Machines arrangement according to

layout:
1:

Power Hacksaw

2:

Universal Shearing

3:

Tool and Cutter Grinding

4:

Lathe Machine

5:

Lathe Machine

6:

Tool and Cutter Grinding Machine

7:

Tool and Cutter Grinding Machine

8:

Surface Grinding Machine

9:

Plain knee and Milling Machine

10:

Shaping Machine

11-15:

Lathe Machine

16-20:

Lathe Machine

INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE SHOP

MACHINE SHOP:
A machine shop is a room, building, or company where machining is done. In a
machine shop, machinists use machine tools and cutting tools to make parts,
usually of metal or plastic (but sometimes of other materials such as glass or
wood).

MACHINE TOOLS:
A machine tool is a machine for shaping or machining metal or other rigid
materials, usually by cutting, boring, grinding, shearing, or other forms of
deformation. Machine tools employ some sort of tool that does the cutting or
shaping. All machine tools have some means of constraining the workpiece
and provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine.

Introduction to Machines
LATHE MACHINE:
Lathe was actually the first machine tool which came into being as a
useful machine for metal cutting. Lathe can be defined as a machine tool
which holds the work between two rigid and strong supports, called
centres, or in a chuck or Face plate while the lathe revolves. The
following are some of the important Parts of lathe machine

Parts of lathe machine

BED:
The bed of Lathe acts as the base on which the different fixed and operations
parts of the Lathe are mounted. Lathe beds are usually made as single piece
casting of semi-steel (i.e., toughened cast iron),
with the addition of small quantity of steel scrap to the cast iron during
melting; the material cast iron facilitating an easy sliding action. In case of
extremely large machines, the bed may be in two or more pieces, bolted
together to from the desired length. Lathe Bed are heavy rigid structure which
is having high damping capacity for the vibrations generated by machines
during machining. The rigid structure will helps to avoid deflections. The guides
and ways which are present on the top of the bed will act as rails and supports
other parts like tail stock. The bed will be designed in such a way that easily
bolted to the floor of the machine shop.
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Head stock
The head stock is the part of the lathe which serves as a housing for the driving
pulleys and back gears, provides bearing for the machine spindle and keeps the
latter in alignment with the bed. It is a fixed part which will present on the left
side of the lathe bed. Head stock will consists of a hollow spindle and drives unit
like main spindle, feed reverse lever, live center cone pulley etc., The tapered
bar with pointed or projected end is going to grip the work piece between two
centers of lathe bed.

Tail stock
It is also sometimes called the LOOSE HEAD- STOCK or PUPPET HEAD. It is
mounted on the bed of the lathe such that it is capable of sliding along the
latter maintaining its alignment with the head stock. On common types of
medium size or small size lathes it is moved along the bed by hand, whereas in
heavier types of lathes it is moved by means of a hand wheel through a pinion
which meshes with the rack provided on the front of the lathe bed. The main
function of the Tail stock is to provide bearing and support to the job which is
being worked between centers.To enable this, the tail stock is made to possess
a number of parts which collectively help in its successful function.

Tail stock
It is also sometimes called the LOOSE HEAD- STOCK or PUPPET HEAD. It is
mounted on the bed of the lathe such that it is capable of sliding along the
latter maintaining its alignment with the head stock. On common types of
medium size or small size lathes it is moved along the bed by hand, whereas in
heavier types of lathes it is moved by means of a hand wheel through a pinion
which meshes with the rack provided on the front of the lathe bed. The main
function of the Tail stock is to provide bearing and support to the job which is
being worked between centers.To enable this, the tail stock is made to possess
a number of parts which collectively help in its successful function.
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Carriage
The lathe carriage serves the purpose of supporting, guiding and feeding the
tool against the job during the operation of the lathe. The carriage will
present between head stock and tail stock which will slides on the bed ways
of the lathe bed. The carriage will give feed to the tool and it holds the tool,
for taper turning the feed is cross feed, for turning it is longitudinal feed. The
carriage consists of the following parts.
1. saddle
2. cross-slide
3. compound Rest
4. Tool post
5. Aprone

Saddle
It is the part of the carriage which slides along the bed way and support the
Cross-slide,compound rest and Tool post.

Cross-slide
The cross-slide function is to provide cutting action to the tool and the action
of cutting tool will be perpendicular to center line of lathe.It can either be
operated by hand, by means of the cross-feed screw, or may be given power
feed through the Apron Mechanism.

Compound Rest
The compound Rest will be placed over the cross slide and it consists of a
graduated circular base which is having swiveling nature.

Tool post
It is the top most part of the carriage and is used for holding the tool or tool
holder in position.

Aprone
Aprone houses the feed mechanism, clutch mechanism split half nut, gears,
leavers, The apron wheel can be rotated by hand for longitudinal motion of
the carriage.

