICE

Group of coarse material

Number of
group

Composition of
coarse material

Amount of water
absorbed by the
coarse material

Risk of
sticking

Risk of
freezing

None

None

Uniform size distribution (pieces of same

size and same form

None

Mixture of pieces of
the same size but different form

Almost none

Almost none

Very small

Mixture of pieces of
different size and different form

Medium

Small, perhaps
medium

Medium

Large

Large

Large

Mixture of pieces of
different size and form
with earthy-clayey constituents

Coarse material of group 1 causes the least and group 4 the greatest difficulties. Each of the
groups 1-4 includes a sliding scale of various properties which depend on many factors.
The influence of the mechanical strength and the shape of the individual pieces may, for
example, be of primary importance. These properties are closely linked to the question of
crushing of the lumps and of the destruction of the sharp corners, to the comminution of
the large pieces and to the formation of fine dusty fractions in the gravity flow of the coarse
material. The properties of the coarse material may change as a function of the height o f the
gravity flow. This change in properties is brought about by the formation of a large amount
of small and fine fractions in the gravity flow, which not only alters the ratio of the fractions
but also alters the mobility of the coarse material as a result of the reduction in particle
size. The variability of the properties becomes greater with an increasing number of the
fractions of the mixture of coarse material, with a greater variety of the substance of the
individual particles and with a greater variety of the shape of the particles. Coarse material
of group 4 (see Table t) has therefore the greatest variability.
2. P R E S S U R E T R A N S M I S S I O N , STRESS D I S T R I B U T I O N A N D A R C H I N G I N
COARSE M A T E R I A L
Coarse material can be termed a complex heterogeneous mass. The cavities between the

GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS IN M1NFS---II

279

individual pieces may be empty or be filled by various substances (stone chippings, pebbles,
gravel, sand, earth, day, etc.).
The contact between the individual pieces may be direct (see Fig. 2) or indirect so that
other filler substances (e.g. pebbles and sand--S and clay--T) may be present between the
coarse pieces (see Fig. 3).

FIG. 2

FIG. 3

Indirect contact of the pieces is essential in coarse material of group 3 and 4 according
to Table 1.
Direct contact of the large pieces may be point-like, along an edge, or flat, depending
not only on the shape of the pieces, but also on the strength of their substance. It is possible
for all three types of contact to occur in the same coarse material. Coarse material may
have various types and qualities of contact.
Pressures are transmitted in coarse material at the points of contact. The pressure transmission may take many forms because the grouping of the coarse material may be quite
random and variegated.
The transmission of pressure may be relatively complex even in the very simple coarse
material consisting of spherical particles (group 1 from Table 1) as can be seen from Fig.
4(a). This picture shows a plane photo-elastic stress model of such a material.
R.M.--T

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RUDOLF KVAPIL

FIG. 4(a)

FIG. 4(b)

GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS IN M I N E S - - I I

281

The transmission of pressure can be judged from the pattern and concentration of the
stresses which are defined by isochromatic lines and reproduced in Fig. 4(a) as dotted
lines. Figure 4(b) is a schematic diagram of the pressure transmission.
One of the pieces in the model was loaded on the surface by a point contact [marked in
Fig. 4(a) by a thick arrow]. The distribution of the stresses in Fig. 4(a) clearly indicates
that the load is concentrated on a few pieces. This is, of course, accompanied by areas in
which the pieces are not loaded at all. There may even be cavities [marked by N in Fig. 4(a)
and 4(b)] above which there may be arches formed by coarse pieces.
The transmission of pressures in the actual prototype takes place in space and will, therefore, exhibit still greater varieties than are shown on Fig. 4(a) and 4(b).
The greatest operational difficulties with coarse material are caused by arching above the
outlet opening. Under certain circumstances the individual pieces of the coarse material
may be grouped in such a pattern that arching takes place. The main cause of this is the
restriction in the gravity flow of the coarse material which exists at the outlet opening.
Observations in practice and research in the laboratory have indicated that we can classify
arches of coarse material as parabolic in form.
The height h of the arch depends mainly on the properties of the coarse material, on the
way in which the arch is supported at its base (i.e. on the inclination of the abutment area
of the arch) and on the friction along the abutment area.
Assume the abutment areas of the arch to be horizontal and the angle of internal friction
of the coarse material to be ~b= 45 . The maximum height of the arch under these conditions
is given by
h = l 1.66 cot ~b
(1)
where

h = height of arch
l = its span
= the angle of internal friction.

