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Irrigation and Water Resources Created by Sajid and Farooq
Irrigation and Water Resources Created by Sajid and Farooq
IRRIGATION:
The process of artificial application of water to the soil for the growth of agricultural crops is
known as irrigation.
INTRODUCTION ABOUT IRRIGATION:
It is practically a science of planning and designing of the water supply system for the
agricultural land to protect the corps from bad effects of drought or low rainfall. It includes
the construction of weirs or dams, barrages or canal system for the regular supply of water to
the cultivable lands.
There are three essential requirements of plant growth,
1. Heat
2. Light
3. Moisture
In England the one of three essential requirements is available that is moisture, which means
irrigation is not required due to sufficient rainfall. But in Pakistan the first two of the three
essential requirements of pant growth that is light and heat is present in large amount but the
third (moisture) is required due to insufficient rainfall . Hence Irrigation is supplementary to
rainfall. When the rainfall is either deficient or comes irregularly or at unseasonable times in
Pakistan.
COMPONENTS OF THE IRRIGATION SYSTEM OR IRRIGATION SYSTEM
NETWORK:
The main components of an irrigation system are listed below,
1. Dam /Barrage
2. Canal Head regulator
3. Main canal
4. Branch Canal
5. Distributory canal
6. Minor canal
7. Water course (W.C)
The layout of irrigation network is shown on next page.
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DAM
RIVER
W.C
IRRIGATION
SYSTEM
BRANCH CANAL
DISTRIBUTORY
MAIN CANAL
BARRAGE
MINOR
W.C
FIELD
OUTLET
W.C
OFWM
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Thus the necessity of irrigation can be summarized in the following four points,
1. Less rainfall (Need fulfill through artificial supply )
2. Non-uniform rainfall (through dam , requirement is fulfilled at the need time crop)
3. Commercial crops with additional water ( more water is required for cash crops e.g.
Sugar cane , tobacco, rice )
4. Controlled water supply (By the construction of proper distribution system the yield
of crop may be increased)
NECESSITY OF IRRIGATION:
Question: What are the factors which govern the necessity of irrigation?
Answer: Throughout the crop period adequate quantities of water is required near the root
zone of the plants for their growth. At times during the crop period the rainfall may not be
adequate to fulfill the water requirement. The intensity of rainfall is practically uncertain and
beyond the control of human power and it may not be well distributed throughout the crop
season or the culturable area. So, irrigation becomes absolutely necessary to fulfill the water
requirement of crops. The following are the factors which govern the necessity of irrigation,
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(a)Insufficient Rainfall:
When the seasonal rainfall is less than the minimum requirement for the satisfactory growth
of crops, the irrigation system is essential.
(b)Uneven Distribution of Rainfall:
When the rainfall is not evenly distributed during the crop period or throughout thre culture
able area the irrigation is extremely necessary.
(c)Improvement of Perennial Crops:
Some crops like sugarcane, cotton, etc require water throughout the major part of the year.
But the rainfall may fulfill the water requirement in rainy season only. So for the remaining
part of the year, irrigation becomes necessary.
(d)Development of Agriculture in Desert Area:
In desert area where the rainfall is very scanty, irrigation is required for the development of
agriculture.
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5. Source of revenue:
When, irrigation water is supplied to the cultivators in lieu of some taxes. it helps to earn
revenue which may be spent on other development schemes.
6. Hydroelectric Power generation:
In some river valley projects, multipurpose reservoirs are formed by constructing high dams
where hydroelectric power may be generated along with the irrigation system.
7. Water Supply:
The irrigation canals may be the source of water supply for domestic and industrial purposes.
Demerits of Irrigation
1. Rising of water table:
Due to the excessive of water through the bed and banks of the canals, the water table in the
surrounding area may be raised which may constantly saturate the root zone of the crops and
the soil may develop alkaline property which is harmful to the crops.
2. Formation of marshy land:
Excessive seepage and leakage of water from the irrigation canals may lead to formation of
marshy lands along the course of the canals. These marshy lands form the colonies of
mosquitoes which may be responsible for diseases.
3. Formation of marshy land:
The temperature of the commanded area of an irrigation project may be lowered considerably
and the area may become damp. Due to dampness, the people residing around the area may
suffer from cold, cough and other such diseases originating from dampness.