Legs
They are the supports which carry the entire load of the machine over
them.The prevailing practice is to use cast legs. Both the legs are firmly
secured to the floor by means of foundation blots in order to prevent
vibrations in the machine. One of these legs, usually the one on the left hand
side of the operator, serves as a housing for the electric motor and
countershaft etc., Both these legs should be of robust construction.

Operations on lathe machine:

1. Plain Turning and Step Turning
2. Facing
3. Parting
4. Drilling
5. Reaming
6. Boring
7. Knurling
8. Grooving
9. Threading
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Lathes Operations
The general operations done with the lathe are grooving, turning, cutting,
sanding and etc. if anyone wants to operate the lathe machine then he must
first know about the feeds, cutting speed, depth of the cut and usage of tool
should be considered. Each lathe operation has got its own factors that need
to be considered before doing the work. The factors should be used properly
so that one can avoid from mishandling and mishaps while performing any
kind of lathe operation. With every cut desired the speed, depth and feed of
the lathe machine is changed for precision.

Types of Lathe Operation

The working of the lathe machine changes with every operation and cut
desired. There are a lot of operations used for using the lathe machine. Some
of the common lathe operations are:

Facing
This is usually the first step of any lathe operation on the lathe machine. The
metal is cut from the end to make it fit in the right angle of the axis and
remove the marks.
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Tapering
Tapering is to cut the metal to nearly a cone shape with the help of the
compound slide. This is something in between the parallel turning and facing
off. If one is willing to change the angle then they can adjust the compound
slide as they like.

Parallel Turning
This operation is adopted in order to cut the metal parallel to the axis.
Parallel turning is done to decrease the diameter of the metal.

Parting
The part is removed so that it faces the ends. For this the parting tool is
involved in slowly to make perform the operation. For to make the cut
deeper the parting tool is pulled out and transferred to the side for the cut
and to prevent the tool from breaking.

Lathe Cutting Tools

There are several lathe cutting tools that help in cutting with the lathe
machine. The commonly used tools are mentioned below:

Carbide tip tools

Grooving tool
Cut-Off blade
Parting blades
Boring bar
Side tool

Facing:
Facing is the operation of machining the ends of a piece of work to produce a
flat surface square with the axis. This is also used to cut the work to the
required length. The operation involves feeding the tool perpendicular to the
axis of rotation of the work piece. A properly ground facing tool is mounted
in a tool holder in the tool post. A regular turning tool may also be used for
facing a large work piece. The cutting edge should be set at the same height
as the centre of the work piece. The selection of hand-feed or power feed
depends upon the length of the cut. The surface is finished to the size by
giving usual roughing and finishing cuts. For roughing, the average value of
the cross feed is from 0.3 to 0.7 mm per revolution and the depth of cut is
from 2 to 5 mm. For finishing, the feed ranges from 0.1 to 0.3 mm per rev.
and the depth of cut is from 0.7 to 1 mm.

Knurling:
Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shape pattern on the surface
of a work piece. The purpose of knurling is to provide an effective gripping
surface on a work piece, to prevent it from slipping when operated by hand.
In some press fit work knurling is done to increase the diameter of a shaft.
The operation is performed by a special knurling tool which consists of a set
of hardened steel rollers in a holder with the teeth cut on their surface in a
definite pattern. Knurls are available in coarse, medium and fine pitches.

Recessing:
Recessing can also be called as grooving or necking. So the recessing tools
are sometimes called necking tools. Recessing tools may be either straight or
bent shank types. As the recess is usually narrow, the cutting edge is kept
narrow. It is relieved by 1o to 2oon each side towards the shank. The sides are
relieved to make the tool free cutting. The rake angle should be decreased or
the face should be made hollow to the radius. The tool should be set exactly
in centre. If tool is set below or above the centre, it will break.

Shoulder Turning:
When a workpiece having different diameters is turned, the surface forming
the step from one diameter to the other is called the shoulder, and
machining this part of the workpiece is called shoulder turning.

Thread Cutting:
Thread cutting is one of the most important operations performed in a lathe.
The principle of thread cutting is to produce a helical groove on a cylindrical
or conical surface by feeding the tool longitudinally when the job is revolved
between centres or by a chuck. The longitudinal feed should be equal to the
pitch of the thread to be cut per revolution of the workpiece.
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The lead screw of the lathe, through which the saddle receives its traversing
motion, has a definite pitch. A definite ratio between the longitudinal feed and
rotation of the headstock spindle should therefore be found so that the
relative speeds of rotation of the work and the lead screw will result in cutting
of a screw of the desired pitch. This is affected by Change gears arranged
between the spindle and the lead screw or by the Change gear Mechanism or
feed box used in a modern lathe where it provides a wider range of feed and
the speed ratio can be easily and quickly changed.