The actual height of arches of coarse material in practical conditions is usually much
smaller than the value calculated from equation (1) because the height of the arch is influenced by the inclination of the walls of the bunker or discharge funnel on which the arch
rests.
Figure 5 shows a photo-elastic stress model of a section of an arch which is supported on
the inclined wall of a discharge hopper. The wall is inclined at an angle a.
The effect o f the inclination of the wall on the height of the arch can, in principle, be
expressed as follows:
The height h of the arch can be smaller if the wall of the discharge hoppers is steeper, i.e.
if the angle a is greater. The stress imparted by the arch to the inclined wall of the discharge
hopper also changes as a function of the angle a [2, 3, 8, 9, 11].
Figure 6 indicates diagrammatically the distribution of the forces underneath the foot
of a high arch of coarse material. The legend is as follows: q = stress due to coarse material,
P = pressure component of foot o f arch, R = friction force, T = shear and N = normal
force of pressure arch. The tangent to the median line at the foot of the arch intersects the
axis of symmetry of the arch in a certain point. A horizontal line drawn through this point
includes with the tangent the angle ft. The inclination of the wall of the discharge hopper is a
and the angle included by the components of N is designated by ~. For a high arch these
angles r, v~ and y are given the index 1 and those for a flat arch the index 2. The distribution
of the forces underneath the foot of a flat arch is shown schematically in Fig. 7.

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RUDOLF KVAPIL

FIG. 5

, =

FIG.

gO -- (31

, ..C"r+-.~~
i

%%eo

! ~.~.-.~-!
~-

I
=

"
=~:
Flo. 7

GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR

MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS IN

MINES--II

283

If we assume that the arch is of parabolic form we can calculate the horizontal component H of the pressure exerted by the arch by the formula

ql
H -- 2 x~tan fl

(2)

The coarse pieces may be assembled in a random pattern so that the height h of the arch
may vary with the same inclination of the hopper wall. In our case, the characteristics of
the arch can be expressed by the angle/3. Tests have proved that the height of the arch may
vary between certain limits corresponding to flmax >~ fl >~ flmtn without disturbing the
equilibrium conditions of the arch.
In the case of high arches, according to Fig. 6, the foot of the arch is kept in its position
by the friction force R which acts in an upwards direction, R being greater than T.
The equilibrium of the flat arch, according to Fig. 7, at the same inclination of the hopper
wall is brought about by the friction force acting downwards, R again being greater than T.
In accordance with the designations of Figs. 6 and 7 we can state for high arches
fll = 90 -- Ctl + 01 and for flat arches/32 = 90 -- ~1 -- z~2.
When the values for T and R are equal, the equations in Table 2 are valid for the determination of the maximum and minimum angle/3 of arches from coarse material, also for
the maximum and minimum horizontal force H exerted by the arch on the wall of the discharge hopper.
TABLE 2

max

~
M a x i m u m height o f arch from coarse
material
+~t
m m = ql
~- tan (a -- 4,1)

Hmax-

"\\

M i n i m u m height of arch from coarse

material

8 m a x = 90 - a

(3) ~ m l n = 9 0 - a - 4 , t

(4)

ql
(5) Hmax = ~tan (a + ~1)

(6)

Note: The angle of inclination a is in both cases the same.

In Table 2 ffl designates the angle of friction of the coarse material along the wall of the
discharge hopper. Informative values of ffl have been compiled in Table 3. More exact
values have to be determined on the basis of practical tests.
The span l of the arch across the outlet opening equals the distance marked in Fig. 8 on
the x-axis by AB. The feet of the median line of the arch, i.e. the points A and B, have a
distance from the edge of the inclined wall of the outlet opening of at least half the diameter
of the pieces (i.e. D/2)as can be seen from Fig. 8. Figure 8 indicates that the span l o f a n arch
of coarse material can be determined from
l=a+

Dcosa.

(7)

284

RUDOLF KVAPIL

Figure 8 also shows that the apex S of the parabolic median line of the arch lies halfway
along the section CE of the axis of the parabola. Point C is given along the axis of the parabola by the intersection with the tangent which touches the parabolic median line of the
arch at the points A and B.
TABLE 3. INFORMATIVE VALUES OF ANGLES OF FRICTION ~1 ALONG THE WALL OF THE
DISCHARGE HOPPER FOR VARIOUS COARSE MATERIALS

Type of
coarse material

Dolomite,
Marble

limestone,

Friction of coarse
material against a
wall composed of

Corresponding angle
friction along wall
61

Steel
Concrete
Wood

30 40
33 - 4 3 '~
37

Coefficient of
friction along wall
fl
0 - 5 8 - 0"84
0'65 - 0'93
0"75

Granite,
Graywacke,
Magnesite

Steel

31 o _ 4 2 c,

0.60 - 0.90

Concrete

35 - 4 2

0.70 - 0'90

Iron ore
(compact and
very compact)