4. Loss of valuable lands:
Valuable land may get submerged when the storage reservoirs are formed by constructing
barrages or dams and it also may be lost, while constructing irrigation canals.
Resources of Irrigation:
There are three resources of irrigation,
1. Rainfall
2. Surface Water
3. Ground Water
1. Rainfall:
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Rainfall can directly help irrigation by precipitation occurring over the crop area or indirectly
by adding its runoff to the rivers. This runoff is then stored by weir, barrage or dam
downstream or it may replenish as an underground reservoir.
Direct rainfall is the most helpful for the plant and crop growth if it occurs in proper amount
at proper time .But it is unreliable as a source of irrigation water. It varies from year to year
and it may fall altogether. It is irregularly distributed throughout the year as well as within the
same season.
In Pakistan, It occurs particularly in the summer season in the form of high showers resulting
in the heavy rainfall. As the temperature is high evaporation rate is also increased. It is a great
booster for agriculture. For canal irrigated areas the rains compliment the irrigation water.
In Pakistan the mean annual rainfall ranges from 4 to 30 inches in the lower Indus region to
the northern foot hills. Only a small proportion of this annual rainfall makes any direct or
useful contribution to irrigation water supplies. According to World Bank consultants report
the figure ranges from 1 to 17 inches. The rest is either converted to Direct Runoff or
becomes a part of the ground water. While a small proportion is lost by evaporation.
According to estimation the present direct contribution to the crops is 6 MAF / Annual.
2. Surface Water:
Surface water include water diverted from the stream and stored into dams and barrages and
then applied to the land through canals or pumped from rivers, lakes and canals .
In dry months melting snow adds a great amount of water to the river discharge. Snow
remaining on ground provides storage greater than any man made reservoir for 1 foot snow
holds 1-4 inches of water. Snowfall usually occurs over many square miles on the
mountainous terrain providing a surface reservoir which is then released in the summer
months. The most important thing for irrigation engineer is when and how fast this vast
quantity is released. In Pakistan, the rivers carry the melting snow and rains from the northern
hills to the areas where they can be used for irrigation purpose.
River water available in PAKISTAN for irrigation is,
Average flow of River Indus = 90 MAF
Average flow of River Jhelum = 23 MAF
Average flow of River Chenab = 27 MAF
Average flow of River Ravi
= 3 MAF
Average flow of River Sutlej = 2 MAF
Total Surface Flow
= 145 MAF
TOTAL SURFACE FLOW
(145 MAF)
CANAL DIVERSION
(105 MAF)
WASTAGE TO SEA
(40 MAF)
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3. Ground Water:
Along with the rainfall and surface water the ground water is an important source of
irrigation. In Pakistan we have enormous ground water reservoirs. In rainy season, due to
rain, most of water seeps into the earth thus raising the water table in ground. This water is
then taken out with the help of pumps and tube wells for irrigation purpose. The areas for
which there is no access of canals, there we can get water for irrigation from underground
sources of water.
Ground water can cause water logging sometimes due to rise in water table and this can be
avoided by pumping out water from the ground using several techniques i.e. pumps, tubewells etc. In the underground water, there are less chances of the presence of impurities but it
does not contain silt which is helpful for crop production acting as a fertilizing agent.
In Pakistan we normally use all three sources of irrigation. But based on quality, sometimes it
may be desired to use single source of water or it may be necessary to mix the ground water
with the surface water so that the combined salts of both sources mixed in any quantity may
not cause any damage to the crops.
FLOW CHART OF RAINFALL FROM SOURCE TO FIELD:
RAIN FALL
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CONVEYANCE LOSSES
15% (1.35 MAF)
AVERAGE FLOW AT
NAKKAS
85% (7.65 MAF)
CONVEYANCE LOSSES
5% (1.75 MAF)
AVERAGE FLOW AT
NAKKAS
95% (33.25 MAF)
FLOW TO FORM-GATES
55% (45.16875 MAF)
CONVEYANCE LOSSES
25% (27.375 MAF)
CONVEYANCE LOSSES
45% (36.95625 MAF)
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(b)Open Wells:
In villages there are some open holes whose depth intercepts the water table. So the water is
taken out from lower level to the surface for irrigation purpose by adopting different manual
and mechanical methods.
(c)Tube Wells:
It is the lifting of water by pumping from underground reservoir. Extensive surface irrigation
results in an increase in the ground water level due to percolation and seepage which causes
water logging in large areas. Irrigation by this method will reduce the yield. Tube well
irrigation offers a remedial measure by providing sub-surface drainage.