External Thread Cutting:

In a thread cutting operation the first step is to remove the excess material
from the workpiece to make its diameter equal to the major diameter of the
screw thread, Change gears of correct size are then fitted to the end of the
bed between the spindle and the lead screw. In case of all geared machines,
the change gears are already fitted, only the levers are to be shifted to the
required positions. The shape or form of the thread depends on the shape of
the cutting tool to be used. In a metric thread, the included angle of the cutting
edge should be ground exactly 60. The top of the tool nose should be set at
the centre of the workpiece. A thread tool gauge or angle gauge is usually used
against the turned surface to check the cutting tool so that each face of the
tool may be equally inclined to the centre line of the workpiece. The speed of
the spindle is reduced by one half to one-fourth of the speed required for
turning according to the type of the material being machined, and the half-nut
is then engaged.
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The depth of cut, which usually varies from 0.05 to 0.2 mm, is applied by
advancing the tool perpendicular to the axis of the work. After the tool has
produced a helical groove upto the end of the work, it is quickly withdrawn
by the use of the cross slide, the half nut disengaged, and the tool is brought
back to the starting position to give a fresh cut. Before re-engaging the half
nut, it is necessary to ensure that the tool will follow the same path it has
traversed in the previous cut, otherwise the job will be spoiled. Several cuts
are necessary before the full depth of thread is reached.

Internal Threadcutting:
The principle of cutting internal threads is similar to that of an
external thread, the only difference being in the tool used. The tool
is similar to a boring tool with cutting edges ground to the shape
conforming to the type of thread to be cut. The hole is first bored
to the root diameter of the thread. The tool is fixed on the tool post
or on the boring bar after setting it at right angles to the lathe axis,
using a thread gauge/angle gauge.
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The depth of cut is given by the compound slide and the thread is
finished in the usual manner.

Boring:
Boring is the operation of enlarging and truing a hole produced by drilling,
punching, casting or forging. Boring cannot originate a hole. Boring is similar
to the external turning operation and can be performed in a lathe.

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Counter Boring. Counter Boring is the operation of enlarging a hole through a certain distance from one
end instead of enlarging the whole drilled surface. It is similar to a shoulder turning operation in external
turning.

Counter Boring:
Counter Boring is the operation of enlarging a hole through a certain
distance from one end instead of enlarging the whole drilled surface. It
is similar to a shoulder turning operation in external turning.

Taper Boring:
The principle of turning a taper hole is similar to the external taper
turning operation and is accomplished by rotating the work on a chuck
and feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation of the work piece.

Plain or Straight Turning:

Plain Turning or Straight Turning. The work is turned straight when it is made
to rotate about the lathe axis, and the tool is fed parallel to the lathe axis. The
straight turning produces a cylindrical surface by removing excess metal from
the work piece. After facing the ends and drilling the centre, the job is carefully
mounted between the centres using a lathe dog attached to the work piece. A
properly ground right hand turning tool is used for this purpose. Tool is
clamped on the tool post with the minimum overhang and is set with its
cutting edge approximately at the lathe axis or slightly above it. For light cuts
the tool may be inclined towards the headstock, but for heavy cuts the tool
must be inclined towards the tailstock. The automatic feed is engaged to move
the carriage to the desired length, then the feed is disengaged and the carriage
is brought back to the starting position. The process is repeated until the job
is finally finished.
There are two kinds of cuts that can be given onto a work piece: Rough Turning
& Finish Turning

Rough Turning:

The rough turning is the process of removal of excess

material from the work piece in a minimum time by applying high rate of feed
and heavy depth
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of cut. The roughing cut should be so made that the machine, the tool, and
the work piece can bear the load. The depth of cut for roughing operations in
average machine shop work is from 2 to 5mm and the rate of feed is from 0.3
to 1.5 mm per revolution of the work. Rough turning operations are carried
out by rough turning tool.

Finish Turning:
The finish turning operation requires high cutting speed, small feed, and a
very small depth of cut to generate a smooth surface. A finish turning tool
having sharp cutting edge is held securely on the tool post for this purpose. In
finish turning operation, the depth of cut ranges from 0.5 to 1 mm and feed
from 0.1 to 0.3 mm per revolution of the work piece. The cross feed dial is
used to set an accurate depth of cut. After measuring the diameter of rough
turned surface, the depth of cut to be given is determined by subtracting the
finished diameter from the measured value. The tool is then made to advance
by half of the above value by rotating the cross slide hand-wheel through
required number of divisions on the dial. The machine is started and a trial cut
is made from the end of the work to 5 or 6 mm by applying hand feed and the
finished diameter is checked by a micrometer. Once the correct diameter is
made, the rest is finished by the automatic feed.