Steel
Concrete
Wood

33 - 4 2
36 - 43
40

0.67 - 0.90
0.72 - 0.93
0-84

Rock salt

Steel
Concrete

25 - 41 ~
30 - 42

0-47 - 0'87
0-58 - 0'90

Gypsum

Steel
Concrete

31 ~' - 38
32 - 41

0.61 - 0 ' 7 8
0,62 - 0.87

Sandstone

Steel
Concrete

32 - 4 2 ~
34 - 42

0.67 - 0'90J

Solid shale

Steel
Concrete

28 - 40:'
29 - 42

0 . 5 3 =0.84 I
0.55 - 0.90

Coal

Steel

20 - 402

0"36 - 0 . 8 4

Coke

Steel

2 4 '~ - 37

0.45 - 0.75

0.62 - 0.90

Ih

FIG. 8

GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS IN MINES--]I

285

The equations (3) and (4) indicate the maximum and minimum angles/3 and the angle
which is included between the tangent t and the axis o f the parabola is given by
~, = 90 - - ft.
If the span I and the angle fl are known, the height h of the arch can be calculated with
due regard to the effect of the inclination of the walls of the discharge hopper.
The arch of coarse material has certain limiting boundaries within which the equilibrium
conditions are fulfilled. The boundaries are given by a certain maximum and minimum
height of the arch.
The maximum height of arch formed of coarse material is
cot (90 -- flmax)
2

hlnax

(8)

and the minimum height of arch is

cot (90 -- flmln)
hmin ~--

(9)

The horizontal force exerted by the arch on the walls of the discharge hopper can be
calculated from the equations
q 12
Hmln =

8 hmax

(10)

q 12

/max -- 8

(ll)

The diagrams of Fig. 9(a) and 9(b) indicate the horizontal force as a function of the height
of the arch.
I

1o1 /

'~t I

I' '1

FIG. 9

It should be noted that the arch above the outlet opening is formed by the lowest line o f
pieces of rock. This layer of rock which forms the arch is shown in Fig. 10 hatched for the
sake of the illustration. The feet of the arch are marked A and B. Figure 11 shows the
development and distribution of the stresses in the arch of Fig. 10, as shown in a photoelastic stress model of the arch of the latter.
The relationships derived above are rigidly valid for arches formed above the central
part of an outlet opening in the form of a long slot because only then can we regard the
arch of coarse material as being in a biaxial state of stress in a vertical plane. The outlet
openings have usually the form of a square, a circle, or a rectangle, so that we have to deal

286

RUDOLF KVAP1L

with the stress states of a three-dimensional arch which complicates matters. The investigations show, however, that the earlier statements are substantially valid for these cases. The
discrepancies appear to lie between practically permissible limits.
We can summarize the formation of arches of coarse material above the outlet opening
as follows :
1. The restriction of the gravity flow of coarse material in the outlet opening is the main
reason for the formation of arches. (Coarse material cannot form an arch if e/d -: I.
see Part I, Fig. 29.)
2. The arch of coarse material is formed by the lowest layer of blocks clustered above
the outlet opening of the discharge hopper (see Fig. 10).

FIG. 10

"%

FIG. 11
3. The median line of an arch of coarse material is parabolic in form.
4. The height of an arch of coarse material depends inter alia on the inclination of the
walls of the discharge hopper. The arch height becomes less if the walls are steeper.
5. A decreasing height of arch of coarse material increases the stress on the structure
of the discharge hopper, it solidifies the arch and makes it more difficult to remove.
6. Discharge hoppers with excessively steep wails are dangerous in operation. The
inclination of the hopper walls can be regarded as excessive if a ~ 60 . It is normally
adequate if a ~ 1 s where ~1 is the angle of friction on the wall of the discharge
hopper and s is the factor of safety, varying from s = 1.05 (for smooth surfaces) to
s = 1-15 (for rough surfaces).
7. The arch forms more easily if the mobility of the mixture of coarse material is
smaller (see Table 1, group 4 of materials).

GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS IN M I N E S - - I I

287

8. Flat arches can be formed more easily if the particles are more irregular and stronger.
Sticky constituents assist in the formation of arches.
9. Arches of coarse material form more easily if the individual blocks of rock are larger,
i.e. if a lesser number is required to form the arch. This results in the following:
10. A smaller area of outlet opening facilitates arching and an enlargement of the area
reduces it.
11. The practical elimination of arching during self-acting discharge through a horizontal
outlet opening depends on the application of the so-called minimum area required
for the outlet opening.
The minimum areas required for horizontal outlet openings for coarse material can be
calculated from the same equations as were quoted in Part I of this article for bulk material.
These equations are listed for ease of reference in the following Table 4.

TABLE 4. FORMULA FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE MINIMUM DIMENSIONS REQUIRED OF

OUTLET OPENINGS FOR COARSE MATERIAL
AREA OF OUTLET OPENING
Square o p e n i n g F .
F . = (5 X D) ~ x k

C i r c u l a r o p e n i n g F~
F~ = 0'85 (5 x D) 2 x k or
= 0-85 x Fa

WIDTH OF OUTLET OPENING

L e n g t h o f one side of s q u a r e o p e n i n g

D i a m e t e r of circular o p e n i n g

a = x / ( 5 x D) 2 x k or

d = ~/0-85. (50.785
D)e k or

a = V'Fa

d=

The following symbols have been used in the equations of Table 4:

D = average diameter of lumps of rock
k = coefficient derived from the nomogram shown in Fig. 12.
The coarse material is a mixture of various particle sizes. Extremely different and variegated
combinations may be produced and their detailed assessment would be very complicated.
To simplify matters the nomogram contains only the major fractions which constitute the
coarse material. The lumps, and their percentage from 25 to 100%, are marked as I, and
their characteristic shape (rounded, angular, sharp-edged) is indicated along the various
functional lines. The designation II represents medium size particles (coarse pebbles), III
the finer fractions (gravel, sand etc.) and IV the sticky constituents (moist alumina, loam,
etc.). The key to the nomogram is marked in its proper sequence by arrows. The value of
the coefficient varies from 0.6 to 1.4. The nomogram indicates that, for example, coarse
material with a content of sticky constituents (IV) of over 10 % is unsuitable for self-acting
flow through the outlet opening.