Tube well irrigation can be obtained more quickly than from surface water project. Large
capital costs involve in canal irrigation for the construction of dam, canal and headwork
system but tube well construction cost is very less.
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Flow Irrigation:
The irrigation system in which the water flows under gravity from the source to the
agricultural land/field.
It is also called canal irrigation.
Canal
It is an artificial channel constructed on the ground to carry water to the field either from a
reservoir tank or river.
Classification of Canals:
The canals are classified on the bases of,
1. Based on the nature of source of supply
(a) Perennial Canals
(b) Non-Perennial Canals
(c) Inundation Canals
CANAL CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE NATURE OF SOURCE
Non-Perennial Canals
Perennial Canal
Inundation Canals
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Navigation Canals
Irrigation Canals
Power Canals
Link Canals
Feeder Canals
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Main Canals
Branch Canals
Distributory Canals
Field Canals
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percent to the cost and for this reason steel reinforcement is usually omitted except for very
particular situations.
Advantages of Canal Lining
1. It reduces the loss of water due to seepage and hence the duty is enhanced.
2. It controls the water logging and hence the bad effects of water-logging are eliminated.
3. It provides smooth surface and hence the velocity of flow can be increased.
4. Due to the increased velocity the discharge capacity of a canal is also increased.
5. Due to the increased velocity, the evaporation loss also can be reduced.
6. It eliminates the effect of scouring in the canal bed
7. The increased velocity eliminates the possibility of silting in the canal bed.
8. It controls the growth of weeds along the canal sides and bed.
9. It provides the stable section of the canal.
10. It reduces the requirements of land width for the canal, because smaller section of the
canal can be used to produce greater discharge.
11. It prevents the sub-soil salt to come in contact with the canal water.
12. It reduces the maintenance cost for the canals.
Disadvantages of Canal Lining
1. The initial cost of the canal lining is very high. So, it makes the project very expensive
with respect to the output.
2. It involves many difficulties for repairing the damaged section of lining.
3. It takes too much time to complete the project work.
4. It becomes difficult, if the outlets are required to be shifted or new outlets are required to
be provided, because the dismantling of the lined section is difficult.
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(3) Durability
The ultimate benefit of any project depends on the durability of the hydraulic structures,
canals, etc. So, to make the canal section more durable against all adverse effects like
scouring, erosion, weather action, etc. the most strong and impervious types of lining should
be recommended.
(4) Economy
The lining should be economically viable with the benefits that may be accrued from the
expected revenue, yield of crop, etc. So, by studying the overall benefits the type of lining
should be recommended.
(5) Site Condition
The canal may pass through the marshy land, loose sandy soil, alluvial soil, black clayey soil,
hard soil, etc. So, according to the soil and site condition the type of lining should be
recommended.
(6) Life of Project
Every project should be designed to serve the future three or four decades successfully. The
type of lining should be recommended keeping in mind the life of the project.
(7) Availability of Construction Materials
The expenditure of lining depends on the availability of construction materials, carriage
charges, etc. To reduce the expenditure of lining, the materials which are available in the
vicinity of the project should be utilized.
MANNINGS ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENTS
Question: What are the Mannings roughness coefficients for brick, earth, R.C.C and P.C.C?
Answer:
It is denoted by n.
Mannings Roughness coefficients are:
Brick: 0.014-0.017 (usually taken as 0.015)
Earth: 0.02
P.C.C: 0.014
R.C.C: 0.012
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b) Siphon Aqueduct:
The hydraulic structure in which irrigation canal is
passing over the drainage, but the drainage water
cannot pass clearly below the canal is known as
siphon aqueduct. It flows under siphoned action. This
structure is suitable when the bed level of canal is
below the highest flood level of the drainage.
Advantages of Type1:
The canal running perennially is above ground and is open to inspection.
Damage done by floods is rare.
Disadvantages of Type1:
During high floods, the foundation can be scoured or the water way of the
drain may be chocked with trees.
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c) Canal Siphon:
If two canals cross each other and one of the canals is
siphoned under the other, then the hydraulic structure
at
crossing
is
called
canal
siphon.