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Chamfering:
Chamfering is the operation of beveling the extreme end of a workpiece. This
is done to remove the burrs, to protect the end of the workpiece from being
damaged and to have a better look. The operation may be performed after
knurling, rough turning, boring, drilling. Chamfering is an essential operation
before thread cutting so that the nut may pass freely on the threaded
workpiece.

Parting Off:
Parting-off is the operation of cutting a workpiece after it has been machined
to the desired size and shape. The process involves rotating the workpiece on
a chuck or faceplate at half the speed to that of turning and feeding by a
narrow parting off tool perpendicular to the lathe axis by rotating the cross
slide screw by hand. Before the operation starts, the carriage is locked in
position on the lathe bed and the cutting tool is held rigidly on the tool post
with the compound slide set parallel to the lathe axis. The tool should be fed
very slowly to prevent chatter. The feed varies from 0.07 to 0.15 mm per
revolution and the depth of cut is equal to the width of the tool. In parting off,
a work of very large diameter, cuts are made in stages. The parting off tool is
first fed through a certain depth, then withdrawn and two more cuts are made
at the two sides of the central groove. The tool is next fed into the central
groove until the work is cut off in two parts.

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General Lathe Operations

LATHE SPEEDS, FEEDS, AND DEPTH OF CUTS
General operations on the lathe include straight and shoulder turning, facing,
grooving, parting, turning tapers, and cutting various screw threads. Before these
operations can be done, a thorough knowledge of the variable factors of lathe
speeds, feeds, and depth of cut must be understood. These factors differ for each
lathe operation, and failure to use these factors properly will result in machine failure
or work damage. The kind of material being worked, the type of tool bit, the diameter
and length of the workpiece, the type of cut desired (roughing or finishing), and the
working condition of the lathe will determine which speed, feed, or depth of cut is
best for any particular operation. The guidelines which follow for selecting speed,
feed, and depth of cut are general in nature and may need to be changed as
conditions dictate.

Cutting Speeds.
The cutting speed of a tool bit is defined as the number of feet of workpiece surface,
measured at the circumference, that passes the tool bit in one minute. The cutting
speed, expressed in FPM, must not be confused with the spindle speed of the lathe
which is expressed in RPM. To obtain uniform cutting speed, the lathe spindle must be
revolved faster for workplaces of small diameter and slower for workplaces of large
diameter. The proper cutting speed for a given job depends upon the hardness of the
material being machined, the material of the tool bit, and how much feed and depth of
cut is required . Cutting speeds for metal are usually expressed in surface feet per
minute, measured on the circumference of the work. Spindle revolutions per minute17
(RPM) are determined by using the formula:

are determined by using the formula:

12 X SFM

= RPM

3.1416 X D
Which is simplified to:
4 X SFM = RPM
D
Where SFM is the rated surface feet per minute, also expressed as cutting speed.
RPM is the spindle speed in revolutions per minute
D is the diameter of the work in inches.

In order to use the formula simply insert the cutting speed of the metal and
the diameter of the workpiece into the formula and you will have the RPM.

Feed
Feed is the term applied to the distance the tool bit advances along the
work for each revolution of the lathe spindle. Feed is measured in inches or
millimeters per revolution, depending on the lathe used and the operator's
system of measurement. Table 3-3 in Appendix A is a guide that can be used
to select feed for general roughing and finishing operations. A light feed must
be used on slender and small workplaces to avoid damage. If an irregular
finish or chatter marks develop while turning. reduce the feed and check the
tool bit for alignment and sharpness. Regardless of how the work is held in
the lathe, the tool should feed toward the headstock. This results in most of
the pressure of the cut being put on the work holding device. If the cut must
be fed toward the tailstock. use light feeds and light cuts to avoid pulling the
workpiece loose.

Depth of Cut
Depth of cut is the distance that the tool bit moves into the work. usually
18

measured in thousandths of an inch or in millimeters. General machine practice

is to use a depth of cut up to five times the rate of feed, such as rough cutting
stainless steel using a feed of 0.020 inch per revolution and a depth of cut of
0.100 inch. which would reduce the diameter by 0.200 inch. If chatter marks or
machine noise develops. reduce the depth of cut. Turning a one-half inch piece
of aluminum. cutting speed of 200 SFM. would result in the following:
4 x 200 = 1600 RPM
1/21

Things To Remember:
Materials that are machined dry without coolant. require a slower cutting
speed than operations using coolant. Lathes that are worn and in poor
condition will require slower speeds than machines that are in good shape. If
carbide-tipped tool bits are being used, speeds can be increased two to three
times the speed used for high speed tool bits.

References
http://www.smithy.com/machining-handbook/chapter-3/page/21,
retrieved 21st January,2016.
http://www.engineeringarticles.org/lathe-lathe-operations-types-andcutting-tools/, reterived 21st January, 2016.
http://www.educationportals.net/lathe-machine-operations-chamferingparting-off/ , retrieved 21st Janauary, 2016

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