288

RUDOLF KVAPIL

It is possible to compile more accurate formulae than those given above for the determination of the size of the outlet openings for coarse material. Such formulae would,
however, include a number of complicated terms. It is possible that for practical purposes
it is better to use simple equations which may include a certain amount of error, yet produce
fairly safe predictions.

1i

~0

0"/,

FiG. 12

Unilateral discharge hoppers are often found in practice. Arches of coarse material can
also be produced in these.
Figure 13 shows diagrammatically the formation of arching in a unilateral discharge
hopper. The arch is formed by the lowest layer of the blocks, shown shaded. A photoelastic stress model of the arch of Fig. 13 is shown in Fig. 14. The form of the isochromatic
lines clearly reveals the arching of the lowest layer of blocks.
The same basic considerations as for symmetrical discharge hoppers apply to arch formation in unilateral discharge hoppers.
In the case of unilateral discharge hoppers there is an excellent way of destroying by
mechanical means any random arches.
The mechanical destruction of the arch of coarse material is based in principle on a
relaxation of the abutment underneath the foot of the arch.
It should be emphasized that a relatively slight relaxation of the abutment, practically
less than a few centimeters, is adequate to destroy an arch of coarse material.
Figure 15 indicates the arching in a unilateral discharge hopper.
The relaxation of the arch abutment has been achieved in Fig. 16(a) by lifting the plate
2 in the direction of the arrow.
The same effect can be achieved if, instead of lifting, the plate 2 is deflected [see Fig. 16(b)]
or shifted in a horizontal plane [see Fig. 16(c)]. Various designs are possible for the element
2 itself.

GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS IN MINES---II

FIG. 13

FIG. 14

289

290

RUDOLF KVAPIL

FK~. 15

/I

(a)

(b)
i ~

Z1. . . . f - ~ - [ t

(c)
FIG. 16

Care must, however, be taken to see that the horizontal extension of the zone in which
the relaxation of the arch abutment is to be produced by the plate 2 is adequate to destroy
both arches of small and those of great height.
3. D I S C H A R G E HOPPERS A N D BINS FOR COARSE M A T E R I A L
The problems concerning discharge hoppers before crushers and bins for coarse material
are so manifold that we can deal in this article only with a few selected cases.
It is desirable in practice that there should be no arching at all in a discharge hopper
before a crusher or, if an arch is formed, it should be destroyed rapidly and surely.

GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS 1N M I N E S - - I I

291

The rules for a proper discharge hopper before a crusher can be summarized in the following main points.
1. The shape of the discharge hopper before a crusher should suit the flow characteristics
of the moving material as far as possible, i.e. the kinetic flow of the coarse material
should contract as little as possible.
2. The outlet opening of the discharge hopper should be fitted with a mechanical device
that is capable of removing any arches quickly and safely.
3. The coarse material should be tipped in such a way that the discharge hopper is
stressed dynamically as little as possible by the impact of the coarse material. It is
advisable to leave a protective cushion o f coarse material in the discharge hopper.
(see Fig. 17, where the protective cushion is marked as 2).
4. Tipping should be carried out in a direction such that the draw-off device (e.g. a
vibrating extractor) is not stressed dynamically by impact of any coarse material.
Figure 17 shows a shape suitable for a discharge hopper before a crusher.

L.~.I
FIG. 17

The key to Fig. 17 is as follows: 1 = direction o f tipping, 2 : protective cushion of

coarse material, 3 : adjustable closure by chain screen (any arches can be destroyed by
defle&ing the closure), 4 ---- short chute, 5 : vibrating extractor, 6 = motion of material
at S, 7 : chute, 8 = crusher, 9 : passage of finer ranges, 10 = damping cushion, 11 :
direction of motion o f crushed material.
In certain cases it may be necessary to build special bins for coarse material.
If arching over the outlet opening is to be prevented, the dimensions o f the outlet opening
(in the case of symmetrical bins) must at least meet the conditions of the minimum area

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RUDOLF KVAPIL

necessary for an outlet or, in the case of unilateral bins, the outlet opening should be designed
in such a way that accidental arches can be destroyed by mechanical means [see Fig. 16(a-c)].
Bins of 'classical' form usually have large outlet openings and large closure devices. The
greatest basic disadvantage of bins o f this type is that the discharge hopper and the outlet
opening restrict the kinetic flow of coarse material. The prime requisite for trouble-free
operation of coarse material bins is the primary motion of the material which means that
the gravity flow of the material should not be restricted by the bin structure.
This condition is fulfilled by a special bin with a discharge trough [2, 4, 6]. Figure 16
shows such a bin in schematic form.
The key to Fig. 18 is as follows: 1 ~ bin, 2 ~ discharge trough, 3 -- slot along the
whole height of the bin.
As the friction of the coarse material along the wall of the discharge trough is much less
than the friction within the coarse material, only that part of the material will roll into the

.....