For example, lower Jhelum canal is siphoned under
the Rasul-Qadirabad link canal and the crossing
structure is called L.J.C siphon
Advantages of Type2:
C.D works are less liable to damage then the earthwork of canal.
Disadvantages of Type2:
a) Level Crossing:
When the beds of the drainage and canal are
practically at the same level, then a hydraulic structure
is constructed which is known as level crossing. This
is suitable for the crossing of large drainage with main
canal.
The level crossing consists of the following components.
1. Crest Wall: It is provided across the drainage just at
the upstream side of the crossing point. The top level
of the crest wall is kept at the full supply level of the
canal.
2. Drainage Regulator: it is provided across the drainage just at downstream side of the
crossing point. The regulator consists of adjustable shutters at different tiers.
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Disadvantages of Type3:
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3. When the canal bed level is much lower but the F.S.L of the canal is higher than the bed
level of drainage, a canal siphon is preferred.
4. When the drainage and the canal cross each other practically at the same level a level
crossing may be preferred. This type of work is avoided as far as possible.
The considerations governing the choice between aqueduct and siphon aqueduct (or a super
passage and siphon-super passage) are,
(i)Suitable canal alignment
(ii)Suitable soil available for bank connections and
(iii) Nature of available foundation
As discussed earlier, the relative difference between the bed level of the canal and the H.F.L
of the drainage can be suitable altered by changing the canal alignment so that the point of
crossing is shifted upstream or Downstream of the drainage.
For example, if the canal alignment is such that headway is not available between the H.F.L
of the drain and the bed of the canal, a siphon aqueduct is to be constructed at the crossing.
But if the other conditions are not favorable for the construction of the siphon aqueduct, the
canal alignment may be changed so that the crossing is shifted to the downstream and
sufficient headway required for the construction of an aqueduct is available.
PROPER SITE FOR DRAINGE CROSSING:
The site selected for the cross drainage works should have the following main characteristics,
1. It should be such that it requires minimum disturbance regarding the approach and tail
reaches of the drainage channel.
2. Suitable foundation soil should be available at reasonable depth.
3. Sufficient headway is available for the super structure of the aqueduct over the H.F.L of the
natural stream.
4. Suitable existing topography, geological and hydraulic conditions for the cross drainage
works at reasonable costs.
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In sprinkler method less water is required as it just moist the soil like rainwater whereas in
flood more water is required.
7. Method of Ploughing:
In deep ploughing less water is required and vice versa.
CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER
It is the quantity of water used by the vegetation growth of a given area.
Mathematically,
Consumptive Use=Evapotranspiration=Evaporation+transpiration
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The drawback in this method is that lateral movement of water takes place although more
representative to field condition. Also some correction has to be applied for deep percolation
as it cannot be ascertained in the field.
(iii) Tanks and Lysimeter:
In this method, a watertight tank of cylindrical shape having diameter 2m and depth about 3m
is placed vertically on the ground. The tank is filled with sample of soil. The bottom of the
tank consists of a sand layer and a pan for collecting the surplus water. The plants grown in
the Lysimeter should be the same as in the surrounding field. The consumptive use of water is
estimated by measuring the amount of water required for the satisfactory growth of the plants
within the tanks. Consumptive use of water is given by,
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Cu =W a W d
Where,
Cu =Consuptive use of water
W a =Water Applied
Lysimeter studies are time consuming and expensive. Methods 1 and 2 are the more reliable
methods as compare to this method.
(iv) Integration Method:
In this method, it is necessary to know the division of total area, i.e. under irrigated crops,
natural native vegetation area, water surface area and bare land area.
In this method, annual consumptive use for the whole area is found in terms of volume. It is
expressed in Acre feet or Hectare meter.
Mathematically,
Total Evapotranspiration=Total consumptive use Total Area
Annual Consumptive Use=Tot al Evapotranspiration= A+ B+C + D
Where,
is the valley
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H +0.27 E a
0.27
varies
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K=Coefficient
DEFINITONS
Gross Command Area (G.C.A):
The whole area enclosed between an imaginary boundary lines which can be included in an
irrigation project for supplying water to agricultural land by the network of canals is known
as Gross command Area (G.C.A).It includes both the culturable and unculturable areas.
Mathematically,
Gross command Area(G . C . A )=Culturable Command Area+Unculturable Command Area
Unculturable Command Area (Un-C.C.A):
The area where the agriculture cannot be done and crops cannot be grown is known as
unculturable area. The marshy lands, lakes, ponds, forests, villages etc are considered as
unculturable.
Culturable Command Area (C.C.A):
The total area within an irrigation project where the cultivation can be done and crops can be
grown.
Mathematically,
C . C . A=G . C . AUnC . C . A
In formation of projects and schemes, C.C.A is roughly taken as
80 90
of G.C.A
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It is defined as the ratio of the areas of the two main crop seasons, e.g. Kharif and Rabi.
For example, if the area under Kharif crop is 2500 hectares and the area under Rabi crop is
2500
C . R .=
=1:2
5000 hectares then, crop ratio of kharif to Rabi is 1:2 (i.e.
5000
Crop Season:
The period during which some particular types of crops can be grown every year on the same
land is known as crop season.
i.
Kharif Season: This season ranges from June to October. The crops are sown in
the very beginning of monsoon and harvested at the end of autumn.
The major Kharif crops are---- Rice, Millet, Maize, Jute, and Groundnut.
ii.
Rabi Season: This season ranges from October to March. The crops are sown in
the very beginning of winter and harvested at the end of spring.
The major Rabi crops are-----Wheat, Gram, Mustard, Rapeseed, Linseed, Pulses,
Onion etc.
CONSUMPTIVE USE
37 cm
30 cm
30 cm
60-90 cm
90 cm
CONSUMPTIVE USE
25-40 cm
125-150 cm
45 cm
Crop Rotation:
The process of changing the type of crop for the cultivation on the same land is known as
crop rotation.
It is found that if same crop is cultivated on the same land every year, the fertility of the land
gets reduced and the yield of crop also gradually reduces. This is due to the reason that
necessary salts required for the growth of a particular crop get exhausted.
Few crop rotations possible are,
i.
Rice----Gram
ii.
Wheat----Millet----Gram
iii.
Rice---Gram---Wheat
Time Factor:
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The ratio of the number of days the canal has actually been kept open to the number of days
the canal was designed to remain open during the base period is known as time factor.
Mathematically,
No . of days the canal was designed
No .of days the canal practically kept open
Time Factor=
keep open
For example, a canal was designed to kept open for 15 days, but it was practically kept open
10
for 10 days for supplying water to the culturable area, then the time factor is 15
Capacity Factor:
It is the ratio of the average discharge to the maximum discharge (design discharge).
Mathematically,
Average Discharge
Capcity factor =
Design Discharge
For example, a canal was designed or the maximum discharge of 50 cumecs, but the average
40
=0.8
discharge is 40 cumecs, then the capacity factor is 50
Number of Watering:
The total depth of water required by a crop is not applied at one time but it is supplied over
the base period by stages depending upon requirement, these numbers of stages are known as
Number of Watering
Paleo:
The initial watering which is done on the land to provide moisture to the soil just before
sowing any crop is known as paleo or paleva.
Kor Watering:
The first watering which is done when the crop has grown to about three centimeters is called
Kor Watering.
Kor Period:
The portion of the base period in which Kor watering is needed is called Kor Period
Cumec Day:
The quantity of water flowing continuously for one day at the rate of one cumec is known as
cumec day.
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1 cumec day=1
1 cumec day=
m
24 60 60 sec
sec
1 cumec day=24 60 60 m3
24 60 60
2
1 m ( 1hectare=10000 m )
10000
Crop Period:
It is defined as the total time period from the time of sowing of a crop to the time of
harvesting it.
It is the period in which crop remain in the field. It is expressed in number of days.
Base Period:
It is the period from the first to the last watering of the crop just before its maturity. It is
denoted by B and expressed in number of days.
Delta:
It is the total depth of water required by a crop during entire base period. It is also called
consumptive use. It lies in base period. It is expressed in terms of depth and denoted by .
Field Capacity:
It is defined as the amount of water held in the soil after the excess gravitational water has
been drained.
Permanent Wilting Point: (Wilting Coefficient)
It is the water content at which plants can no longer extract sufficient water from soil for its
growth.
2
Field capacity
Permanent Wilting point=
2.5
Water Allowance:
It is the total cusecs required at the outlet to irrigate 1000 acres of C.C.A.