FtG. 18

FIG. 19

discharge trough which lies along the surface slope of the bin contents. This is shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 19 where 1 ---- bin, 2 ~ discharge trough, BA ~- bin draw-off,
t, = height of discharge opening. " P " indicates the remaining motionless bin contents. It is
an advantage if the discharge trough is widened in the direction of the flow of the material
also if the diameter of the discharge roller is greater than the width of the slots.
The discharge trough eliminates arching and can be applied to bins in various ways.
The flow of material from a bin through the discharge trough is illustrated in its separate
phases in Fig. 20.
The installation of bins with discharge troughs is recommended for all coarse material
which contains no sticky constituents.
Such applications are beneficial also in cases where self-comminution of the material
(lump coal, lump ore, etc.) or the development of dust must be kept to a minimum.
The effect of the discharge trough is so important that this equipment can also be used,
for example, for the storage of cobble stones and other large-sized material which would
not flow out of 'classical' bins at all.

facing page 292

i
Fro. 32

FIG. 34

GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS IN MINES--II

293

The minimum width b of the slots and the minimum diameter d of the circular profile of the
discharge trough, both of which are increasingly larger in a downward direction, can be
approximately determined by Fig. 21 as a function of the maximum size of the lumps D.
For the sake of completion, figures for the minimum height v of the outlet opening are also
quoted.

BA
120

'

~oBo

//

//

/
/

Z-

40
20
0

~
50

~.lO0 150 200 250 300 cm

d, b , v

FIG. 21

(a)

FIG. 22

In certain cases bins with the discharge trough may also be used for a certain degree of
homogenization of the bin contents. This possible application is illustrated in principle
by Fig. 22. The bin is filled in such a way [see Fig. 22(a)] that the individual layers of the
materials are blended when discharge takes place through the trough [see Fig. 22(b)].
In conclusion we can say that the bin with discharge trough has the following advantages:
(i) The coarse material has a primary motion in the discharge trough so that arching
cannot occur.

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RUDOLF KVAPIL

(ii) The outlet opening may be relatively small in size so that simple and easily controlled
discharge devices can be applied.
(iii) The special draw-off device reduces the risk of self-comminution and of dust concentration in the drawn-off material.
(iv) In certain cases the bin with discharge trough may also be used for partial homogenization.
4. CHUTES FOR COARSE MATERIAL
In practical quarry and metalliferous open pit operations (also in underground mining)
the gravity flow of coarse material can be utilized very widely and successfully. The coarse
material in such cases moves along chutes or ore passes [4, 5].

/'

/
/
/

90'

.
FIG. 23

GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS A N D BINS IN

MINES--II

295

Figure 23 provides a survey of the scope for the gravity flow of coarse material.
The key is as follows: G F = scope for gravity flow of coarse material, A = chutes,
AI = open chutes, AII ---- covered chutes, B = ore passes, BI = inclined ore passes,
B II = vertical ore passes, fl = inclination of chute or ore pass.
If the operation is to be trouble-free, the ratio between the coarse material and the
inclination fl is the main factor to be watched.
The rule is that the inclination fl must be increased if the coarse material is of more
complex nature. We have plotted in Fig. 23 the minimum inclinations fl required for the
individual groups of material 1-4 (see also Table 1).
The relationship between the group of material (1-4) and the angle of inclination is of
great importance also for the operation of deep discharge hoppers ahead of crushers. In
large discharge hoppers there is some segregation of the material along the surface slope [10].
This segregation may cause great operational difficulties in that, as shown on Fig. 24(a),
the fine constituents adhere to the inclined hopper wall. The inclination of the hopper wall
is inadequate for the movement of fine and partly damp constituents and is responsible
for a passive zone P. This passive zone P also greatly diminishes the volume of the discharge
hopper.

FIG. 24

These difficulties can be easily removed if the direction of segregation is reversed as shown
in Fig. 24(b). [The caption N T in Fig. 24(b) represents the level tester.] The fine constituents
exist in this case along the vertical wall and the coarse pieces along the inclined hopper wall.
The material flow corresponds in this case basically to the sense of Fig. 23.