Duty:
The duty of water is defined as number of hectares that can be irrigated by constant supply of
water at the rate of one cumec throughout the base period. It is expressed in hectares/cumec
and is denoted by D. For example if 3 cumecs of water is required for the crop sown in, an
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5100
=1700 hectares /cumecs
3
and the
Delta= ( meters )
By definition,
One cumec of wate r flowing continuously for B days gives a depth of water
an area of D hectares .
Volume of water @1 m3 / secone day =1 24 60 60=86400 m3
Volume of water @1 m3 / sec B days=1 24 60 60=86400 B m3=86400 m2 m(i)
1 m2=
As ,1 Hectare=10000 m2
1
H
4
10
1
H m
4
10
8.64 B ( Hm )
D(H)
In F.P.S System:
Let
Duty=D( Acres/cusecs )
Volume
Area
8.64 B
m
D
Delta= ( feet )
By definition,
One cusec of water flowing continuously for B days gives a depthof water
an area of D acres .
3
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1 ft 2=
1
Acre
43560
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1
Acreft
43560
1.983 B ( Acre ft )
D ( Acre )
Volume
Area
1.983 B
ft
D
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8. Methods of Irrigation:
The duty of water is high in case of perennial irrigation system as compared to that in
inundation irrigation system.
9. Water Tax:
If some tax is imposed the farmer will use the water economically thus increasing the duty.
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IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY:
The ratio of the amount of water available (output) to the amount of water supplied (input) is
known as Irrigation Efficiency. It is expressed in percentage.
The following are the various types of irrigation efficiencies,
(a) Water Conveyance Efficiency: (
It is the ratio of the amount of water applied, to the land to the amount of water supplied from
the reservoir. It is obtained by the expression,
c =
Wl
100
Wr
Where,
c =Water conveyanceefficiency
W l= Amount of water applied land
W r =Amount of water supplied reservoir
(b) Water Application Efficiency: (
It is the ratio of the water stored in root zone of plants to the water applied to the land. It is
obtained by the expression,
a =
Wz
100
Wl
Where,
a =Water application efficiency
W z= Amount of water stored root zone
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It is the ratio of the amount of water used to the amount of water applied. It is obtained by the
expression,
u =
Wu
100
Wl
Where,
u=Water use efficiency
W u= Amount of water used
W l= Amount of water applied land
cu
It is the ration of the consumptive use of water to the amount of water depleted from the root
zone. It is obtained by the expression,
C
cu = u 100
Wp
Where,
cu =Consumptive use efficiency
Cu =Consumptive use of water
W p= Amount of water depleted root zone
ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION WATER
The water which has been supplied to the farmer is at government expenses. Some nominal
charge must, therefore be leaved on the farmer for using this water. This is called
Assessment of irrigation water. Therefore the knowledge of the same is very essential to
engineers.
WHY ASSESSMENT OF WATER IS NEEDED:
The charges must be leaved on the farmers for the following reasons,
(a) To recover the cost of construction of the project by which it has been possible to supply
water.
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(b) To recover the maintenance cost of the various works staff for certain improvement.
(c) To check the cultivators against uneconomical and careless use of water.
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION WATER:
There are five methods of the assessment,
1. Assessment on area basis or crop rate basis
2. Volumetric assessment
3. Assessment on seasonal basis
4. Composite rate basis
5. Permanent assessment or Betterment levy basis
1. Assessment on Area Basis or Crop Rate Basis:
There are fixed charges for different types of crops on area basis. It is a very old system.
The rates for different crops have been fixed on the basis of,
(a) Cash value of the crops and hence the paying capacity
(b) Water requirements of the crop
(c) Time of demand of water
2. Volumetric assessment:
In this method water rates are charged on the basis of actual volume of water supplied at
outlet head. It is very difficult to maintain as measurement of water is difficult.
3. Assessment on seasonal basis:
In this method rate of assessment is based on the type of crop grown in a particular area
during certain crop season.
4. Composite rate basis:
It is a combination of water charges and land revenue i.e Malia and Abiana .
5. Permanent assessment or Betterment levy basis:
In this system farmers have their own sources of supply but they use the irrigation water only
in the instance of a drought. In such a case the farmers are levied at a fixed rate every year
this levy is known as betterment levy. And the farmers are authorized to use the water in a
drought.
METHODS OF APPLICATION OR DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
There are various methods of application of water some of which are listed as under,
1. Surface method
(a) Furrow method
(b) Flooding method
2. Sub- Surface method
3. Sprinkler method
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1. Surface method:
It includes the furrow method and the flooding method. In this method water is distributed
through the small channels which flood the area.
(a) Furrow method:
The irrigation water is supplied to the land by digging narrow channels known as furrows at
regular intervals. This method is best suited for potatoes, tobacco, sugarcane etc.
(b) Flooding method:
In this method the field is flooded with water with the help of field channels. It may be
controlled and uncontrolled.
2. Sub- Surface method:
In this method water is applied to the root zone of the crops by underground networks of
pipes. This method is also called as drip method or trickle method of irrigation.
3. Sprinkler method:
In this method the water is applied to land in the form of spray like rain. It is done by the
network of main pipes, sub main pipes and lateral pipes.
PROBLEMS FROM IRRIGATION ENGINEERING BY NN BASAK
Problem No. 01
A channel is to be designed for irrigating 5000 hectares in kharif crop and 4000 hectares in
Rabi crop. The water requirement for kharif and Rabi are 60 cm and 25cm respectively. The
Kor period for kharif is 3 weeks and for Rabi is 4 weeks. Determine the discharge of the
channel for which it is to be designed.
Solution:
Duty
Crop
Area
Hectare
s
Base Period
week
days
Consumptiv
e Use
cm
D=
8 . 64 B
Hectares/cumecs
Kharif
5000
21
60
0.6
8.64 21
=302.4
0.6
Rabi
4000
28
25
025
8.64 28
=967.68
0.25
Discharge=
Area
Duty
cumecs
16.53
4.13
Problem No. 02
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The gross command area of an irrigation project is 1.5 lakh hectares, where 7,500 hectares
are unculturable. The area of kharif crop is 60,000 hectares and that of Rabi crop is 40,000
hectares. The duty of Kharif is 3000 hectares/cumec and the duty of Rabi is 4000
hectares/cumec.
Find
(a) The design discharge of channel assuming 10% transmission loss.
(b) Intensity of irrigation for Kharif and Rabi.
Solution:
Given that,
G. C . A=150000 hectares
UnC . C . A=7500 hectares
We have calculate
Design Discharge=? At 10 transmission losses
Area 60000
=
=20 cumecs
Duty 3000
Considering 10 losses ,
110
=22 cumecs
100
Area 40000
=
=10 cumecs
Duty 4000
Considering 10 losses ,
110
=11 cumecs
100
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b)
60000
100=42.11
142500
40000
100=28.07
142500
Problem No. 03
The gross command area of an irrigation project is 1 lakh hectares. The culturable command
area is 75% of G.C.A. The intensities of irrigation for Kharif and Rabi are 50% and 55%
respectively. If the duties for kharif and Rabi are 1200 hectare/cumec and 1400
hectares/cumecs respectively, determine the discharge at the head of the canal considering
20% provisions for the transmission loss, overlap allowance, evaporation loss etc.
Solution:
Given that,
G. C . A=10000 hectares
Culturable command area (C .C . A )=100000
75
=75000 hectares
100
50
=37500 hectares
100
37500
=31.25 cumecs
1200
55
=41250 hectares
100
41250
=29.46 cumecs
1400
So, to meet up the actual water requirement of the crops, the discharge of the canal at the head of the
field should be 31.25 cumecs (as it maximum). Now considering 20% provision for losses,
40
120
=37.5 cumecs
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Problem No. 04
Determine the head discharge of a canal from the following data. The value of time factor
may be assumed as 0.75.
Duty In
Crop
Base Period In Days
Area In Hectare
Hectares/Cumecs
Rice
120
4000
1500
Wheat
120
3500
2000
Sugarcane
310
3000
1200
Solution:
Crop
Base Period In
Days
Area In Hectare
Duty In
Hectares/Cumec
s
Rice
Wheat
Sugarcane
120
120
310
4000
3500
3000
1500
2000
1200
Discharge=
AREA
DUTY
2.667
1.750
2.500
As, the base period of sugarcane is 310 days, it will require water both in Kharif and Rabi seasons.
Time factor =
Actual discharge
Design discharge
Design discharge=
0.75=
5.17
Design discharge
5.167
=6.889 cumecs
0.75
Problem No. 05
Find out the capacity of a reservoir from the following data. The culturable command area is
80,000 hectares.