..S. ~
FIG. 25

In ore or stone quarries the chute can be arranged directly on the slope of the face as
shown in Fig. 25. The material is tipped into the chute at the upper edge M and the coarse
material is extracted at the lower edge N. The length of the chute is marked by L and its
angle of inclination by 3.
R.M.--U

296

RUDOLF KVAPIL

It must be emphasized that not all coarse material is suitable for chute transport. We can
distinguish two principal groups:
(a) coarse material which is suitable,
(b) coarse material which is unsuitable for chute transport.
Coarse material which is suitable for chute transport is characterized by being composed
of nothing but large pieces over 8 in. diameter and by the absence of fine and loamy constituents
so that no sticking or freezing can occur. Based on the distribution of Table 1 we find that
the coarse material of group 1 and 2 is suitable for chute transport (see Table 1 and Fig. 23).
The reason is that the coarse material of group 1 and 2 moves in the chute at an inclination/3 (see Fig. 23) which is smaller than the natural angle of friction ~. This means
that suitable coarse material fulfils the condition
3 <: ~.
(t2)
If this condition is met the chute may remain open (zone A I in Fig. 23). The exact inclination
of the chute should be established by practical tests. For preliminary designs we can use the
following approximate formula for the inclination of the chute:
tan fi f l )< n
(13)
where fi = inclination of chute, f t - coefficient of friction along the chute wall (see Table 3)
and n = safety factor which is at least n -~ 1.1 for suitable coarse material (group 1 and 2
Table 1).
The inclination fl of the chute must be increased as soon as the percentage of fine, moist,
constituents rises. This applies to coarse material of group 3 (see Table 1). The design of the
inclined chutes for such materials must take into account the relationship
- :

Safety considerations make it advisable to cover the chute. Formula (13) can be used in
most cases for the calculation of the inclination of a covered chute (zone A I I in Fig. 23).
The factor n must, however, be taken somewhat larger. In most cases a factor of n .... 1-45
provides adequate safety.
The characteristic feature of coarse material which is unsuitable for chute transport is its
considerable proportion of fine, earthy and loamy constituents and also a certain moisture
content. These are contained in group 4 of Table 1. These detrimental properties render
such materials unsuitable for chute transport.
We shall now list a few important structural and technological conditions which have to
be observed in the practical operation of chutes.
Should it become necessary, for reasons of unhindered tipping, to widen the chute at the
upper edge M (see Fig. 25) from b to d, it is preferable not to use the symmetrical spread
shown in front elevation in Fig. 26(a). The enlarged portion for the filling should have an
asymmetrical form relative to the chute centre line because this prevents most of the arching.
The correct enlargement is shown schematically in Fig. 26(b).
A very important factor for chute transport is the type of draw-off of the material. If
only the front part (the shaded triangle 1-2-3 in Fig. 27) is drawn off at the end of the chute,
only the coarse material inside the active zone A is set into motion, The other material
remains stationary in the passive zone P, the formation of which is undesirable.
To move the complete filling of a chute, the material must be extracted over the whole
cross-sectional area (line joining point 1 and 4 in Fig. 27). This can be achieved by a suitable
discharge device at the end of the chute.

GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS 1N MINES--II

297

Figure 28 shows a chute diagrammatically. The key is: 1 = tipping, 2 = inflow

portion of chute, 3 = chute, 4 = discharge device, 5 = lateral guide walls, 6 ---- cover of
chute, to safeguard against projected lumps of rock and 7 = front protective wall.
Unsuitable coarse material need not be excluded from chute transport. It can be used
providedthe harmful constituents are separated from this material.

b)

FIG. 26

FIG. 27

O)

(6~lt ')
FIG. 28

7
FIG. 29

Figure 29 shows the possible solution in principle.

The key s: 1 = tipping, 2 = discharge hopper, 3 ----separation device for coarse and
fine sizes, 4 = chute, 5 = discharge from chute, 6 = ore pass for fines, 7 = draw-off for
ore pass. The separation device 3 also separates the fine sizes so that only coarse material
passes to the chute.

298

RUDOLF KVAPIL

The chutes may have various constructional features. A circular profile of the base of the
chute is most beneficial. The side walls of the chute should be vertical. A height v of these
side walls of v -= d / 4 to r, ----d / 2 is adequate. The minimum diameter of the chute with
circular bottom can be determined by the graph in Fig. 30 as a function of the dimension
D of the largest pieces of the coarse material.

DI~ '

6o

.
.

[{L
0

i
I00

'I
200

,
400

Idj
600

cm

FIG. 30.

The following rules can be laid down for trouble-free operation of chutes:
1. Coarse material of group 1 and 2 (see Table I) is very suitable for chute transport.
Other material such as group 3 require either steeper inclinations/3 (see Fig. 23) or a
degree of preparation such as separating out the harmful constituents (see Fig. 29).
2. The inclination of the chute/3 must be subordinated to the properties of the coarse
material (see Fig. 23).
3. The coarse material should be extracted over the whole cross-sectional area (point
1-4 in Fig, 27) at the end of the chute.
4. Tipping at the upper edge of the chute should be directed against the slope so as to
dampen the impact energy of the coarse material (see Figs. 28 and 29).
5. It is advisable to protect the surface of the chute structure by wear-resisting material
such as plates of fused basalt.
5. ORE PASSES FOR COARSE M A T E R I A L
Ore passes are widely used in mining for the vertical transport of coarse material [1],
They may be divided into two groups (see Fig. 23). Group B I includes inclined ore passes
with a gradient between 70 and 85 and group B II contains vertical ore passes from 85
to 90 . We should like to add that ore passes with gradients of less than 70 may also be used
in practice. These can, however, only be used for the transport of coarse material of group
1 or at best of group 2 (see Table 1 and Fig. 23).
A circular section is best for the gravity flow of coarse material in an ore pass because it
has, as illustrated in Fig. 31, the optimum hydraulic radius R. The circular cross-section
of an ore pass is also most advantageous for stability of the structure. For the sake of clarity
two different sections (under the same loading conditions) are compared in Fig. 32. The
upper part of Fig. 32 shows the nature of the loading schematically. The stress distribution is
represented by isochromatic lines in the middle part of the illustration. The circular
section of an ore pass has the optimum stress distribution, the isochromatic lines describing concentric circles.

GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPEPS AND BINS IN MINES---II

299

The discharge of the material from an ore pass can be effected in various ways depending
on the practical circumstances. Figure 33 illustrates the material flow in its individual phases
for a lateral extraction of the coarse material. There are stationary passive zones noticeable
at the rear wall.

Ul

2O
18

10
16
12
10

8
6
2
0

IfrHll
IIIIJH

o. .-

L~ ~
lllllll I tlI[IH 7/
IIIIIII llll[~'
[111111 I lll
IIIIIII IIIN
i
II11[11 Ag411111 ' ~lJ
I 1~'71111111
'~'
~'r~lll
I Illllll
Ill[Ill

I lllllll

88oo

~1

8
~

FIG. 31

If the coarse material is extracted in the central part of the ore pass (see Fig. 34), there are
stationary passive zones, both on the front and on the rear wall. The height of a passive
zone depends (the material and the cross-section being the same) mainly on the location
of the outlet opening.
A detailed investigation of the gravity flow in the ore pass (according to Fig. 34) enables
the distribution of the rate of flow of the material in the separate horizontal sections to be
established. This is shown in Fig. 35(a, b). The rates of flow in these sections and in the
planes C1, O1 and C2 are indicated in Fig. 35(b) as horizontal columns plotted from C1,
O1 and C2. The rates of flow differ along a diameter of an ore pass, but they become more
uniform as the distance from the discharge end increases.
After a detailed analysis of the gravity flow we can distinguish three zones of motion in
an ore pass [see Fig. 35(c)]:
I Discharge zone.
II Transition zone.
III Zone of uniform subsidence of filling.
Zone I, the discharge zone, makes contact with the side walls at the points marked in
Fig. 35(c) by ii and i2. The active zone I is wide enough at these points to touch the side
walls. If the outlet is exactly at the centre of the ore pass, the points it and is lie at the same
level. If the outlet lies, however, nearer to one of the side walls, the point of contact is
shifted at that wall to a lower level. In Fig. 35(c) the outlet opening lies nearer to the rear
wall so that ml is greater than m~. Zone I (the discharge zone) therefore touches the rear
wall at point/2 which is at a lower level above the outlet opening than point il. The motion

300

RUDOLF KVAPIL

of the material along a plane through a diameter is most uniform in the discharge zone of
the ore pass.
Zone II in the central part of the ore pass is called the transition zone because in this zone
there is a continuous decline in the non-uniformity of motion.

FIG. 35

This non-uniformity of motion disappears completely in Zone III, in which the coarse
material subsides evenly across the whole cross-section. The uniformity of the motion can
be seen very clearly in Fig. 34 where the strips of the filling, originally horizontal, do not
become deformed, but merely subside. The subsidence is marked in Fig, 34 by a thick arrow.
Each of the Zones I, II and III has its own characteristic. Zone I deserves special attention.
In the case of gravity flow of coarse material it is the discharge zone which can cause trouble
in the ore pass (with arching). The transition Zone II causes very little difficulties. In the
Zone III where the subsidence is uniform, difficulties are practically non-existent because
this zone meets the conditions for an optimum gravity flow of coarse material (by primary
motion).
The position and extent of Zones I, II and III also depend on the arrangement of the
outlet opening in the case of a vertical ore pass. This is shown schematically for a few
examples in Fig. 36 where P indicates the passive zone.
The type of extraction has great influence on the activity of an ore pass. Fig. 37, case I
(in the centre of the picture) shows an ore pass with lateral extraction as an example.
The activity of the ore pass will depend on the location of point K in relation to points
O and M. If we shift point K in space between the arrows marked in basic ease I by n, the
activity of the ore pass will diminish. The cases denoted in Fig. 37 by 1 and 2 (in circles)
represent a diminished activity compared with basic case I. The angle of inclination of the
chute is somewhat smaller. Compared with the basic case I the cases 3 and 4 in Fig. 37
represent an improvement in activity because the angle of gradient o f the chute is greater,

~(a)

GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS A N D BINS IN MINES----II

(c)

(b)

.P

FIG. 36

,~.-~.~

: ....-.

i~'!~i

i~
K <x2 > o~

FIG. 37

(d)

301

302

RUDOLF KVAPIL

thus improving the extraction rate. The shifting of point K is, of course, a positive feature
in that the distance K M becomes shorter at the same angle of inclination of the chute.
If it becomes longer, the results are detrimental.
The activity of an ore pass improves as the positive position (marked in Fig. 37 by p)
of the overflow lip of the chute becomes better. The optimum would thus be reached if the
ore pass were bottomless.
An increasing inclination of the ore pass (see Fig. 38) without regard for the properties
of the coarse material increases the passive zone P. The enlargement of the passive zone P
will be still more evident if the ore pass has a relatively long chute as indicated schematically
in the lower part of Fig. 38.

i!