Intensity Of
Crop
Base Period In Days
Area In Hectare
Irrigation In %
Rice
120
1800
25
Wheat
120
2000
30
Sugarcane
320
2500
20
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Assume that canal and reservoir losses are 5% and 10% respectively.
Solution:
Calculating Delta for each crop,
8.64 B
D
8.64 120
=0.576 m
1800
8.64 120
=0.518m
2000
8.64 320
=1.106 m
2500
80000 25
=20000 hectares
100
80000 30
=24000 hectares
100
80000 20
=16000 hectares
100
105
=43730.40 ham
100
110
=48103.44 ham
100
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G. C . A=4000 hectares
8.64 B
D
Duty , D=
Effective rainfall=15 cm
8.64 B 8.64 15
=
=288 hectates /cumecs
0.45
b)
85
=244.80 ha /cumec
100
c)
70
=2800hectares
100
2800
=11.438 cumecs
244.8
0.92
Example 3.3:
An irrigation canal has gross commanded area of 80,000 hectares out of which 85% is
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culturable irrigable. The intensity of irrigation for Kharif season is 30% and for Rabi season
is 60%. Find the design discharge at the head of the canal if the duty at its head is 800
hectares/cumecs for Kharif season and 1700 hectares/cumecs for Rabi season.
Solution:
Given that,
G. C . A=80000 hectares
hectares
cumecs
85
=68000 hectares
100
30
=20400 hectares
100
hectares
cumecs
60
=40800 hectares
100
Now,
Water required at thehead of the canal irrigate the landunder Kharif season=
Water required at thehead of the canal irrigate the landunder Kharif season=
Canal must be designedsuch a way that it must carry thedischarge of 25.5 cumecs
Example 3.4:
A water course has a culturable commanded area of 2600 hectares, out of which the
intensities of irrigation of perennial sugar-cane and rice crops are 20% and 40% respectively.
The duty for these crops at the head of water course is 750 hectares/cumecs and 1800
hectares/cumecs respectively. Find the discharge required at the head of water course if the
peak demand is 20% of the average requirement.
Solution:
Given that,
C . C . A=2600 hectares
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20
=520 hectares
100
40
=1040 hectares
100
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Now ,
Are a 520
=
=0.694 cumecs
Duty 750
Area 1040
=
=0.577 cumecs
Duty 1800
Since sugarcane is perennial crop ,it will require water through out the year .
Hence the watercourse must carry atotal discharge of ( 0.694+0.577 )=1.271 cumecs
Design discharge meet the peak demand=
120
1.271 =1.52 cumecs
100
Example 3.5:
The left branch canal carrying a discharge of 20 cumecs has culturable commanded area of
20,000 hectares. The intensity of Rabi crop is 80% and the base period is 120 days. The right
branch canal carrying a discharge of 8 cumecs has culturable commanded area of 12,000
hectares, intensity of irrigation of Rabi crop is 50%, and the base period is 120 days.
Compare the efficiencies of the two canal systems.
Solution:
a) For Left canal
Area under Rabi crop=2000
Duty=
80
=16000 hectares
100
Discharge=20 cumecs
Area
16000
=
=800 hectares /cumecs
Discharge
20
50
=6000 hectares
100
Discharge=20 cumecs
Area
6000
=
=750 hectares/cumecs
Discharge
8
Example 3.6
A water course has a culturable commanded area of 1200 hectares. The intensity of irrigation
for crop A is 40% and for B is 35%, both the crops being Rabi crops. Crop A has a kor period
of 20 days and crop B has kor period of 15 days. Calculate the discharge of the water course
if the depth for A crop is 10 cm and for B it is 16 cm.
Solution:
a) For crop A
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40
=480 hectares
100
Duty=
8.64 b 8.64 20
=
=1728 hectares /cumecs
0.1
Design discharge=
b) For crop B
Culturable command area=1200
35
=420 hectares
100
Duty=
8.64 b 8.64 15
=
=810 hectares /cumecs
0.16
Design discharge=
D=
8.64 B
D=
8.64 12
=259.5 hectares/cumecs ( on the field )
0.40
Since the lossesthe canal are 20 ,1 cumec of water discharge at the head
of the water course will be reduced 0.80 cumec at the head of the field .
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Hence ,the duty of water at the head of the water course will be 207.6 hectares /cumes
Now ,Total Area under Rice Plantation=600 0.6=360 hectares
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360
=1.735 cumecs
207.6
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