-i :!

FIe;. 38

A certain improvement can be achieved if the extraction of the ore pass is composed as
shown in Fig. 39.
Trouble-free operation of ore passes can, however, only be achieved if the inclination of
the ore pass/3 is chosen to suit the properties of the coarse material (according to Fig. 23).
The necessary inclination depends, of course, also on the friction along the side walls.
Figure 40 (upper part) summarizes the inclinations for ore passes with smooth walls
depending on the groups of material 1-4 (see Table 1).
The lower part of this illustration shows the minimum inclination necessary for ore passes
driven in solid rock, i.e. with appreciable friction along the side walls.
The main requirements for trouble-free operation of ore passes are as follows:
I. The safe inclination of the ore pass depends on the nature of the coarse material and
on the friction along the side walls (see Table 1 and Fig. 23). A more complex composition of the coarse material demands a greater angle of inclination.
2. A circular cross-section of the ore-pass is best.

GRAVITY F L O W OF G R A N U L A R MATERIALS IN HOPPERS A N D BINS IN M I N E S - - I I

303

FIG. 39

A,.

/"

It
\
J flm*n ~ 8S" \/

//'3min -~ 70
t

I
t, ~

I
I

iv/
V

it P~n ~80"

I .

J_

A__

Fro. 40

3. Coarse material of group 4 (Table 1) cannot be transported in ore passes driven in

solid rock.
4. We can distinguish three zones in the kinetic flow of an ore pass:
I Discharge zone (max. secondary motion)
II Transition zone (transition from secondary to primary motion)
III Zone of uniform subsidence (primary motion).
5. A smaller discharge Zone I improves the reliability of operation. The size of Zone I
depends on the location of the outlet opening.

304

RUDOLF KVAPIL

6. The m i n i m u m d i a m e t e r r e q u i r e d for an ore pass in solid r o c k can be calculated from

the f o r m u l a
d = / 0 . 8 5 (5 D) 2 k
0.785
where D - - size o f the biggest l u m p s o f the m a t e r i a l a n d k :-- factor d e t e r m i n e d from
the n o m o g r a m , Fig. 12.
7. The outlet o p e n i n g a n d extraction device s h o u l d be designed in such a w a y that any
arches which m a y arise can be r e m o v e d quickly a n d w i t h o u t hazard.
REFERENCES
1. BENTHAUSF. Die Gestaltung von Bergebunkerrt und deren Bedeutung fiir die Verbesserung des
Betriebsablaufes in steiler Lagerung, Gliickauf97, 1061 (1961).
2. KVAPILR. EntladetrichterundBunkerfiirgrobstiickigesMaterial. (Czech edition) SNTL-Praha (1955).
3. KVAPm R. Theorie toku sypkych a balvanitych hmot v zasobnicich. (Czech edition) SNTL-Praha (1955).
Theorie der Schiittgutbewegung (German edition). Verlag-Technik-Berlin (1959).
Dwizenie syputschich materialow w bunkerach (Russian edition). GOSGORTECHIZDAT-Moskva
(1961).
4. KVAPIL R. Konstruktionsprobleme bei Entladetrichtern, Bunkers und Rollen for grobstiickiges
Schiittgut, Bergakademie 7-8, 451 (1961).
5. KVAPILR. Entladetrichter und Roll~Scher for grobstiickiges Schiittgut und ihre Verschliisse, Bergbautechnik 4, 187 (1962).
6. KVAPtLR. Czech Patent, No. 89214 (1955).
7. KVAPILR. Besondere Probleme der Gravitationsbewegung von Schiittgiitem, Aufbereitungs-technik,
10, 544 (1964); 12, 642 (1964).
8. IVANOVI. R. Issledovanija processa svodoobrazovanija (Russian edition). Erforschung des Prozesses der
Gewi~lbebindung, ZGI, XLIV, p. 98, Gosgortechizdat-Leningrad (1961).
9. VASILEVN. V. und OLEVSKIJV. A. Transport na obogatitelnychfabrikach (Russian edition). Fi~rderung in
Au]bereitungsbetrieben, Ugletechizdat-Moskva (1949).
10. THEIMERO. F. Das Problem der Entmischung der Getreide in Silozellen, Deutsche Miiller Zeitung 18
0956).
11. KVAPILR. Nove nazory v theorii horskych tlaku (Czech edition). Neue Ansichten in Gebirgsdrucktheorie,
Chapter on natural arches, SNFL-Praha (1957).